Swelling of Homogeneous Alginate Gels with Multi-Stimuli Sensitivity

A new two-step method is suggested for the preparation of homogeneous alginate gels. In the first step, alginate chains are weakly bonded by Ca2+ ions in an aqueous solution with a low pH. In the next step, the gel is immersed into a strong solution of CaCl2 to finalize the cross-linking process. Homogeneous alginate gels preserve their integrity in aqueous solutions with a pH ranging from 2 to 7 and ionic strength in the interval from 0 to 0.2 M, at temperatures ranging from room temperature up to 50 °C, and can be used in biomedical applications. The immersion of these gels into aqueous solutions with low pH induces the partial breakage of ionic bonds between chains (treated as gel degradation). This degradation affects the equilibrium and transient swelling of homogeneous alginate gels and makes them sensitive to the history of loading and environmental conditions (pH, ionic strength and temperature of aqueous solutions). As sensitivity to the environmental stimuli is a characteristic feature of polymer networks connected by catch bonds, homogeneous alginate gels may serve as a simple model, mimicking the behavior of more sophisticated structures in living matter.

Smart and Biomimetic 3D and 4D Printed Composite Hydrogels: Opportunities for Different Biomedical Applications

In recent years, smart/stimuli-responsive hydrogels have drawn tremendous attention for their varied applications, mainly in the biomedical field. These hydrogels are derived from different natural and synthetic polymers but are also composite with various organic and nano-organic fillers. The basic functions of smart hydrogels rely on their ability to change behavior; functions include mechanical, swelling, shaping, hydrophilicity, and bioactivity in response to external stimuli such as temperature, pH, magnetic field, electromagnetic radiation, and biological molecules. Depending on the final applications, smart hydrogels can be processed in different geometries and modalities to meet the complicated situations in biological media, namely, injectable hydrogels (following the sol-gel transition), colloidal nano and microgels, and three dimensional (3D) printed gel constructs. In recent decades smart hydrogels have opened a new horizon for scientists to fabricate biomimetic customized biomaterials for tissue engineering, cancer therapy, wound dressing, soft robotic actuators, and controlled release of bioactive substances/drugs. Remarkably, 4D bioprinting, a newly emerged technology/concept, aims to rationally design 3D patterned biological matrices from synthesized hydrogel-based inks with the ability to change structure under stimuli. This technology has enlarged the applicability of engineered smart hydrogels and hydrogel composites in biomedical fields. This paper aims to review stimuli-responsive hydrogels according to the kinds of external changes and t recent applications in biomedical and 4D bioprinting.

Synthesis of magnetic ferrogels: a tool-box approach for finely tuned magnetic- and temperature-dependent properties

Multi responsive hydrogels have many potential applications in the field of medicine as well as technical fields and are of great interest in fundamental research. Here we present the synthesis and characterization of tailored magnetic hydrogels – micro- as well as macrogels – which consist of iron oxide and cobalt ferrite, varying in phase and morphology, embedded in a thermoresponsive polymer. We introduce new ways to synthesize magnetic particles and revisit some common strategies when dealing with particle synthesis. Subsequently we discuss the details of the thermoresponsive matrix and how we can influence and manipulate the thermoresponsive properties, i.e. the lower critical solution temperature. Ultimately, we present the particle-hydrogel composite and show two exemplary applications for particle matrix interactions, i.e. heat transfer and reorientation of the particles in a magnetic field.

In situ magnetorheological SANS setup at Institut Laue-Langevin

A magnetorheological sample environment is presented that allows for in situ magnetic field and shear flow during small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements and is now available at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL). The setup allows performing simultaneous magnetorheological measurements together with the investigation of structural and magnetic changes on the nanometer length scale underlying the rheological response of ferrofluids. We describe the setup consisting of a commercial rheometer and a custom-made set of Helmholtz coils and show exemplarily data on the field and shear flow alignment of a dispersion of hematite nanospindles in water.

Scale-dependent particle diffusivity and apparent viscosity in polymer solutions as probed by dynamic magnetic nanorheology

In several upcoming rheological approaches, including methods of micro- and nanorheology, the measurement geometry is of critical impact on the interpretation of the results. The relative size of the probe objects employed (as compared to the intrinsic length scales of the sample to be investigated) becomes of crucial importance, and there is increasing interest to investigate the dynamic processes and mobility in nanostructured materials. A combination of different rheological approaches based on the rotation of magnetically blocked nanoprobes is used to systematically investigate the size-dependent diffusion behavior in aqueous poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) solutions with special attention paid to the relation of probe size to characteristic length scales within the polymer solutions. We employ two types of probe particles: nickel rods of hydrodynamic length L_h between 200 nm and 650 nm, and cobalt ferrite spheres with diameter d_h between 13 nm and 23 nm, and examine the influence of particle size and shape on the nanorheological information obtained in model polymer solutions based on two related, dynamic-magnetic approaches. The results confirm that as long as the investigated solutions are not entangled, and the particles are much larger than the macromolecular correlation length, a good accordance between macroscopic and nanoscopic results, whereas a strong size-dependent response is observed in cases where the particles are of similar size or smaller than the radius of gyration R_g or the correlation length ξ of the polymer solution.

Shell-Forming Stimulus-Active Hydrogel Composite Membranes: Concept and Modeling

The swelling of active hydrogels combined with passive layers allows the design of shell-forming structures. A shell-like structure offers different properties than a flat structure, e.g., variations in bending stiffness across different directions. A drastic increase of the bending stiffness is favorable e.g., in rollable/flexible displays: in their unrolled form, they have to be stiff enough to resist bending due to dead weight. At the same time, they have to be flexible enough to be rolled-up. This can be achieved by shell-forming. In the current modeling and simulation work, we present a basic concept of combined active–passive composites and demonstrate how they form shells. As the example material class, we use hydrogels with isotropic swelling capabilities. We demonstrate how to model the combined mechanical behavior with the Temperature-Expansion-Model. Afterwards, we show numerical results obtained by Finite Element simulations. We conclude that the envisioned structure has a great potential for obtaining soft rollable sheets that can be stiffened by intrinsic activation.

The role of structural anisotropy in the magnetooptical response of an organoferrogel with mobile magnetic nanoparticles

We investigate the structure and the magnetooptical response of isotropic and anisotropic fibrillous organoferrogels with mobile magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). We demonstrate that the presence of the gel network restricts the magnetooptical response of the ferrogel. Even though the ferrogel exhibits no magnetic hysteresis, an optical hysteresis has been found. This suggests that the magnetooptical response is primarily determined by the dynamics of self-assembly of the MNPs into shape-anisotropic agglomerates. Furthermore, we show that the optical anisotropy of the system can be fine-tuned by varying the concentration of the gelator and the MNPs, respectively. The optical response in structurally anisotropic gels becomes orientation-dependent, revealing an intricate interplay between the gel mesh and the MNPs.

Polymer architecture of magnetic gels: a review

In this review article, we provide an introduction to ferrogels, i.e. polymeric gels with embedded magnetic particles. Due to the interplay between magnetic and elastic properties of these materials, they are promising candidates for engineering and biomedical applications such as actuation and controlled drug release. Particular emphasis will be put on the polymer architecture of magnetic gels since it controls the degrees of freedom of the magnetic particles in the gel, and it is important for the particle-polymer coupling determining the mechanisms available for the gel deformation in magnetic fields. We report on the different polymer architectures that have been realized so far, and provide an overview of synthesis strategies and experimental techniques for the characterization of these materials. We further focus on theoretical and simulational studies carried out on magnetic gels, and highlight their contributions towards understanding the influence of the gels' polymer architecture.

Thermoresponsive hybrid double-crosslinked networks using magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as crossing points

Preparation and characterization of stimuli-sensitive hybrid double-crosslinked hydrogels based on iron oxide nanoparticles as the nano-crosslinkers and a difuran-functionalized PEO as the diene partner for the thermoreversible Diels–Alder reaction.

Tuning the Size of Thermoresponsive Poly(N-Isopropyl Acrylamide) Grafted Silica Microgels

Core-shell microgels were synthesized via a free radical emulsion polymerization of thermoresponsive poly-(N-isopropyl acrylamide), pNipam, on the surface of silica nanoparticles. Pure pNipam microgels have a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of about 32 °C. The LCST varies slightly with the crosslinker density used to stabilize the gel network. Including a silica core enhances the mechanical robustness. Here we show that by varying the concentration gradient of the crosslinker, the thermoresponsive behaviour of the core-shell microgels can be tuned. Three different temperature scenarios have been detected. First, the usual behaviour with a decrease in microgel size with increasing temperature exhibiting an LCST; second, an increase in microgel size with increasing temperature that resembles an upper critical solution temperature (UCST), and; third, a decrease with a subsequent increase of size reminiscent of the presence of both an LCST, and a UCST. However, since the chemical structure has not been changed, the LCST should only change slightly. Therefore we demonstrate how to tune the particle size independently of the LCST.

Nanocomposite Hydrogels and Their Applications in Tissue Engineering

Nanocomposite (NC) hydrogels, organic-inorganic hybrid materials, are of great interest as artificial three-dimensional (3D) biomaterials for biomedical applications. NC hydrogels are prepared in water by chemically or physically cross-linking organic polymers with nanomaterials (NMs). The incorporation of hard inorganic NMs into the soft organic polymer matrix enhances the physical, chemical, and biological properties of NC hydrogels. Therefore, NC hydrogels are excellent candidates for artificial 3D biomaterials, particularly in tissue engineering applications, where they can mimic the chemical, mechanical, electrical, and biological properties of native tissues. A wide range of functional NMs and synthetic or natural organic polymers have been used to design new NC hydrogels with novel properties and tailored functionalities for biomedical uses. Each of these approaches can improve the development of NC hydrogels and, thus, provide advanced 3D biomaterials for biomedical applications.

Role of Mechanical Factors in Applications of Stimuli-Responsive Polymer Gels - Status and Prospects

Due to their unique characteristics such as multifold change of volume in response to minute change in the environment, resemblance of soft biological tissues, ability to operate in wet environments, and chemical tailorability, stimuli responsive gels represent a versatile and very promising class of materials for sensors, muscle-type actuators, biomedical applications, and autonomous intelligent structures. Success of these materials in practical applications largely depends on their ability to fulfill application-specific mechanical requirements. This article provides an overview of recent application-driven development of covalent polymer gels with special emphasis on the relevant mechanical factors and properties. A short account of mechanisms of gel swelling and mechanical characteristics of importance to stimuli-responsive gels is presented. The review highlights major barriers for wider application of these materials and discusses latest advances and potential future directions toward overcoming these barriers, including interpenetrating networks, homogeneous networks, nanocomposites, and nanofilamentary gels.

Controlled Cell Growth and Cell Migration in Periodic Mesoporous Organosilica/Alginate Nanocomposite Hydrogels

Nanocomposite (NC) hydrogels with different periodic mesoporous organosilica (PMO) concentrations and a NC hydrogel bilayer with various PMO concentrations inside the layers of the hydrogel matrix are prepared. The effect of the PMO concentration on cell growth and migration of cells is reported. The cells migrate in the bilayer NC hydrogel towards higher PMO concentrations and from cell culture plates to NC hydrogel scaffolds.

Fabrication of monodispersed Au@Ag bimetallic nanorod-loaded nanofibrous membrane with fast thermo-responsiveness and its use as a smart free-standing SERS substrate

Monodispersed core–shell structured Au@Ag bimetallic nanorods-loaded nanofibrous membrane with fast thermo-responsiveness was fabricated by electrospinning and subsequent heat treatment, which can be used as a smart free-standing SERS substrate.

Swelling of pH-sensitive hydrogels

A model is derived for the elastic response of polyelectrolyte gels subjected to unconstrained and constrained swelling. A gel is treated as a three-phase medium consisting of a solid phase (polymer network), solvent (water), and solutes (mobile ions). Transport of solvent and solutes is modeled as their diffusion through the network accelerated by an electric field formed by ions and accompanied by chemical reactions (dissociation of functional groups attached to the chains). Constitutive equations (including the van't Hoff law for ionic pressure and the Henderson-Hasselbach equation for ionization of chains) are derived by means of the free energy imbalance inequality. Good agreement is demonstrated between equilibrium swelling diagrams on several pH-sensitive gels and results of simulation. It is revealed that swelling of polyelectrolyte gels is driven by electrostatic repulsion of bound charges, whereas the effect of ionic pressure is of secondary importance.

Magnetic and geometric anisotropy in particle-crosslinked ferrohydrogels

Particle-crosslinked polymer composites and gels have recently been shown to possess novel or improved properties due to a covalent particle–matrix interaction.

Hybrid micellar hydrogels of a thermosensitive ABA triblock copolymer and hairy nanoparticles: effect of spatial location of hairy nanoparticles on gel properties

This article reports a method for control of spatial location of nanoparticles (NPs) in hybrid micellar hydrogels of a thermosensitive ABA triblock copolymer and polymer brush-grafted NPs (hairy NPs), either inside or outside the core of micelles, and the study of the effect of different locations of NPs on gel properties. Two batches of thermosensitive polymer brush-grafted, 17 nm silica NPs with different lower critical solution temperatures (LCSTs) and a thermosensitive ABA triblock copolymer composed of a poly(ethylene oxide) central block and thermosensitive outer blocks (ABA-D) were synthesized. The different locations of NPs were achieved by controlling the LCST of hairy NPs (LCST(NP)) relative to that of the thermosensitive outer blocks of ABA-D (LCST(ABA)). When the LCST(NP) and LCST(ABA) were similar, the NPs resided in the core of micelles upon heating from below the LCST(NP) and LCST(ABA). When the LCST(NP) was significantly higher, the NPs were located outside the core of micelles as confirmed by fluorescent resonance energy transfer. The effects of different locations of hairy NPs and NP-to-polymer mass ratio on properties of hybrid micellar hydrogels formed from aqueous solutions of ABA-D with a concentration of 10 wt % and various amounts of hairy NPs were studied by rheological measurements. The sol-gel transition temperature (T(sol-gel)) and dynamic storage modulus G' of the gels with NPs inside the core of micelles did not change much with increasing the NP-to-polymer mass ratio. In contrast, the T(sol-gel) of gels with NPs in the interstitial space among micelles increased slightly and the G' decreased significantly with the increase of the NP-to-polymer ratio. The hairy NPs in the interstitial space appeared to affect the formation of polymer networks and increase the fraction of polymer loops, resulting in a lower density of bridging chains and thus a lower G'. In addition, for gels with NPs in the interstitial space, a noticeable increase in G' was observed in the heating ramps above 40 °C, which was likely caused by the collapsed hairy NPs adsorbing polymer chains in the dangling and loop forms, increasing the density of bridging chains.

In situ grafting silica nanoparticles reinforced nanocomposite hydrogels

Highly flexible nanocomposite hydrogels were prepared by using silica nanoparticles (SNPs) as fillers and multi-functional cross-links to graft hydrophilic poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) by free radical polymerization from an aqueous solution. The SNPs were collected by neighboring polymer chains and dispersed uniformly within a PAA matrix. The mechanical properties of the nanocomposite hydrogels were tailored by the concentration of SNPs according to the percolation model. It was proposed that covalent bonds of adsorbed chains on the filler surface resulted in the formation of a shell of an immobilized glassy layer and trapped entanglements, where the glassy polymer layer greatly enhanced the elastic modulus and the release of trapped entanglements at deformation contributed to the viscoelastic properties.

Smart wormlike micelles

A major scientific challenge of the past decade pertaining to the field of soft matter has been to craft 'adaptable' materials, inspired by nature, which can dynamically alter their structure and functionality on demand, in response to triggers produced by environmental changes. Amongst these, 'smart' surfactant wormlike micelles, responsive to external stimuli, are a particularly recent area of development, yet highly promising, given the versatility of the materials but simplicity of the design-relying on small amphiphilic molecules and their spontaneous self-assembly. The switching 'on' and 'off' of the micellar assembly structures has been reported using electrical, optical, thermal or pH triggers and is now envisaged for multiple stimuli. The structural changes, in turn, can induce major variations in the macroscopic characteristics, affecting properties such as viscosity and elasticity and sometimes even leading to a spontaneous and effective 'sol-gel' transition. These original smart materials based on wormlike micelles have been successfully used in the oil industry, and offer a significant potential in a wide range of other technological applications, including biomedicine, cleaning processes, drag reduction, template synthesis, to name but a few. This review will report results in this field published over the last few years, describe the potential and practical applications of stimuli-responsive wormlike micelles and point out future challenges.

Forward osmosis desalination using polymer hydrogels as a draw agent: influence of draw agent, feed solution and membrane on process performance

We have previously reported the use of hydrogel particles as the draw agent for forward osmosis desalination. In the present work, the effects of draw agent, feed concentration and membrane on the process performance were systematically examined. Our results showed that the incorporation of carbon filler particles in polymer hydrogels led to enhanced swelling ratios of the draw agents and thus higher water fluxes in the FO process. The composite polymer hydrogel particles of sizes ranging from 100 μm to 200 μm as draw agents induced greater water fluxes in FO desalination as compared with those with larger particle sizes (500-700 μm). Similar to other types of draw solutes, as the salt concentration in the feed increased, the water flux created by the polymer hydrogel draw agent decreased; the use of a cellulose triacetate forward osmosis membrane resulted in higher water flux compared with the use of a polyamide composite reverse osmosis membrane.

Polymeric Hydrogels and Nanoparticles: A Merging and Emerging Field

Hydrogels have had extensive applications in scientific and industrial applications since their invention over 50 years ago. Responsive hydrogels based on temperature, light, and pH stimuli have been developed by changing the chemical components of the matrix structure. On the other hand, metallic nanoparticles of different shapes and sizes have been prepared by physical as well as chemical methods. These inorganic assemblies are currently widely used in the biomedical sciences and engineering fields. Recently, the combined use of hydrogels and nanoparticles in a single entity has gained enormous attention in areas such as catalysts, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, biosensors, and drug delivery. In this review, recent literature describing these technologies is summarized and an outlook on the promising future of this emerging field is provided.

Thermogelling properties of triblock copolymers in the presence of hydrophilic Fe3O4 nanoparticles and surfactants

We investigate the supramolecular structure formed by thermogelation of a triblock polymer in the presence of nanoparticles and surfactant using rheometry and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The triblock copolymer, nanoparticle, and surfactant used in this study are poly(oxyethylene-oxypropylene-oxyethylene), Pluronic F108, Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles, and sodium dodecyl surfactant, respectively. Addition of 1-5 wt % of Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticle, of average particle size ~10 nm, in a weak template of F108 (15 wt %) shows a decrease in the onset of gelation temperature and dramatic alteration in the viscoelastic moduli. The nanocomposite samples show a linear viscoelastic regime up to 5% strain. The SAXS measurement shows that the intermicellar spacing of the supramolecular structure of pure F108 is ~16.5 nm, and the supramolecular structure is destroyed when nanoparticles and surfactants are incorporated in it. Further, the addition of anionic surfactant to nanocomposites leads to a dramatic reduction in the viscoelastic properties due to strong electrostatic barrier imparted by the surfactant headgroup that prevents the formation of hexagonally ordered micelles. Our results show that the thermogelation is due to the clustering of nanoparticles into a fractal network rather than a close-packed F108 micelles, in agreement with the recent findings in Pluronic F127-laponite systems.