Cytotoxicity, cellular localisation and biomolecular interaction of non-covalent metallo-intercalators with appended sex hormone steroid vectors

Synthesis, DNA-Binding, Anticancer Evaluation, and Molecular Docking Studies of Bishomoleptic and Trisheteroleptic Ru-Diimine Complexes Bearing 2-(2-Pyridyl)-quinoxaline

Herein, we report the synthesis and characterization of a bishomoleptic and a trisheteroleptic ruthenium (II) polypyridyl complex, namely, [Ru(bpy)2(2, 2'-pq)](PF6)2 (1) and [Ru(bpy) (phen) (2, 2'-pq)](PF6)2 (2), respectively, where bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline, and 2, 2'-pq = 2-(2'-pyridyl)-quinoxaline. The complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, TGA, 1H-NMR, FT-IR, UV-Vis, emission spectroscopy, and electrochemistry. Their structures were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Complexes 1 and 2 were crystalized in orthorhombic, Pbca, and monoclinic, P21/n systems, respectively. Various spectroscopic techniques were employed to investigate the interaction of both complexes with calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA). The experimental data were confirmed by molecular docking studies, employing two different DNA sequences. Both complexes, 1 and 2, bind with DNA via a minor groove mode of binding. MTT experiments revealed that both complexes induce apoptosis of MCF-7 (breast cancer) cells in low concentrations. Confocal microscopy indicated that 2 localizes in the nucleus and internalizes more efficiently in MCF-7 than in HEK-293.

Review of fluorescent steroidal ligands for the estrogen receptor 1995-2018

The development of fluorescent ligands for the estrogen receptor (ER) continues to be of interest. Over the past 20 years, most efforts have focused on appending an expanding variety of fluorophores to the B-, C- and D-rings of the steroidal scaffold. This review highlights the synthesis and evaluation of derivatives substituted primarily at the 6-, 7α- and 17α-positions, culminating with our recent work on 11β-substituted estradiols, and proposes an approach to new fluorescent imaging agents that retain high ER affinity.

Osmium(II) polypyridyl polyarginine conjugate as a probe for live cell imaging; a comparison of uptake, localization and cytotoxicity with its ruthenium(II) analogue

A first investigation into the application of a luminescent osmium(ii) bipyridine complex to live cell imaging is presented. Osmium(ii) (bis-2,2-bipyridyl)-2(4-carboxylphenyl) imidazo[4,5f][1,10]phenanthroline was prepared and conjugated to octaarginine, a cell penetrating peptide. The photophysics, cell uptake and cytotoxicity of this osmium complex conjugate were performed and compared with its ruthenium analogue. Cell uptake and distribution of both ruthenium and osmium conjugates were very similar with rapid transmembrane transport of the osmium probe (complete within approx. 20 min) and dispersion throughout the cytoplasm and organelles. The near-infrared (NIR) emission of the osmium complex (λmax 726 nm) coincides well with the biological optical window and this facilitated luminescent and luminescence lifetime imaging of the cell which was well resolved from cell autofluorescence. The large Stokes shift of the emission also permitted resonance Raman mapping of the dye within CHO cells. Rather surprisingly, the osmium conjugate exhibited very low cytotoxicity when incubated both in the dark and under visible irradiation. This was attributed to the remarkable stability of this complex which was reflected by the complete absence of photo-bleaching of the complex even under extended continuous irradiation. In addition, when compared to its ruthenium analogue its luminescence was short-lived in water therefore rendering it insensitive to O2.

Zinc complexes as fluorescent chemosensors for nucleic acids: new perspectives for a "boring" element

Zinc(II) complexes are effective and selective nucleic acid-binders and strongly fluorescent molecules in the low energy range, from the visible to the near infrared. These two properties have often been exploited to quantitatively detect nucleic acids in biological samples, in both in vitro and in vivo models. In particular, the fluorescent emission of several zinc(II) complexes is drastically enhanced or quenched by the binding to nucleic acids and/or upon visible light exposure, in a different fashion in bulk solution and when bound to DNA. The twofold objective of this perspective is (1) to review recent utilisations of zinc(II) complexes as selective fluorescent probes for nucleic acids and (2) to highlight their novel potential applications as diagnostic tools based on their photophysical properties.

Synthesis and evaluation of a novel Rhodamine B pyrene [2]rotaxane as an intracellular delivery agent for doxorubicin

RhBPy [2]rotaxane has been demonstrated to be an efficient transport agent for delivering the cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) into tumor cells.

Syntheses of polypyridyl metal complexes and studies of their interaction with quadruplex DNA

A series of metal complexes with substituted terpyridines show high affinity towards quadruplex DNA, particularly bimetallic (trpy)Pt/M(cyclen) complexes.

Disturbance of DNA conformation by the binding of testosterone-based platinum drugs via groove-face and intercalative interactions: a molecular dynamics simulation study

BACKGROUND

To explore novel platinum-based anticancer agents that are distinct from the structure and interaction mode of the traditional cisplatin by forming the bifunctional intrastrand 1,2 GpG adduct, the monofunctional platinum+DNA adducts with extensive non-covalent interactions had been studied. It was reported that the monofunctional testosterone-based platinum(II) agents present the high anticancer activity. Moreover, it was also found that the testosterone-based platinum agents could cause the DNA helix to undergo significant unwinding and bending over the non-testosterone-based platinum agents. However, the interaction mechanisms of these platinum agents with DNA at the atomic level are not yet clear so far.

RESULTS

In the present work, we used molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and DNA conformational dynamics calculations to study the DNA distortion properties of the testosterone-based platinum+DNA, the improved testosterone-based platinum+DNA and the non-testosterone-based platinum+DNA adducts. The results show that the intercalative interaction of the improved flexible testosterone-based platinum agent with DNA molecule could cause larger DNA conformational distortion than the groove-face interaction of the rigid testosterone-based platinum agent with DNA molecule. Further investigations for the non-testosterone-based platinum agent reveal the occurrence of insignificant change of DNA conformation due to the absence of testosterone ligand in such agent. Based on the DNA dynamics analysis, the DNA base motions relating to DNA groove parameter changes and hydrogen bond destruction of DNA base pairs were also discussed in this work.

CONCLUSIONS

The flexible linker in the improved testosterone-based platinum agent causes an intercalative interaction with DNA in the improved testosterone-based platinum+DNA adduct, which is different from the groove-face interaction caused by a rigid linker in the testosterone-based platinum agent. The present investigations provide useful information of DNA conformation affected by a testosterone-based platinum complex at the atomic level.

DNA binding studies and cytotoxicity of a dinuclear PtII diazapyrenium-based metallo-supramolecular rectangular box

The interaction with native DNA of a 2,7-diazapyrenium-based ligand 1 and its Pt(II) rectangular metallacycle 2 is explored through circular and linear dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopies. The metal-free ligand 1 binds through intercalation, with a binding constant of approximately 5×10(5) M(-1), whereas the metallacycle 2 binds and bends the DNA with a binding constant of 7×10(6) M(-1). PCR assays show that metallo-supramolecular box 2 interferes with DNA transactions in vitro whereas the intercalator 1 does not. The metallacycle is active against four human cancer cell lines, with IC(50) values ranging between 3.1 and 19.2 μM and shows similar levels of efficacy, but a different spectrum of activity, to cisplatin.

A potent ruthenium(II) antitumor complex bearing a lipophilic levonorgestrel group

The novel steroidal conjugate 17-α-[2-phenylpyridyl-4-ethynyl]-19-nortestosterone (LEV-ppy) (1) and the steroid-C,N-chelate ruthenium(II) conjugate [Ru(η(6)-p-cymene)(LEV-ppy)Cl] (2) have been prepared. At 48 h incubation time, complex 2 is more active than cisplatin (about 8-fold) in T47D (breast cancer) and also shows an improved efficiency when compared to its nonsteroidal analogue [Ru(η(6)-p-cymene)(ppy)Cl] (ppy = phenylpyridine) (3) in the same cell line. The act of conjugating a levonorgestrel group to a ruthenium(II) complex resulted in synergistic effects between the metallic center and the steroidal ligand, creating highly potent ruthenium(II) complexes from the inactive components. The interaction of 2 with DNA was followed by electrophoretic mobility. Theoretical density functional theory calculations on complex 2 show the metal center far away from the lipophilic steroidal moiety and a labile Ru-Cl bond that allows easy replacement of Cl by N-nucleophiles such as 9-EtG, thus forming a stronger Ru-N bond. We also found a minimum energy location for the chloride counteranion (4(+)·Cl(-)) inside the pseudocavity formed by the α side of the steroid moiety, the phenylpyridine chelating subsystem, and the guanine ligand, i.e., a host-guest species with a rich variety of nonbonding interactions that include nonclassical C-H···anion bonds, as supported by electrospray ionization mass spectra.

Synthesis of 17 alpha-substituted ethynylestradiols: potential ligands for drug vectors

17alpha-substituted ethynylestradiols, derived from estrone, were converted to their corresponding 17 alpha-(bromo- or iodo-propargyl)estrone intermediates. Nucleophilic substitution onto these moieties with malonate diester followed by hydrolysis and complexation with cis-Pt(Me(2)en)I(2) (Me(2)en=N,N-dimethylethylenediamine) gave cis-Pt(Me(2)en)(2-(3-(17beta-estradiol-17 alpha-yl)-prop-2-ynyl)malonato) 7, thus demonstrating that these estrogen-derived compounds can be used to synthesize stable Pt(II) complexes. The 3-(17beta-estradiol-17 alpha-yl)-prop-2-ynyl-1-sulfanylethylthiol 23 was also prepared.