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Mostert D, Grolleman J, van Turnhout MC, Groenen BGW, Conte V, Sahlgren CM, Kurniawan NA, Bouten CVC. SFAlab: image-based quantification of mechano-active ventral actin stress fibers in adherent cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1267822. [PMID: 37779894 PMCID: PMC10540851 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1267822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Ventral actin stress fibers (SFs) are a subset of actin SFs that begin and terminate at focal adhesion (FA) complexes. Ventral SFs can transmit forces from and to the extracellular matrix and serve as a prominent mechanosensing and mechanotransduction machinery for cells. Therefore, quantitative analysis of ventral SFs can lead to deeper understanding of the dynamic mechanical interplay between cells and their extracellular matrix (mechanoreciprocity). However, the dynamic nature and organization of ventral SFs challenge their quantification, and current quantification tools mainly focus on all SFs present in cells and cannot discriminate between subsets. Here we present an image analysis-based computational toolbox, called SFAlab, to quantify the number of ventral SFs and the number of ventral SFs per FA, and provide spatial information about the locations of the identified ventral SFs. SFAlab is built as an all-in-one toolbox that besides analyzing ventral SFs also enables the identification and quantification of (the shape descriptors of) nuclei, cells, and FAs. We validated SFAlab for the quantification of ventral SFs in human fetal cardiac fibroblasts and demonstrated that SFAlab analysis i) yields accurate ventral SF detection in the presence of image imperfections often found in typical fluorescence microscopy images, and ii) is robust against user subjectivity and potential experimental artifacts. To demonstrate the usefulness of SFAlab in mechanobiology research, we modulated actin polymerization and showed that inhibition of Rho kinase led to a significant decrease in ventral SF formation and the number of ventral SFs per FA, shedding light on the importance of the RhoA pathway specifically in ventral SF formation. We present SFAlab as a powerful open source, easy to use image-based analytical tool to increase our understanding of mechanoreciprocity in adherent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Mostert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Janine Grolleman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Mark C. van Turnhout
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Bart G. W. Groenen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Vito Conte
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Cecilia M. Sahlgren
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Nicholas A. Kurniawan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Carlijn V. C. Bouten
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Cell and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
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Scott S, Weiss M, Selhuber-Unkel C, Barooji YF, Sabri A, Erler JT, Metzler R, Oddershede LB. Extracting, quantifying, and comparing dynamical and biomechanical properties of living matter through single particle tracking. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:1513-1537. [PMID: 36546878 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp01384c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A panoply of new tools for tracking single particles and molecules has led to an explosion of experimental data, leading to novel insights into physical properties of living matter governing cellular development and function, health and disease. In this Perspective, we present tools to investigate the dynamics and mechanics of living systems from the molecular to cellular scale via single-particle techniques. In particular, we focus on methods to measure, interpret, and analyse complex data sets that are associated with forces, materials properties, transport, and emergent organisation phenomena within biological and soft-matter systems. Current approaches, challenges, and existing solutions in the associated fields are outlined in order to support the growing community of researchers at the interface of physics and the life sciences. Each section focuses not only on the general physical principles and the potential for understanding living matter, but also on details of practical data extraction and analysis, discussing limitations, interpretation, and comparison across different experimental realisations and theoretical frameworks. Particularly relevant results are introduced as examples. While this Perspective describes living matter from a physical perspective, highlighting experimental and theoretical physics techniques relevant for such systems, it is also meant to serve as a solid starting point for researchers in the life sciences interested in the implementation of biophysical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Scott
- Institute of Physiology, Kiel University, Hermann-Rodewald-Straße 5, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Matthias Weiss
- Experimental Physics I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, D-95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christine Selhuber-Unkel
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering, Heidelberg University, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Younes F Barooji
- Niels Bohr Institute, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Adal Sabri
- Experimental Physics I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, D-95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Janine T Erler
- BRIC, University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Ralf Metzler
- Institute of Physics and Astronomy, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht Str. 24/25, D-14476 Potsdam, Germany.,Asia Pacific Center for Theoretical Physics, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
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Differential Impacts on Tensional Homeostasis of Gastric Cancer Cells Due to Distinct Domain Variants of E-Cadherin. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14112690. [PMID: 35681670 PMCID: PMC9179447 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14112690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In epithelia, breakdown of tensional homeostasis is closely associated with E-cadherin dysfunction and disruption of tissue function and integrity. In this study, we investigated the effect of E-cadherin mutations affecting distinct protein domains on tensional homeostasis of gastric cancer cells. We used micropattern traction microscopy to measure temporal fluctuations of cellular traction forces in AGS cells transfected with the wild-type E-cadherin or with variants affecting the extracellular, the juxtamembrane, and the intracellular domains of the protein. We focused on the dynamic aspect of tensional homeostasis, namely the ability of cells to maintain a consistent level of tension, with low temporal variability around a set point. Cells were cultured on hydrogels micropatterned with different extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins to test whether the ECM adhesion impacts cell behavior. A combination of Fibronectin and Vitronectin was used as a substrate that promotes the adhesive ability of E-cadherin dysfunctional cells, whereas Collagen VI was used to test an unfavorable ECM condition. Our results showed that mutations affecting distinct E-cadherin domains influenced differently cell tensional homeostasis, and pinpointed the juxtamembrane and intracellular regions of E-cadherin as the key players in this process. Furthermore, Fibronectin and Vitronectin might modulate cancer cell behavior towards tensional homeostasis.
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Xu H, Donegan S, Dreher JM, Stark AJ, Canović EP, Stamenović D, Smith ML. Focal adhesion displacement magnitude is a unifying feature of tensional homeostasis. Acta Biomater 2020; 113:372-379. [PMID: 32634483 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.06.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Tensional homeostasis is widely recognized to exist at the length scales of organs and tissues, but the cellular length scale mechanism for tension regulation is not known. In this study, we explored whether tensional homeostasis emerges from the behavior of the individual focal adhesion (FA), which is the subcellular structure that transmits cell stress to the surrounding extracellular matrix. Past studies have suggested that cell contractility builds up until a certain displacement is achieved, and we thus hypothesized that tensional homeostasis may require a threshold level of substrate displacement. Micropattern traction microscopy was used to study a wide range of FA traction forces generated by bovine vascular smooth muscle cells and bovine aortic endothelial cells cultured on substrates of stiffness of 3.6, 6.7, 13.6, and 30 kPa. The most striking feature of FA dynamics observed here is that the substrate displacement resulting from FA traction forces is a unifying feature that determines FA tensional stability. Beyond approximately 1 μm of substrate displacement, FAs, regardless of cell type or substrate stiffness, exhibit a precipitous drop in temporal fluctuations of traction forces. These findings lead us to the conclusion that traction force dynamics collectively determine whether cells or cell ensembles develop tensional homeostasis, and this insight is necessary to fully understand how matrix stiffness impacts cellular behavior in healthy conditions and, more important, in pathological conditions such as cancer or vascular aging, where environmental stiffness is altered. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Tensional homeostasis is widely recognized to exist at the length scales of organs and tissues, but the cellular length scale mechanism for tension regulation is not known. In this study, we explored whether tensional homeostasis emerges from the behavior of the individual focal adhesion (FA), which is the subcellular structure that transmits cell stress to the extracellular matrix. We utilized micropattern traction microscopy to measure time-lapses of FA forces in vascular smooth muscle cells and in endothelial cells. We discovered that the magnitude of the substrate displacement determines whether the FA has low temporal variability of traction forces. This finding is significant since it is the first known feature of tensional homeostasis that is broadly unifying across a range of environmental conditions and cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Stephanie Donegan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Mall, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Jordan M Dreher
- Department of Chemistry, Norfolk State University, 700 Park Avenue, Norfolk, Virginia 23504, United States
| | - Alicia J Stark
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Elizabeth P Canović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Dimitrije Stamenović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States; Division of Material Science and Engineering, Boston University, 15St. Mary's St., Brookline, MA 02446, United States.
| | - Michael L Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States.
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Stamenović D, Smith ML. Tensional homeostasis at different length scales. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:6946-6963. [PMID: 32696799 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm00763c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tensional homeostasis is a phenomenon of fundamental importance in mechanobiology. It refers to the ability of organs, tissues, and cells to respond to external disturbances by maintaining a homeostatic (set point) level of mechanical stress (tension). It is well documented that breakdown in tensional homeostasis is the hallmark of progression of diseases, including cancer and atherosclerosis. In this review, we surveyed quantitative studies of tensional homeostasis with the goal of providing characterization of this phenomenon across a broad range of length scales, from the organ level to the subcellular level. We considered both static and dynamics approaches that have been used in studies of this phenomenon. Results that we found in the literature and that we obtained from our own investigations suggest that tensional homeostasis is an emergent phenomenon driven by collective rheostatic mechanisms associated with focal adhesions, and by a collective action of cells in multicellular forms, whose impact on tensional homeostasis is cell type-dependent and cell microenvironment-dependent. Additionally, the finding that cadherins, adhesion molecules that are important for formation of cell-cell junctions, promote tensional homeostasis even in single cells, demonstrates their relevance as a signaling moiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrije Stamenović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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6
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Obenaus AM, Mollica MY, Sniadecki NJ. (De)form and Function: Measuring Cellular Forces with Deformable Materials and Deformable Structures. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901454. [PMID: 31951099 PMCID: PMC7274881 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The ability for biological cells to produce mechanical forces is important for the development, function, and homeostasis of tissue. The measurement of cellular forces is not a straightforward task because individual cells are microscopic in size and the forces they produce are at the nanonewton scale. Consequently, studies in cell mechanics rely on advanced biomaterials or flexible structures that permit one to infer these forces by the deformation they impart on the material or structure. Herein, the scientific progression on the use of deformable materials and deformable structures to measure cellular forces are reviewed. The findings and insights made possible with these approaches in the field of cell mechanics are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava M Obenaus
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Molly Y Mollica
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Nathan J Sniadecki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
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Blair CA, Pruitt BL. Mechanobiology Assays with Applications in Cardiomyocyte Biology and Cardiotoxicity. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901656. [PMID: 32270928 PMCID: PMC7480481 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cardiomyocytes are the motor units that drive the contraction and relaxation of the heart. Traditionally, testing of drugs for cardiotoxic effects has relied on primary cardiomyocytes from animal models and focused on short-term, electrophysiological, and arrhythmogenic effects. However, primary cardiomyocytes present challenges arising from their limited viability in culture, and tissue from animal models suffers from a mismatch in their physiology to that of human heart muscle. Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) can address these challenges. They also offer the potential to study not only electrophysiological effects but also changes in cardiomyocyte contractile and mechanical function in response to cardiotoxic drugs. With growing recognition of the long-term cardiotoxic effects of some drugs on subcellular structure and function, there is increasing interest in using hiPSC-CMs for in vitro cardiotoxicity studies. This review provides a brief overview of techniques that can be used to quantify changes in the active force that cardiomyocytes generate and variations in their inherent stiffness in response to cardiotoxic drugs. It concludes by discussing the application of these tools in understanding how cardiotoxic drugs directly impact the mechanobiology of cardiomyocytes and how cardiomyocytes sense and respond to mechanical load at the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheavar A. Blair
- Department of mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Beth L. Pruitt
- Department of mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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Li J, Barbone PE, Smith ML, Stamenović D. Effect of correlation between traction forces on tensional homeostasis in clusters of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. J Biomech 2019; 100:109588. [PMID: 31902611 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2019.109588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The ability of cells to maintain a constant level of cytoskeletal tension in response to external and internal disturbances is referred to as tensional homeostasis. It is essential for the normal physiological function of cells and tissues, and for protection against disease progression, including atherosclerosis and cancer. In previous studies, we defined tensional homeostasis as the ability of cells to maintain a consistent level of cytoskeletal tension with low temporal fluctuations. In those studies, we measured temporal fluctuations of cell-substrate traction forces in clusters of endothelial cells and of fibroblasts. We observed those temporal fluctuations to decrease with increasing cluster size in endothelial cells, but not in fibroblasts. We quantified temporal fluctuation, and thus homeostasis, through the coefficient of variation (CV) of the traction field; the lower the value of CV, the closer the cell is to the state of tensional homeostasis. This metric depends on correlation between individual traction forces. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of correlation between traction forces on traction field CV in clusters of endothelial cells and fibroblasts using experimental data that we had obtained previously. Results of our analysis showed that positive correlation between traction forces was detrimental to homeostasis, and that it was cell type-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanyong Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Paul E Barbone
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Michael L Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Dimitrije Stamenović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, United States; Division of Material Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, MA 02446, United States.
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Lendenmann T, Schneider T, Dumas J, Tarini M, Giampietro C, Bajpai A, Chen W, Gerber J, Poulikakos D, Ferrari A, Panozzo D. Cellogram: On-the-Fly Traction Force Microscopy. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:6742-6750. [PMID: 31538794 PMCID: PMC11157582 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b01505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Traction force microscopy (TFM) derives maps of cell-generated forces, typically in the nanonewton range, transmitted to the extracellular environment upon actuation of complex biological processes. In traditional approaches, force rendering requires a terminal, time-consuming step of cell deadhesion to obtain a reference image. A conceptually opposite approach is provided by reference-free methods, opening to the on-the-fly generation of force maps from an ongoing experiment. This requires an image processing algorithm keeping the pace of the biological phenomena under investigation. Here, we introduce an integrated software pipeline rendering force maps from single reference-free TFM images seconds to minutes after their acquisition. The algorithm tackles image processing, reference image estimation, and finite element analysis as a single problem, yielding a robust and fully automatic solution. The method's capabilities are demonstrated in two applications. First, the mechanical annihilation of cancer cells is monitored as a function of rising environmental temperature, setting a population threshold at 45 °C. Second, the fast temporal correlation of forces produced across individual cells is used to map physically connected adhesion points, yielding typical lengths that vary as a function of the cell cycle phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Lendenmann
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies and #Institute for Mechanical Systems , ETH Zurich , Zurich 8092 , Switzerland
- Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences , New York University , New York 10003 , United States
| | - Teseo Schneider
- Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences , New York University , New York 10003 , United States
| | - Jérémie Dumas
- Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences , New York University , New York 10003 , United States
- nTopology , New York 10013 , United States
| | - Marco Tarini
- Department of Computer Science , Università degli Studi di Milano , Milano 20133 , Italy
| | - Costanza Giampietro
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , EMPA , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - Apratim Bajpai
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , New York University , New York 11201 , United States
| | - Weiqiang Chen
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , New York University , New York 11201 , United States
| | - Julia Gerber
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies and #Institute for Mechanical Systems , ETH Zurich , Zurich 8092 , Switzerland
| | - Dimos Poulikakos
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies and #Institute for Mechanical Systems , ETH Zurich , Zurich 8092 , Switzerland
| | - Aldo Ferrari
- Laboratory of Thermodynamics in Emerging Technologies and #Institute for Mechanical Systems , ETH Zurich , Zurich 8092 , Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , EMPA , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - Daniele Panozzo
- Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences , New York University , New York 10003 , United States
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Polio SR, Stasiak SE, Jamieson RR, Balestrini JL, Krishnan R, Parameswaran H. Extracellular matrix stiffness regulates human airway smooth muscle contraction by altering the cell-cell coupling. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9564. [PMID: 31267003 PMCID: PMC6606622 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45716-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
For an airway or a blood vessel to narrow, there must be a connected path that links the smooth muscle (SM) cells with each other, and transmits forces around the organ, causing it to constrict. Currently, we know very little about the mechanisms that regulate force transmission pathways in a multicellular SM ensemble. Here, we used extracellular matrix (ECM) micropatterning to study force transmission in a two-cell ensemble of SM cells. Using the two-SM cell ensemble, we demonstrate (a) that ECM stiffness acts as a switch that regulates whether SM force is transmitted through the ECM or through cell-cell connections. (b) Fluorescent imaging for adherens junctions and focal adhesions show the progressive loss of cell-cell borders and the appearance of focal adhesions with the increase in ECM stiffness (confirming our mechanical measurements). (c) At the same ECM stiffness, we show that the presence of a cell-cell border substantially decreases the overall contractility of the SM cell ensemble. Our results demonstrate that connectivity among SM cells is a critical factor to consider in the development of diseases such as asthma and hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel R Polio
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Suzanne E Stasiak
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Ryan R Jamieson
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jenna L Balestrini
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ramaswamy Krishnan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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Zollinger AJ, Xu H, Figueiredo J, Paredes J, Seruca R, Stamenović D, Smith ML. Dependence of Tensional Homeostasis on Cell Type and on Cell-Cell Interactions. Cell Mol Bioeng 2018; 11:175-184. [PMID: 31719884 PMCID: PMC6816663 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-018-0527-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The ability to maintain a homeostatic level of cell tension is essential for many physiological processes. Our group has recently reported that multicellularity is required for tensional homeostasis in endothelial cells. However, other studies have shown that isolated fibroblasts also maintain constant tension over short time scales without the need of cell-cell contacts. Therefore, in this study, our aim was to determine how different cell types regulate tension as isolated cells or in small clustered groupings and to investigate the role of cell-cell adhesion molecules, such as E-cadherin, in this system. METHODS Micropattern traction force microscopy was used to determine how bovine aortic endothelial cells, bovine vascular smooth muscle cells, mouse embryonic fibroblasts, and human gastric adenocarcinoma cells, with or without cell-cell interactions due to E-cadherin, maintain tensional homeostasis over time. Tension temporal fluctuations in single cells and cell clusters were evaluated. RESULTS We found that only endothelial cells require clustering for tensional homeostasis. The same was not verified in fibroblasts or vascular smooth muscle cells. Of relevance, in adenocarcinoma cells, we verified that tensional homeostasis was dependent on the competence of the adhesion molecule E-cadherin at both the single cells and multicellular levels. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that cell-cell contacts may be critical for tensional homeostasis and, potentially, for barrier function of the endothelium. Furthermore, the cell-cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin is an important regulator of tensional homeostasis, even in the absence of cadherin engagement with neighboring cells, which demonstrates its relevance not only as a structural molecule but also as a signaling moiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia J. Zollinger
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Han Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Joana Figueiredo
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Porto, Portugal
- The Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Joana Paredes
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Porto, Portugal
- The Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Porto, Portugal
- Medical Faculty of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Raquel Seruca
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Porto, Portugal
- The Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), Porto, Portugal
- Medical Faculty of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Dimitrije Stamenović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215 USA
- Division of Material Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, MA 02446 USA
| | - Michael L. Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215 USA
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12
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Moeller J, Denisin AK, Sim JY, Wilson RE, Ribeiro AJS, Pruitt BL. Controlling cell shape on hydrogels using lift-off protein patterning. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0189901. [PMID: 29298336 PMCID: PMC5752030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyacrylamide gels functionalized with extracellular matrix proteins are commonly used as cell culture platforms to evaluate the combined effects of extracellular matrix composition, cell geometry and substrate rigidity on cell physiology. For this purpose, protein transfer onto the surface of polyacrylamide hydrogels must result in geometrically well-resolved micropatterns with homogeneous protein distribution. Yet the outcomes of micropatterning methods have not been pairwise evaluated against these criteria. We report a high-fidelity photoresist lift-off patterning method to pattern ECM proteins on polyacrylamide hydrogels with elastic moduli ranging from 5 to 25 kPa. We directly compare the protein transfer efficiency and pattern geometrical accuracy of this protocol to the widely used microcontact printing method. Lift-off patterning achieves higher protein transfer efficiency, increases pattern accuracy, increases pattern yield, and reduces variability of these factors within arrays of patterns as it bypasses the drying and transfer steps of microcontact printing. We demonstrate that lift-off patterned hydrogels successfully control cell size and shape and enable long-term imaging of actin intracellular structure and lamellipodia dynamics when we culture epithelial cells on these substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Moeller
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Aleksandra K. Denisin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Joo Yong Sim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Robin E. Wilson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Alexandre J. S. Ribeiro
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Beth L. Pruitt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
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13
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Mulligan JA, Bordeleau F, Reinhart-King CA, Adie SG. Traction Force Microscopy for Noninvasive Imaging of Cell Forces. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1092:319-349. [PMID: 30368759 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-95294-9_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The forces exerted by cells on their surroundings play an integral role in both physiological processes and disease progression. Traction force microscopy is a noninvasive technique that enables the in vitro imaging and quantification of cell forces. Utilizing expertise from a variety of disciplines, recent developments in traction force microscopy are enhancing the study of cell forces in physiologically relevant model systems, and hold promise for further advancing knowledge in mechanobiology. In this chapter, we discuss the methods, capabilities, and limitations of modern approaches for traction force microscopy, and highlight ongoing efforts and challenges underlying future innovations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Mulligan
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - François Bordeleau
- Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, Qc, Canada
- Départment of Biologie Moléculaire, Biochimie Médicale et Pathologie, Université Laval, Québec, Qc, Canada
| | - Cynthia A Reinhart-King
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Steven G Adie
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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14
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Steucke KE, Win Z, Stemler TR, Walsh EE, Hall JL, Alford PW. Empirically Determined Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Mechano-Adaptation Law. J Biomech Eng 2017; 139:2619314. [PMID: 28418526 PMCID: PMC5467037 DOI: 10.1115/1.4036454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease can alter the mechanical environment of the vascular system, leading to mechano-adaptive growth and remodeling. Predictive models of arterial mechano-adaptation could improve patient treatments and outcomes in cardiovascular disease. Vessel-scale mechano-adaptation includes remodeling of both the cells and extracellular matrix. Here, we aimed to experimentally measure and characterize a phenomenological mechano-adaptation law for vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) within an artery. To do this, we developed a highly controlled and reproducible system for applying a chronic step-change in strain to individual VSMCs with in vivo like architecture and tracked the temporal cellular stress evolution. We found that a simple linear growth law was able to capture the dynamic stress evolution of VSMCs in response to this mechanical perturbation. These results provide an initial framework for development of clinically relevant models of vascular remodeling that include VSMC adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerianne E Steucke
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 312 Church Street SE NHH 7-105, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
| | - Zaw Win
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 312 Church Street SE NHH 7-105, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
| | - Taylor R Stemler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 312 Church Street SE NHH 7-105, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
| | - Emily E Walsh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 312 Church Street SE NHH 7-105, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
| | - Jennifer L Hall
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 2231 6th Street SE CCRB, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
| | - Patrick W Alford
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 312 Church Street SE NHH 7-105, Minneapolis, MN 55455 e-mail:
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15
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16
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Nerger BA, Siedlik MJ, Nelson CM. Microfabricated tissues for investigating traction forces involved in cell migration and tissue morphogenesis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:1819-1834. [PMID: 28008471 PMCID: PMC5391279 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2439-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell-generated forces drive an array of biological processes ranging from wound healing to tumor metastasis. Whereas experimental techniques such as traction force microscopy are capable of quantifying traction forces in multidimensional systems, the physical mechanisms by which these forces induce changes in tissue form remain to be elucidated. Understanding these mechanisms will ultimately require techniques that are capable of quantifying traction forces with high precision and accuracy in vivo or in systems that recapitulate in vivo conditions, such as microfabricated tissues and engineered substrata. To that end, here we review the fundamentals of traction forces, their quantification, and the use of microfabricated tissues designed to study these forces during cell migration and tissue morphogenesis. We emphasize the differences between traction forces in two- and three-dimensional systems, and highlight recently developed techniques for quantifying traction forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan A Nerger
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
| | - Michael J Siedlik
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
| | - Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA.
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA.
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17
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Canović EP, Zollinger AJ, Tam SN, Smith ML, Stamenović D. Tensional homeostasis in endothelial cells is a multicellular phenomenon. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2016; 311:C528-35. [PMID: 27488661 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00037.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells of various types exhibit the remarkable ability to adapt to externally applied mechanical stresses and strains. Because of this adaptation, cells can maintain their endogenous mechanical tension at a preferred (homeostatic) level, which is essential for normal physiological functions of cells and tissues and provides protection against various diseases, including atherosclerosis and cancer. Conventional wisdom is that the cell possesses the ability to maintain tensional homeostasis on its own. Recent findings showed, however, that isolated cells cannot maintain tensional homeostasis. Here we studied the effect of multicellular interactions on tensional homeostasis by measuring traction forces in isolated bovine aortic endothelial cells and in confluent and nonconfluent cell clusters of different sizes. We found that, in isolated cells, the traction field exhibited a highly dynamic and erratic behavior. However, in cell clusters, dynamic fluctuations of the traction field became attenuated with increasing cluster size, at a rate that was faster in nonconfluent than confluent clusters. The driving mechanism of attenuation of traction field fluctuations was statistical averaging of the noise, and the impeding mechanism was nonuniform stress distribution in the clusters, which resulted from intercellular force transmission, known as a "global tug-of-war." These results show that isolated cells could not maintain tensional homeostasis, which confirms previous findings, and that tensional homeostasis is a multicellular phenomenon, which is a novel finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth P Canović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; and
| | - Alicia J Zollinger
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; and
| | - Sze Nok Tam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; and
| | - Michael L Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; and
| | - Dimitrije Stamenović
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; and Division of Material Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, Massachusetts
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18
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Abstract
To understand mechanobiology, a quantitative understanding of how cells interact mechanically with their environment is needed. Cell mechanics is important to study as they play a role in cell behaviors ranging from cell signaling to epithelial to mesenchymal transition in physiological processes such as development and cancer. To study changes in cell contractile behavior, numerous quantitative measurement techniques have been developed based on the measurement of deformations of a substrate from an initial state. Herein, we present details on a technique we have developed for the measurements of 2D cellular traction forces with the goal of facilitating adaptation of this technique by other investigators. This technique is flexible in that it utilizes well-studied methods for microcontact printing and fabrication of polyacrylamide hydrogels to generate regular arrays of patterns that can be transferred onto the hydrogels. From the deformation of the arrays, an automated algorithm can be used to quantitatively determine the traction forces exerted by the cells onto the adhesion points. The simplicity and flexibility of this technique make it a useful contribution to our toolbox for measurement of cell traction forces.
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