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Naciri Y, Ghazzal MN, Paineau E. Nanosized tubular clay minerals as inorganic nanoreactors for energy and environmental applications: A review to fill current knowledge gaps. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 326:103139. [PMID: 38552380 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2024.103139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Modern society pays further and further attention to environmental protection and the promotion of sustainable energy solutions. Heterogeneous photocatalysis is widely recognized as one of the most economically viable and ecologically sound technologies to combat environmental pollution and the global energy crisis. One challenge is finding a suitable photocatalytic material for an efficient process. Inorganic nanotubes have garnered attention as potential candidates due to their optoelectronic properties, which differ from their bulk equivalents. Among them, clay nanotubes (halloysite, imogolite, and chrysotile) are attracting renewed interest for photocatalysis applications thanks to their low production costs, their unique physical and chemical properties, and the possibility to functionalize or dope their structure to enhance charge-carriers separation into their structure. In this review, we provide new insights into the potential of these inorganic nanotubes in photocatalysis. We first discuss the structural and morphological features of clay nanotubes. Applications of photocatalysts based on clay nanotubes across a range of photocatalytic reactions, including the decomposition of organic pollutants, elimination of NOx, production of hydrogen, and disinfection of bacteria, are discussed. Finally, we highlight the obstacles and outline potential avenues for advancing the current photocatalytic system based on clay nanotubes. Our aim is that this review can offer researchers new opportunities to advance further research in the field of clay nanotubes-based photocatalysis with other vital applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yassine Naciri
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay 91405, France; Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, UMR8000, Institut de Chimie Physique, Orsay 91405, France
| | - Mohamed Nawfal Ghazzal
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, UMR8000, Institut de Chimie Physique, Orsay 91405, France.
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay 91405, France.
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2
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Cation Doping Approach for Nanotubular Hydrosilicates Curvature Control and Related Applications. CRYSTALS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst10080654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The past two decades have been marked by an increased interest in the synthesis and the properties of geoinspired hydrosilicate nanoscrolls and nanotubes. The present review considers three main representatives of this group: halloysite, imogolite and chrysotile. These hydrosilicates have the ability of spontaneous curling (scrolling) due to a number of crystal structure features, including the size and chemical composition differences between the sheets, (or the void in the gibbsite sheet and SiO2 tetrahedron, in the case of imogolite). Mineral nanoscrolls and nanotubes consist of the most abundant elements, like magnesium, aluminium and silicon, accompanied by uncontrollable amounts of impurities (other elements and phases), which hinder their high technology applications. The development of a synthetic approach makes it possible to not only to overcome the purity issues, but also to enhance the chemical composition of the nanotubular particles by controllable cation doping. The first part of the review covers some principles of the cation doping approach and proposes joint criteria for the semiquantitative prediction of morphological changes that occur. The second part focuses on some doping-related properties and applications, such as morphological control, uptake and release, magnetic and mechanical properties, and catalysis.
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3
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Tunega D, Zaoui A. Mechanical and Bonding Behaviors Behind the Bending Mechanism of Kaolinite Clay Layers. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2020; 124:7432-7440. [PMID: 32273938 PMCID: PMC7132572 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b11274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The density functional theory-based calculations were performed on stripe models of the single kaolinite layer. The calculations helped to explain why halloysite mineral, a member of the kaolinite group existing in a tubular form, has rolled tubes only in one way. In that form, aluminol octahedral sheet, terminated by surface hydroxyl groups, represents the inner surface of the nanotubes. The bending models with the inner surface formed by the SiO tetrahedral sheet showed significant structural instability with monotonically increasing strain energy as a function of the curvature. In contrast, for the bending models with the octahedral sheet as the inner surface, stabilization energetic minima were found at curvatures of about 10 nm. The calculations were also performed on the individual sheets (tetrahedral and octahedral) of the kaolinite layer to show their contribution to the bending strain. We found that the decrease of the bending energy and the layer stabilization with respect to the planar configuration for curvatures with radii R C > ∼5 nm can be attributed mainly to three factors-(i) better match between octahedral and tetrahedral sheets, (ii) local structural changes of the SiO and AlOH polyhedral units, and (iii) increasing effectivity of hydrogen bonding of the outer surface OH groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Tunega
- Institute
for Soil Research, University of Natural
Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Strasse 82, Wien A-1190, Austria
- School
of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, 300072 Tianjin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ali Zaoui
- University
Lille, IMT Lille Douai, University Artois, Yncrea Hauts-de-France,
ULR 4515—LGCgE, Laboratoire de Génie Civil et Géo-Environnement, F-59000 Lille, France
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4
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Imogolite Nanotubes: A Flexible Nanoplatform with Multipurpose Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/app8101921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Among a wide variety of inorganic nanotubes, imogolite nanotubes (INTs) represent a model of nanoplatforms with an untapped potential for advanced technological applications. Easily synthesized by sol-gel methods, these nanotubes are directly obtained with a monodisperse pore size. Coupled with the possibility to adjust their surface properties by using straightforward functionalization processes, INTs form a unique class of diameter-controlled nanotubes with functional interfaces. The purpose of this review is to provide the reader with an overview of the synthesis and functionalization of INTs. The properties of INTs will be stated afterwards into perspective with the recent development on their applications, in particular for polymer/INTs nanocomposites, molecular confinement or catalysis.
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Monet G, Amara MS, Rouzière S, Paineau E, Chai Z, Elliott JD, Poli E, Liu LM, Teobaldi G, Launois P. Structural resolution of inorganic nanotubes with complex stoichiometry. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2033. [PMID: 29789570 PMCID: PMC5964105 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04360-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of the atomic structure of inorganic single-walled nanotubes with complex stoichiometry remains elusive due to the too many atomic coordinates to be fitted with respect to X-ray diffractograms inherently exhibiting rather broad features. Here we introduce a methodology to reduce the number of fitted variables and enable resolution of the atomic structure for inorganic nanotubes with complex stoichiometry. We apply it to recently synthesized methylated aluminosilicate and aluminogermanate imogolite nanotubes of nominal composition (OH)3Al2O3Si(Ge)CH3. Fitting of X-ray scattering diagrams, supported by Density Functional Theory simulations, reveals an unexpected rolling mode for these systems. The transferability of the approach opens up for improved understanding of structure–property relationships of inorganic nanotubes to the benefit of fundamental and applicative research in these systems. Structural determination of inorganic nanotubes has lagged far behind that of their carbon-based counterparts. Here, the authors present a transferable methodology, combining wide angle X-ray scattering and computation, to quantitatively resolve the atomic structure of inorganic nanotubes with complex stoichiometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Monet
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Mohamed S Amara
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Stéphan Rouzière
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Ziwei Chai
- Beijing Computational Science Research Centre, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Joshua D Elliott
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK.,Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Galileo Galilei", Università degli Studi di Padova, I-35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Emiliano Poli
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK.,The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics, 34151, Trieste, Italy
| | - Li-Min Liu
- Beijing Computational Science Research Centre, 100193, Beijing, China.,School of Physics, Beihang University, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Gilberto Teobaldi
- Beijing Computational Science Research Centre, 100193, Beijing, China. .,Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK.
| | - Pascale Launois
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, France.
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Su CY, Yang AC, Jiang JS, Yang ZH, Huang YS, Kang DY, Hua CC. Properties of Single-Walled Aluminosilicate Nanotube/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Aqueous Dispersions. J Phys Chem B 2017; 122:380-391. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b10079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chien-You Su
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan
| | - An-Chih Yang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Shiun Jiang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan
| | - Zhi-Huei Yang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yan-Shu Huang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Dun-Yen Kang
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Chung Hua
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 62102, Taiwan
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8
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Poli E, Elliott JD, Ratcliff LE, Andrinopoulos L, Dziedzic J, Hine NDM, Mostofi AA, Skylaris CK, Haynes PD, Teobaldi G. The potential of imogolite nanotubes as (co-)photocatalysts: a linear-scaling density functional theory study. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2016; 28:074003. [PMID: 26808452 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/28/7/074003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We report a linear-scaling density functional theory (DFT) study of the structure, wall-polarization absolute band-alignment and optical absorption of several, recently synthesized, open-ended imogolite (Imo) nanotubes (NTs), namely single-walled (SW) aluminosilicate (AlSi), SW aluminogermanate (AlGe), SW methylated aluminosilicate (AlSi-Me), and double-walled (DW) AlGe NTs. Simulations with three different semi-local and dispersion-corrected DFT-functionals reveal that the NT wall-polarization can be increased by nearly a factor of four going from SW-AlSi-Me to DW-AlGe. Absolute vacuum alignment of the NT electronic bands and comparison with those of rutile and anatase TiO2 suggest that the NTs may exhibit marked propensity to both photo-reduction and hole-scavenging. Characterization of the NTs' band-separation and optical properties reveal the occurrence of (near-)UV inside-outside charge-transfer excitations, which may be effective for electron-hole separation and enhanced photocatalytic activity. Finally, the effects of the NTs' wall-polarization on the absolute alignment of electron and hole acceptor states of interacting water (H2O) molecules are quantified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Poli
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy and Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
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van den Brule S, Beckers E, Chaurand P, Liu W, Ibouraadaten S, Palmai-Pallag M, Uwambayinema F, Yakoub Y, Avellan A, Levard C, Haufroid V, Marbaix E, Thill A, Lison D, Rose J. Nanometer-long Ge-imogolite nanotubes cause sustained lung inflammation and fibrosis in rats. Part Fibre Toxicol 2014; 11:67. [PMID: 25497478 PMCID: PMC4276264 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-014-0067-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ge-imogolites are short aluminogermanate tubular nanomaterials with attractive prospected industrial applications. In view of their nano-scale dimensions and high aspect ratio, they should be examined for their potential to cause respiratory toxicity. Here, we evaluated the respiratory biopersistence and lung toxicity of 2 samples of nanometer-long Ge-imogolites. Methods Rats were intra-tracheally instilled with single wall (SW, 70 nm length) or double wall (DW, 62 nm length) Ge-imogolites (0.02-2 mg/rat), as well as with crocidolite and the hard metal particles WC-Co, as positive controls. The biopersistence of Ge-imogolites and their localization in the lung were assessed by ICP-MS, X-ray fluorescence, absorption spectroscopy and computed micro-tomography. Acute inflammation and genotoxicity (micronuclei in isolated type II pneumocytes) was assessed 3 d post-exposure; chronic inflammation and fibrosis after 2 m. Results Cytotoxic and inflammatory responses were shown in bronchoalveolar lavage 3 d after instillation with Ge-imogolites. Sixty days after exposure, a persistent dose-dependent inflammation was still observed. Total lung collagen, reflected by hydroxyproline lung content, was increased after SW and DW Ge-imogolites. Histology revealed lung fibre reorganization and accumulation in granulomas with epithelioid cells and foamy macrophages and thickening of the alveolar walls. Overall, the inflammatory and fibrotic responses induced by SW and DW Ge-imogolites were more severe (on a mass dose basis) than those induced by crocidolite. A persistent fraction of Ge-imogolites (15% of initial dose) was mostly detected as intact structures in rat lungs 2 m after instillation and was localized in fibrotic alveolar areas. In vivo induction of micronuclei was significantly increased 3 d after SW and DW Ge-imogolite instillation at non-inflammatory doses, indicating the contribution of primary genotoxicity. Conclusions We showed that nm-long Ge-imogolites persist in the lung and promote genotoxicity, sustained inflammation and fibrosis, indicating that short high aspect ratio nanomaterials should not be considered as innocuous materials. Our data also suggest that Ge-imogolite structure and external surface determine their toxic activity. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12989-014-0067-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sybille van den Brule
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Emilie Beckers
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Perrine Chaurand
- CEREGE, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, UM34, UMR 7330, Europole de l'arbois - BP 80, 13545, Aix en Provence, France. .,iCEINT, International Consortium for the Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology, CNRS, Duke University, 13545, Aix en Provence, France.
| | - Wei Liu
- CEREGE, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, UM34, UMR 7330, Europole de l'arbois - BP 80, 13545, Aix en Provence, France. .,iCEINT, International Consortium for the Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology, CNRS, Duke University, 13545, Aix en Provence, France.
| | - Saloua Ibouraadaten
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Mihaly Palmai-Pallag
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Francine Uwambayinema
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Yousof Yakoub
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Astrid Avellan
- CEREGE, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, UM34, UMR 7330, Europole de l'arbois - BP 80, 13545, Aix en Provence, France. .,iCEINT, International Consortium for the Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology, CNRS, Duke University, 13545, Aix en Provence, France.
| | - Clément Levard
- CEREGE, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, UM34, UMR 7330, Europole de l'arbois - BP 80, 13545, Aix en Provence, France. .,iCEINT, International Consortium for the Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology, CNRS, Duke University, 13545, Aix en Provence, France.
| | - Vincent Haufroid
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium. .,Department of Clinical Chemistry, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 10, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Etienne Marbaix
- De Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 75 - bte B1.75.02, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Antoine Thill
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire sur l'Organisation Nanométrique et Supramoléculaire, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France.
| | - Dominique Lison
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 52 - bte B1.52.12, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Jérôme Rose
- CEREGE, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, UM34, UMR 7330, Europole de l'arbois - BP 80, 13545, Aix en Provence, France. .,iCEINT, International Consortium for the Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology, CNRS, Duke University, 13545, Aix en Provence, France.
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Rotoli BM, Guidi P, Bonelli B, Bernardeschi M, Bianchi MG, Esposito S, Frenzilli G, Lucchesi P, Nigro M, Scarcelli V, Tomatis M, Zanello PP, Fubini B, Bussolati O, Bergamaschi E. Imogolite: An Aluminosilicate Nanotube Endowed with Low Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:1142-54. [DOI: 10.1021/tx500002d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrizia Guidi
- Department
of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Barbara Bonelli
- Department
of Applied Science and Technology and INSTM, Unit of Torino Politecnico, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
| | | | | | - Serena Esposito
- Department
of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy
| | - Giada Frenzilli
- Department
of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Paolo Lucchesi
- Department
of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Nigro
- Department
of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Vittoria Scarcelli
- Department
of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Maura Tomatis
- Department
of Chemistry and “G. Scansetti” Interdepartmental Center
for Studies on Asbestos and Other Toxic Particulates, University of Torino, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | | | - Bice Fubini
- Department
of Chemistry and “G. Scansetti” Interdepartmental Center
for Studies on Asbestos and Other Toxic Particulates, University of Torino, 10125 Turin, Italy
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Wahiduzzaman M, Oliveira AF, Philipsen P, Zhechkov L, van Lenthe E, Witek HA, Heine T. DFTB Parameters for the Periodic Table: Part 1, Electronic Structure. J Chem Theory Comput 2013; 9:4006-17. [DOI: 10.1021/ct4004959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Wahiduzzaman
- School of
Engineering and Science, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen,
Germany
- Scientific Computing & Modelling NV, Theoretical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Augusto F. Oliveira
- School of
Engineering and Science, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen,
Germany
- Scientific Computing & Modelling NV, Theoretical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pier Philipsen
- Scientific Computing & Modelling NV, Theoretical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lyuben Zhechkov
- School of
Engineering and Science, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen,
Germany
| | - Erik van Lenthe
- Scientific Computing & Modelling NV, Theoretical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henryk A. Witek
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
- Institute of Molecular Science, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Thomas Heine
- School of
Engineering and Science, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen,
Germany
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