Fe-TAMLs as a new class of small molecule peroxidase probes for correlated light and electron microscopy

We introduce Fe-TAML, a small molecule-based peroxidase as a versatile new member of the correlated fluorescence and electron microscopy toolkit. The utility of the probe is demonstrated by high resolution imaging of newly synthesized DNA (through biorthogonal labeling), genetically tagged proteins (using HaloTag), and untagged endogenous proteins (via immunostaining). EM visualization in these applications is facilitated by exploiting Fe-TAML's catalytic activity for the deposition of localized osmiophilic precipitates based on polymerized 3,3'-diaminobenzidine. Optimized conditions for synthesizing and implementing Fe-TAML based probes are also described. Overall, Fe-TAML is a new chemical biology tool that can be used to visualize diverse biomolecular species along nanometer and micron scales within cells.

Designing Sites in Heterogeneous Catalysis: Are We Reaching Selectivities Competitive With Those of Homogeneous Catalysts?

A critical review of different prominent nanotechnologies adapted to catalysis is provided, with focus on how they contribute to the improvement of selectivity in heterogeneous catalysis. Ways to modify catalytic sites range from the use of the reversible or irreversible adsorption of molecular modifiers to the immobilization or tethering of homogeneous catalysts and the development of well-defined catalytic sites on solid surfaces. The latter covers methods for the dispersion of single-atom sites within solid supports as well as the use of complex nanostructures, and it includes the post-modification of materials via processes such as silylation and atomic layer deposition. All these methodologies exhibit both advantages and limitations, but all offer new avenues for the design of catalysts for specific applications. Because of the high cost of most nanotechnologies and the fact that the resulting materials may exhibit limited thermal or chemical stability, they may be best aimed at improving the selective synthesis of high value-added chemicals, to be incorporated in organic synthesis schemes, but other applications are being explored as well to address problems in energy production, for instance, and to design greener chemical processes. The details of each of these approaches are discussed, and representative examples are provided. We conclude with some general remarks on the future of this field.

A series of novel Cu-based MOFs: syntheses, structural diversity, catalytic properties and mimic peroxidase activity for colorimetric detection of H2O2

Three MOFs with three different types of Cu clusters have been synthesized. MOFs 1–3 efficiently catalyze the oxidation of cycloalkanes under mild conditions. Besides, MOFs 1–3 exhibited high peroxidase-like activity and could be applied for colorimetric detection of H2O2.

Fe-Coordinated Carbon Nanozyme Dots as Peroxidase-Like Nanozymes and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agents

The catalytic activities of currently developed peroxidase-mimic nanozymes are generally limited. Therefore, further efforts are still needed to improve the catalytic performance of peroxidase nanozymes. Herein, we synthesized Fe-coordinated carbon nanozyme dots (Fe-CDs) that can serve as both efficient peroxidase nanozymes and T₂-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. The intrinsic peroxidase-like activity of the Fe-CDs was explored by catalytic oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The product showed better performance over natural horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and other mimetic peroxidases. Quantification of glucose and ascorbic acid detection showed that this nanozyme could be used to detect a minimum limit as low as 5 μM glucose. Moreover, the colorimetric detection technique was used to detect serum glucose in mice, and the detection result was comparable with autobiochemistry analyzer results using a glucose assay kit. Furthermore, the Fe-CDs showed good magnetism properties and provided promising MR imaging of tumors with excellent biocompatibility.

Designing Materials for Aqueous Catalysis: Ionic Liquid Gel and Silica Sphere Entrapped Iron-TAML Catalysts for Oxidative Degradation of Dyes

Materials have been developed that encapsulate a homogeneous catalyst and enable it to operate as a heterogeneous catalyst in water. A hydrophobic ionic liquid within the material was used to dissolve Fe-TAML and keep it from leaching into the aqueous phase. One-pot processes were used to entrap Fe-TAML in basic ionic liquid gels, and ionic liquid gel spheres structured via a modified Stöber synthesis forming SiO₂ particles of uniform size. Catalytic activity was demonstrated via the oxidative degradation of dyes. Fe-TAML entrapped in a basic ionic liquid gel exhibited consistent activity in five recycles. This discovery of heterogenized H₂O₂ activators prepared by sol-gel and Stöber processes opens new possibilities for the creation of engineered catalytic materials for water purification.

Design and Characterization of a Novel Artificial Peroxidase

In this study, we reported on a novel mimetic peroxidase, deuterohemin–Ala–His–Glu, (Dh–A–H–E). The kinetic parameters of Dh–A–H–E suggested that it was a mimetic peroxidase and followed the ping–pong mechanism. Compared to horseradish peroxidase, Dh–A–H–E exhibited excellent stability when tested at different pH and temperatures, and using different organic solvents. Based on our above results, a new method using Dh–A–H–E has successfully been developed for the fast and quantitative detection of trace amounts of glucose.

A facile synthesis of CuFe2O4/Cu9S8/PPy ternary nanotubes as peroxidase mimics for the sensitive colorimetric detection of H2O2 and dopamine

Synergistic effects play an important role in improving the catalytic activity for enzyme-like reactions. Compared to individual nanomaterials, a system consisting of multiple components usually exhibits enhanced catalytic activity as an enzyme mimic. Herein we describe the synthesis of CuFe₂O₄/Cu₉S₈/polypyrrole (PPy) ternary nanotubes as an efficient peroxidase mimic via a three-step approach involving an electrospinning process, annealing treatment and hydrothermal reaction. The remarkably enhanced catalytic activity of CuFe₂O₄/Cu₉S₈/PPy ternary nanotubes as peroxidase mimics over individual CuFe₂O₄ nanofibers, CuFe₂O₄/CuO composite nanofibers, CuFe₂O₄/CuS composite nanofibers, and PPy materials has been achieved, demonstrating the presence of a synergistic effect among the components. The steady-state kinetic experiment suggests a good catalytic efficiency of the CuFe₂O₄/Cu₉S₈/PPy ternary nanotubes. On the basis of high catalytic activity, a colorimetric platform for the sensitive detection of H₂O₂ and dopamine has been developed. This work not only offers a simple approach for the fabrication of a high performance peroxidase-like nanocatalyst, but also provides its promising potential applications in biosensors, medical diagnosis, and environmental monitoring.

Mesoporous Silica and Organosilica Nanoparticles: Physical Chemistry, Biosafety, Delivery Strategies, and Biomedical Applications

Predetermining the physico-chemical properties, biosafety, and stimuli-responsiveness of nanomaterials in biological environments is essential for safe and effective biomedical applications. At the forefront of biomedical research, mesoporous silica nanoparticles and mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles are increasingly investigated to predict their biological outcome by materials design. In this review, it is first chronicled that how the nanomaterial design of pure silica, partially hybridized organosilica, and fully hybridized organosilica (periodic mesoporous organosilicas) governs not only the physico-chemical properties but also the biosafety of the nanoparticles. The impact of the hybridization on the biocompatibility, protein corona, biodistribution, biodegradability, and clearance of the silica-based particles is described. Then, the influence of the surface engineering, the framework hybridization, as well as the morphology of the particles, on the ability to load and controllably deliver drugs under internal biological stimuli (e.g., pH, redox, enzymes) and external noninvasive stimuli (e.g., light, magnetic, ultrasound) are presented. To conclude, trends in the biomedical applications of silica and organosilica nanovectors are delineated, such as unconventional bioimaging techniques, large cargo delivery, combination therapy, gaseous molecule delivery, antimicrobial protection, and Alzheimer's disease therapy.

Iron nanostructured catalysts: design and applications

This review is focused on the recent advances in the design of iron nanostructures and their catalytic applications.

Enzymatic activity of Fe-grafted mesoporous silica nanoparticles: an insight into H2O2and glucose detection

Iron-grafted MSNs were synthesized by post-synthesis and applied as a biosensor for detection of glucose and H₂O₂.

Targeting of High-Valent Iron-TAML Activators at Hydrocarbons and Beyond

TAML activators of peroxides are iron(III) complexes. The ligation by four deprotonated amide nitrogens in macrocyclic motifs is the signature of TAMLs where the macrocyclic structures vary considerably. TAML activators are exceptional functional replicas of the peroxidases and cytochrome P450 oxidizing enzymes. In water, they catalyze peroxide oxidation of a broad spectrum of compounds, many of which are micropollutants, compounds that produce undesired effects at low concentrations-as with the enzymes, peroxide is typically activated with near-quantitative efficiency. In nonaqueous solvents such as organic nitriles, the prototype TAML activator gave the structurally authenticated reactive iron(V)oxo units (Fe^VO), wherein the iron atom is two oxidation equivalents above the Fe^III resting state. The iron(V) state can be achieved through the intermediacy of iron(IV) species, which are usually μ-oxo-bridged dimers (Fe^IVFe^IV), and this allows for the reactivity of this potent reactive intermediate to be studied in stoichiometric processes. The present review is primarily focused at the mechanistic features of the oxidation by Fe^VO of hydrocarbons including cyclohexane. The main topic is preceded by a description of mechanisms of oxidation of thioanisoles by Fe^VO, because the associated studies provide valuable insight into the ability of Fe^VO to oxidize organic molecules. The review is opened by a summary of the interconversions between Fe^III, Fe^IVFe^IV, and Fe^VO species, since this information is crucial for interpreting the kinetic data. The highest reactivity in both reaction classes described belongs to Fe^VO. The resting state Fe^III is unreactive oxidatively. Intermediate reactivity is typically found for Fe^IVFe^IV; therefore, kinetic features for these species in interchange and oxidation processes are also reviewed. Examples of using TAML activators for C-H bond cleavage applied to fine organic synthesis conclude the review.

Metal-organic frameworks as biosensors for luminescence-based detection and imaging

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), formed by the self-assembly of metal centres or clusters and organic linkers, possess many key structural and chemical features that have enabled them to be used in sensing platforms for a variety of environmentally, chemically and biomedically relevant compounds. In particular, their high porosity, large surface area, tuneable chemical composition, high degree of crystallinity, and potential for post-synthetic modification for molecular recognition make MOFs promising candidates for biosensing applications. In this review, we separate our discussion of MOF biosensors into two categories: quantitative sensing, focusing specifically on luminescence-based sensors for the direct measurement of a specific analyte, and qualitative sensing, where we describe MOFs used for fluorescence microscopy and as magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. We highlight several key publications in each of these areas, concluding that MOFs present an exciting, versatile new platform for biosensing applications and imaging, and we expect to see their usage grow as the field progresses.

Bis-clickable Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: Straightforward Preparation of Light-Actuated Nanomachines for Controlled Drug Delivery with Active Targeting

Bis(clickable) mesoporous silica nanospheres (ca. 100 nm) were obtained by the co-condensation of TEOS with variable amounts (2-5 % each) of two clickable organosilanes in the presence of CTAB. Such nanoparticles could be easily functionalized with two independent functions using the copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction to transform them into nanomachines bearing cancer cell targeting ligands with the ability to deliver drugs on-demand. The active targeting was made possible after anchoring folic acid by CuAAC click reaction, whereas the controlled delivery was performed by clicked azobenzene fragments. Indeed, the azobenzene groups are able to obstruct the pores of the nanoparticles in the dark whereas upon irradiation in the UV or in the blue range, their trans-to-cis photoisomerization provokes disorder in the pores, enabling the delivery of the cargo molecules. The on-command delivery was proven in solution by dye release experiments, and in vitro by doxorubicin delivery. The added value of the folic acid ligand was clearly evidenced by the difference of cell killing induced by doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles under blue irradiation, depending on whether the particles featured the clicked folic acid ligand or not.

Humic acid-assisted synthesis of stable copper nanoparticles as a peroxidase mimetic and their application in glucose detection

In this report, stable copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) were prepared through a facile annealing process using humic acid as the reducing and stabilizing agents. The products were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The prepared Cu NPs show remarkably intrinsic peroxidase-like activity, which can rapidly catalyze the oxidation of the peroxidase substrate, 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), in the presence of H₂O₂ to produce a blue-color reaction. The detection limit of H₂O₂ by Cu NPs can be as low as 1.32 × 10^-7 M. More importantly, the prepared Cu NPs show excellent stability, which can hardly be oxidized even after 6 months. Based on the aforementioned mechanism, a simple, rapid and selective colorimetric method for glucose detection was developed, and the detection limit of glucose was 6.86 × 10^-7 M. This study provides a novel method for the preparation of stable Cu NPs, which may have widespread applications in the detection of glucose in the human body and pear juice.

Controlled multiple functionalization of mesoporous silica nanoparticles: homogeneous implementation of pairs of functionalities communicating through energy or proton transfers

The synthesis of mesoporous silica nanoparticles bearing organic functionalities is strained by the careful adjustment of the reaction parameters, as the incorporation of functional and/or voluminous organosilanes during the sol-gel synthesis strongly affects the final structure of the nanoparticles. In this paper we describe the design of new clickable mesoporous silica nanoparticles as spheres or rods, synthesized by the co-condensation of TEOS with two clickable organosilanes (bearing alkyne and azide groups) and readily multi-functionalizable by CuAAC click chemistry. We show that controlled loadings of clickable functions can be homogeneously distributed within the MSN, allowing us to efficiently click-graft various pairs of functionalities while preserving the texture and morphology of the particles. The homogeneous distribution of the grafted functionalities was probed by FRET experiments between two anchored fluorophores. Moreover, a communication by proton transfer between two functions was demonstrated by constructing a light-actuated nanomachine that works through a proton transfer between a photoacid generator and a pH-sensitive supramolecular nanogate. The activation of the nanomachine enabled the successful release of rhodamine B in buffered solutions and the delivery of doxorubicin in breast cancer cells (MCF-7) upon blue irradiation.

A molecular Fe-complex as a catalyst probe for in-gel visual detection of proteins via signal amplification

We report the use of a molecular peroxidase mimic biuret FeTAML for chemoselective labeling of proteins and the subsequent visual detection (<0.1 pmoles) of the conjugate in a polyacrylamide gel by catalytic signal amplification.

Fluorescence turn-on detection of glucose via the Ag nanoparticle mediated release of a perylene probe

A novel fluorescence turn-on strategy based on the perylene probe and the silver nanoparticles for glucose sensing has been developed.

Fe-TAML encapsulated inside mesoporous silica nanoparticles as peroxidase mimic: femtomolar protein detection

Peroxidase, such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP), conjugated to antibodies are routinely used for the detection of proteins via an ELISA type assay in which a critical step is the catalytic signal amplification by the enzyme to generate a detectable signal. Synthesis of functional mimics of peroxidase enzyme that display catalytic activity which far exceeds the native enzyme is extremely important for the precise and accurate determination of very low quantities of proteins (fM and lower) that is necessary for early clinical diagnosis. Despite great advancements, analyzing proteins of very low abundance colorimetrically, a method that is most sought after since it requires no equipment for the analysis, still faces great challenges. Most reported HRP mimics that show catalytic activity greater than native enzyme (∼10-fold) are based on metal/metal-oxide nanoparticles such as Fe3O4. In this paper, we describe a second generation hybrid material developed by us in which approximately 25,000 alkyne tagged biuret modified Fe-tetraamido macrocyclic ligand (Fe-TAML), a very powerful small molecule synthetic HRP mimic, was covalently attached inside a 40 nm mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN). Biuret-modified Fe-TAMLs represent one of the best small molecule functional mimics of the enzyme HRP with reaction rates in water close to the native enzyme and operational stability (pH, ionic strength) far exceeding the natural enzyme. The catalytic activity of this hybrid material is around 1000-fold higher than that of natural HRP and 100-fold higher than that of most metal/metal oxide nanoparticle based HRP mimics reported to date. We also show that using antibody conjugates of this hybrid material it is possible to detect and, most importantly, quantify femtomolar quantities of proteins colorimetrically in an ELISA type assay. This represents at least 10-fold higher sensitivity than other colorimetric protein assays that have been reported using metal/metal oxide nanoparticles as HRP mimic. Using a human IgG expressing cell line, we were able to demonstrate that the protein of interest human IgG could be detected from a mixture of interfering proteins in our assay.

Synthesis of hierarchical iron hydrogen phosphate crystal as a robust peroxidase mimic for stable H₂O₂ detection

To develop a green, cost-efficient and robust peroxidase mimic, micro/nano hierarchical morphology (for ease of separation and reuse), relative chemically stable composition (for ease of storage) and stable crystal structure (for long-term stability) are highly desired. Herein, using phosphoric acid as a chelating ligand to control the release of iron ions, hierarchical iron(III) hydrogen phosphate hydrate crystals are successfully prepared by nanosheets formation and following self-assembling in a facile low-temperature hydrothermal process. They are first found to have peroxidase-like activity and showed higher affinity for H2O2 and lower affinity for 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine compared with horseradish peroxidase. The affinity feature is used for quantitative detection of H2O2 and shows a wide linear detection range from 57.4 to 525.8 μM (R(2) = 0.994) with a low detection limit of 1 μM. Benefited from chemical stability of hierarchical iron(III) salt crystals, they own good reproducibility (relative standard deviation = 1.95% for 10 independent measurements), long-term stability (no activity loss after 10 cycles), and ease of recovery (by simple centrifugation). Because the method is easily accessible, iron hydrogen phosphate hierarchical crystals have great potential for practical use of H2O2 sensing and detection under harsh conditions.

A general method for preparing bridged organosilanes with pendant functional groups and functional mesoporous organosilicas

New organosilica precursors containing two triethoxysilyl groups suitable for the organosilica material formation through the sol-gel process were designed and synthesised. These precursors display alkyne or azide groups for attaching targeted functional groups by copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) and can be used for the preparation of functional organosilicas following two strategies: 1) the functional group is first appended by CuAAC under anhydrous conditions, then the functional material is prepared by the sol-gel process; 2) the precursor is first subjected to the sol-gel process, producing porous, clickable bridged silsesquioxanes or periodic mesoporous organosilicas (PMOs), then the desired functional groups are attached by means of CuAAC. Herein, we show the feasibility of both approaches. A series of bridged bis(triethoxysilane)s with different pending organic moieties was prepared, demonstrating the compatibility of the first approach with many functional groups. In particular, we demonstrate that organic functional molecules bearing only one derivatisation site can be used to produce bridged organosilanes and bridged silsesquioxanes. In the second approach, clickable PMOs and porous bridged silsesquioxanes were prepared from the alkyne- or azide-containing precursors, and thereafter, functionalised with complementary model azide- or alkyne-containing molecules. These results confirmed the potential of this approach as a general methodology for preparing functional organosilicas with high loadings of functional groups. Both approaches give rise to a wide range of new functional organosilica materials.

DNA-enhanced peroxidase-like activity of layered double hydroxide nanosheets and applications in H2O2 and glucose sensing

LDH nanosheets were obtained via continuous impaction and exfoliation by herring sperm DNA molecules using a constant vibration method. DNA-LDH nanohybrids were composed by electrostatic forces and they exhibited DNA-enhanced peroxidase-like activity. The morphology and structure of DNA-LDH nanohybrids were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), selected-area electron diffraction (SAED), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterization. On the basis of the high catalytic activity of DNA/CuAl-LDH nanosheets, a rapid, sensitive, and convenient approach was developed for colorimetric detection of H2O2 and blood glucose. This method can be potentially applied in medical diagnostics and biotechnology fields.

Photoluminescent C-dots@RGO for sensitive detection of hydrogen peroxide and glucose

We have demonstrated sensitive detections of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and glucose using reduced graphene oxide decorated with carbon dots (C-dots@RGO). The C-dots@RGO prepared from catechin (reducing agent and carbon source) and graphene oxide via hydrothermal routes possesses excitation-wavelength-dependence photoluminescence (PL) characteristics, with maximum excitation and emission wavelengths of 365 and 440 nm, respectively. The C-dots@RGO is stable in solution containing NaCl up to 350 mM, but is quenched by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS reacts with H2O2 and thus its PL quenching toward the C-dots@RGO is minimized. When using C-dots@RGO and glucose oxidase (GOx), the PL assay allows detection of glucose in the presence of 10 µM of bovine serum albumin, with linearity over a concentration range from 1 to 60 µM (r=0.99) and a limit of detection (at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3) of 140 nM. The practicality of this assay has been validated by determining the concentrations of glucose in serum and saliva samples, with results of 5.1 ± 0.6mM (n=3) and 117.9 ± 8.1 μM (n=3), respectively. Our simple and sensitive assay opens a new avenue of developing assays for various analytes using C-dots@RGO in conjunction with different enzymes.

A nanosized metal-organic framework of Fe-MIL-88NH₂ as a novel peroxidase mimic used for colorimetric detection of glucose

In this paper, a nanosized porous metal-organic framework, Fe-MIL-88NH₂, was facilely prepared with a uniform octahedral shape by the addition of acetic acid, and for the first time was demonstrated to possess intrinsic peroxidase-like activity. Kinetic analysis and electron spin resonance measurements indicated that the catalytic behavior was consistent with typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics and follows a ping-pong mechanism. As a novel peroxidase mimic material, Fe-MIL-88NH₂ shows the advantages of high catalytic efficiency, ultrahigh stability and high biocompatibility in aqueous medium compared with natural enzymes and other peroxidase nanomimetics. Here, Fe-MIL-88NH₂ was used to quickly catalyze oxidation of the peroxidase substrate 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) in the presence of H₂O₂ to produce a colored product, which provided a simple, sensitive and selective method for the colorimetric detection of glucose. Glucose could be linearly detected in the range from 2.0 × 10⁻⁶ to 3.0 × 10⁻⁴ M with a detection limit of 4.8 × 10⁻⁷ M, and the color variation for glucose response was also obvious by visual observation at concentrations as low as 2.0 × 10⁻⁶ M. More importantly, the colorimetric method could be successfully applied to the determination of glucose in diluted serum samples.

TAML activator-based amperometric analytical devices as alternatives to peroxidase biosensors

The ferric TAML catalysts [Fe{C(6)H(2)-1,2-( NCOCMe(2)NCO)(2)CMe(2)}(OH(2))](-) (1) with counterions Na(+) (a) and PPh(4)(+) (b) function similar to horseradish peroxidase in the mediated electron transfer relays, which constitute a basis for amperometric biosensors. The mediators are mono- and bis-cyclometalated Ru and Os compounds of the type of [M(C∼N)(x)(N∼N)(3-x)](m+) with x = 1 and 2 (N∼N = 2,2'-bipyridine, (-)C∼N = 2-phenylpyridinato). Cyclic voltammograms of the Ru and Os compounds are not affected by 1a though cathodic currents increase drastically in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The reduction potentials of [M(C∼N)(x)(N∼N)(3-x)](m+) complexes vary with both the nature of metal (Ru or Os) and the number of cyclometalated ligands x (1 or 2) and therefore the potential of working electrode can be set in the range of from -0.1 to +0.6 V versus the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). A prototype of a biosensor for H(2)O(2) is described, in which the 1b catalyst and [Os(C∼N)(2)(N∼N)](+) mediator were coimmobilized on the surface of the glassy carbon electrode using a polymeric coating.