Polychlorinated trityl radicals for dynamic nuclear polarization: the role of chlorine nuclei

Molecular One- and Two-Qubit Systems with Very Long Coherence Times

General-purpose quantum computation and quantum simulation require multi-qubit architectures with precisely defined, robust interqubit interactions, coupled with local addressability. This is an unsolved challenge, primarily due to scalability issues. These issues often derive from poor control over interqubit interactions. Molecular systems are promising materials for the realization of large-scale quantum architectures, due to their high degree of positionability and the possibility to precisely tailor interqubit interactions. The simplest quantum architecture is the two-qubit system, with which quantum gate operations can be implemented. To be viable, a two-qubit system must possess long coherence times, the interqubit interaction must be well defined and the two qubits must also be addressable individually within the same quantum manipulation sequence. Here results are presented on the investigation of the spin dynamics of chlorinated triphenylmethyl organic radicals, in particular the perchlorotriphenylmethyl (PTM) radical, a mono-functionalized PTM, and a biradical PTM dimer. Extraordinarily long ensemble coherence times up to 148 µs are found at all temperatures below 100 K. Two-qubit and, importantly, individual qubit addressability in the biradical system are demonstrated. These results underline the potential of molecular materials for the development of quantum architectures.

Radical Single-Molecule Junctions

Radicals are unique molecular systems for applications in electronic devices due to their open-shell electronic structures. Radicals can function as good electrical conductors and switches in molecular circuits while also holding great promise in the field of molecular spintronics. However, it is both challenging to create stable, persistent radicals and to understand their properties in molecular junctions. The goal of this Perspective is to address this dual challenge by providing design principles for the synthesis of stable radicals relevant to molecular junctions, as well as offering current insight into the electronic properties of radicals in single-molecule devices. By exploring both the chemical and physical properties of established radical systems, we will facilitate increased exploration and development of radical-based molecular systems.

Redox-Addressable Single-Molecule Junctions Incorporating a Persistent Organic Radical

Integrating radical (open-shell) species into non-cryogenic nanodevices is key to unlocking the potential of molecular electronics. While many efforts have been devoted to this issue, in the absence of a chemical/electrochemical potential the open-shell character is generally lost in contact with the metallic electrodes. Herein, single-molecule devices incorporating a 6-oxo-verdazyl persistent radical have been fabricated using break-junction techniques. The open-shell character is retained at room temperature, and electrochemical gating permits in situ reduction to a closed-shell anionic state in a single-molecule transistor configuration. Furthermore, electronically driven rectification arises from bias-dependent alignment of the open-shell resonances. The integration of radical character, transistor-like switching, and rectification in a single molecular component paves the way to further studies of the electronic, magnetic, and thermoelectric properties of open-shell species.

Impact of Chlorine Substitution on Electron Spin Relaxation of a Trityl Radical

A perchlorotriarylmethyl tricarboxylic acid radical 99% enriched in ¹³C at the central carbon (¹³C₁-PTMTC) was characterized in phosphate buffered saline solution (pH = 7.2) (PBS) at ambient temperature. Samples immobilized in 1:1 PBS:glycerol or in 9:1 trehalose:sucrose were studied as a function of temperature. Isotope enrichment at C₁ creates a trityl that can be used to accurately measure microscopic viscosity. Understanding of the impact of the ¹³C hyperfine interaction on electron spin relaxation is important for application of this trityl in oximetry and distance measurements. The anisotropic ¹³C₁ hyperfine couplings (A_x = A_y = 24 ± 2 MHz, A_z = 200 ± 1 MHz) are larger than for the related ¹³C₁-perdeuterated Finland trityl (¹³C₁-dFT) and the g anisotropy (g_x = 2.0013, g_y = 2.0016, g_z = 2.0042) is slightly larger than for ¹³C₁-dFT. The tumbling correlation times (τ_R) for ¹³C₁-PTMTC are 0.20 ± 0.02 ns in PBS and 0.40 ± 0.05 ns in 3:1 PBS:glycerol, which are shorter than for ¹³C₁-dFT in the same solutions. T₁ for ¹³C₁-PTMTC is 3.5 ± 0.5 μs in PBS and 5.3 ± 0.4 μs in 3:1 PBS:glycerol, which are shorter than for ¹³C₁-dFT due to faster tumbling, larger anisotropy of the ¹³C₁ hyperfine, and about 30% larger contribution from the local mode. In immobilized samples T₁ for ¹³C₁-PTMTC is similar to that for ¹³C₁-dFT and other trityls without chlorine or ¹³C₁ substituents, indicating that the ¹³C₁ and Cl substituents on the phenyl rings have little impact on T₁. The temperature dependence of T₁ was modeled with contributions from the direct, Raman, and local mode processes. Broadening of CW linewidths of about 0.6 G in fluid solution and about 2 G in rigid lattice is attributed to unresolved ^35,37Cl hyperfine couplings.

Perchlorinated Triarylmethyl Radical 99% Enriched 13C at the Central Carbon as EPR Spin Probe Highly Sensitive to Molecular Tumbling

Soluble stable radicals are used as spin probes and spin labels for in vitro and in vivo electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and imaging applications. We report the synthesis and characterization of a perchlorinated triarylmethyl radical enriched 99% at the central carbon, ¹³C₁-PTMTC. The anisotropy of the hyperfine splitting with the ¹³C₁ (A_x = 26, A_y = 25, A_z = 199.5 MHz) and the g (g_x = 2.0015, g_y = 2.0015, g_z = 2.0040) are responsible for a strong effect of the radical tumbling rate on the EPR spectrum. The rotational correlation time can be determined by spectral simulation or via the line width or the apparent A_z after calibration, so the spin probe ¹³C₁-PTMTC can be used to measure media microviscosity with high sensitivity.

Understanding the g-tensors of perchlorotriphenylmethyl and Finland-type trityl radicals

The 285 GHz EPR spectra of perchlorotriphenylmethyl and tetrathiatriarylmethyl radicals in frozen solution have been accurately measured. The relationship between their molecular structures and their g-tensors has been investigated with the aid of DFT calculations, revealing that the degree of spin density delocalization away from the central methylene carbon is an important determining factor of the g-anisotropy. In particular, the small amount of spin densities on the Cl or S heteroatoms at the 2 and 6 positions with respect to the central carbon have the strongest influence. Furthermore, the amount of spin densities on these heteroatoms and thus the anisotropy can be modulated by the protonation (esterification) state of the carboxylate groups at the 4 position. These results provide unique insights into the g-anisotropy of persistent trityl radicals and how it can be tuned.

Synthesis and EPR-spectroscopic characterization of the perchlorotriarylmethyl tricarboxylic acid radical (PTMTC) and its 13C labelled analogue (13C-PTMTC)

A hydrophilic tris(tetrachlorotriaryl)methyl (tetrachloro-TAM) radical labelled 50% with ¹³C at the central carbon atom was prepared. The mixture of isotopologue radicals was characterised by continuous wave and pulsed X-band electron paramagnetic spectroscopy (EPS). For the pharmaceutical and medical applications planned, the quantitative influence of oxygen, viscosity, temperature and pH on EPR line widths was studied in aqueous buffer, DMSO, water-methanol and water-glycerol mixtures. Under in vivo conditions, pH can be disregarded. There is a clear oxygen dependence of the width of the ¹²C isotopologue single EPR line in aqueous solutions while changes in rotational motion (viscosity) are observable only in the doublet lines of the central carbon of the ¹³C isotopologue. The tetrachloro-TAM proved to be very stable as a solid. Its thermal decay was determined quantitatively by thermal annealing. Towards ascorbic acid as a reducing agent and towards an oocyte cell extract it had a half-life of approx. 60 and 10 min. Thus for in vivo applications, 50% ¹³C tetrachloro-TAMs are suitable for selective and simultaneous oxygen and macroviscosity measurements in a formulation, e.g. nanocapsules.

NMR signal enhancement of >50 000 times in fast dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization

A novel mixed biradical polarizing agent (BDPAesterTEMPO) showing one of the largest NMR signal enhancements to be observed so far in fast dissolution Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (dDNP).

A benzyl alcohol derivative of the BDPA radical for fast dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization NMR spectroscopy

The synthesis, structural characterization and the successful application of a carbon centered radical derived from 1,3-bisdiphenylene-2-phenylallyl (BDPA), its benzyl alcohol derivative (BA-BDPA), as a polarizing agent for Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) are described. The reported BA-BDPA radical meets all the requirements to become a promising candidate for its use in in vivo DNP-NMR experiments: it is soluble in neat [1-(13)C]pyruvic acid, insoluble in the dissolution transfer solvent and is effective as a polarizing agent in fast dissolution DNP-NMR applications, without the need for using glassing agents. Moreover, it enables a simple but effective in-line radical filtration to obtain hyperpolarized solutions of [1-(13)C]pyruvic acid free of radicals that offers a better polarization performance.

Studies of Metabolism Using (13)C MRS of Hyperpolarized Probes

First described in 2003, the dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) technique, combined with (13)C magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), has since been used in numerous metabolic studies and has become a valuable metabolic imaging method. DNP dramatically increases the level of polarization of (13)C-labeled compounds resulting in an increase in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of over 50,000 fold for the MRS spectrum of hyperpolarized compounds. The high SNR enables rapid real-time detection of metabolism in cells, tissues, and in vivo. This chapter will present a comprehensive review of the DNP approaches that have been used to monitor metabolism in living systems. First, the list of (13)C DNP probes developed to date will be presented, with a particular focus on the most commonly used probe, namely [1-(13)C] pyruvate. In the next four sections, we will then describe the different factors that need to be considered when designing (13)C DNP probes for metabolic studies, conducting in vitro or in vivo hyperpolarized experiments, as well as acquiring, analyzing, and modeling hyperpolarized (13)C data.

Looking Inside the Perchlorinated Trityl Radical/Metal Spinterface through Spectroscopy

We report on a spectroscopic multitechnique approach to study the metal/radical spinterface formed by a perchlorinated trityl radical derivative and either gold or silver. The spectroscopic fingerprint of their paramagnetic properties could be determined by comparison with their diamagnetic precursor and by DFT calculations. Thanks to the presented approach, we could gain unprecedented insight into the radical-metal interaction and how this latter perturbs the spin polarization and consequently the magnetoelectronic properties of the radical adlayer. Knowledge of the factors influencing the spinterface is an essential tool toward the tailoring of the properties of spin-based electronic devices.

The 13C solid DNP mechanisms with perchlorotriphenylmethyl radicals – the role of 35,37Cl

Chlorinated trityl radicals generate ¹³C DNP frequency sweeps that indicate contributions of e → ^36,37Cl → ¹³C polarization transfer mechanism at low temperatures and that the relative contributions of the solid effect and cross effects mechanism can be controlled by the microwave irradiation power.

Dissolution DNP-NMR spectroscopy using galvinoxyl as a polarizing agent

The goal of this work was to test feasibility of using galvinoxyl (2,6-di-tert-butyl-α-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-oxo-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-ylidene)-p-tolyloxy) as a polarizing agent for dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR spectroscopy. We have found that galvinoxyl is reasonably soluble in ethyl acetate, chloroform, or acetone and the solutions formed good glasses when mixed together or with other solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. W-band electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements revealed that galvinoxyl has an ESR linewidth D intermediate between that of carbon-centered free radical trityl OX063 and the nitroxide-based 4-oxo-TEMPO, thus the DNP with galvinoxyl for nuclei with low gyromagnetic ratio γ such as (13)C and (15)N is expected to proceed predominantly via the thermal mixing process. The optimum radical concentration that would afford the highest (13)C nuclear polarization (approximately 6% for [1-(13)C]ethyl acetate) at 3.35 T and 1.4 K was found to be around 40 mM. After dissolution, large liquid-state NMR enhancements were achieved for a number of (13)C and (15)N compounds with long spin-lattice relaxation time T(1). In addition, the hydrophobic galvinoxyl free radical can be easily filtered out from the dissolution liquid when water is used as the solvent. These results indicate that galvinoxyl can be considered as an easily available free radical polarizing agent for routine dissolution DNP-NMR spectroscopy.

The efficiency of DPPH as a polarising agent for DNP-NMR spectroscopy

The free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was tested as a polarising agent for fast dissolution dynamic nuclear polarisation (DNP) NMR spectroscopy. DPPH was found to be reasonably soluble in sulfolane and the optimum concentration for DNP is 20-40 mM depending upon whether short polarisation times or the maximum signal intensity is needed. W-band ESR measurements revealed that the ESR linewidth D of DPPH is intermediate between that of BDPA and 4-oxo-TEMPO. Several thousand-fold NMR signal enhancements in the liquid-state were achieved for (13)C, (15)N, (89)Y, and (109)Ag compounds, demonstrating that DPPH can be added to the list of polarising agents for DNP-NMR spectroscopy. Furthermore, the hydrophobic DPPH free radical can be easily filtered out from the dissolution liquid when water is used as the dissolution solvent.

Correlation of the EPR properties of perchlorotriphenylmethyl radicals and their efficiency as DNP polarizers

Water soluble perchlorinated trityl (PTM) radicals were found to be effective 95 GHz DNP (dynamic nuclear polarization) polarizers in ex situ (dissolution) (13)C DNP (Gabellieri et al., Angew Chem., Int. Ed. 2010, 49, 3360). The degree of the nuclear polarization obtained was reported to be dependent on the position of the chlorine substituents on the trityl skeleton. In addition, on the basis of the DNP frequency sweeps it was suggested that the (13)C NMR signal enhancement is mediated by the Cl nuclei. To understand the DNP mechanism of the PTM radicals we have explored the 95 GHz EPR characteristics of these radicals that are relevant to their performance as DNP polarizers. The EPR spectra of the radicals revealed axially symmetric g-tensors. A comparison of the spectra with the (13)C DNP frequency sweeps showed that although the solid effect mechanism is operational the DNP frequency sweeps reveal some extra width suggesting that contributions from EPR forbidden transitions involving (35,37)Cl nuclear flips are likely. This was substantiated experimentally by ELDOR (electron-electron double resonance) detected NMR measurements, which map the EPR forbidden transitions, and ELDOR experiments that follow the depolarization of the electron spin upon irradiation of the forbidden EPR transitions. DFT (density functional theory) calculations helped to assign the observed transitions and provided the relevant spin Hamiltonian parameters. These results show that the (35,37)Cl hyperfine and nuclear quadrupolar interactions cause a considerable nuclear state mixing at 95 GHz thus facilitating the polarization of the Cl nuclei upon microwave irradiation. Overlap of Cl nuclear frequencies and the (13)C Larmor frequency further facilitates the polarization of the (13)C nuclei by spin diffusion. Calculation of the (13)C DNP frequency sweep based on the Cl nuclear polarization showed that it does lead to an increase in the width of the spectra, improving the agreement with the experimental sweeps, thus supporting the existence of a new heteronuclear assisted DNP mechanism.