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Yi D, Yao Y, Wang Y, Chen L. Manufacturing Processes of Implantable Microelectrode Array for In Vivo Neural Electrophysiological Recordings and Stimulation: A State-Of-the-Art Review. JOURNAL OF MICRO- AND NANO-MANUFACTURING 2022; 10:041001. [PMID: 37860671 PMCID: PMC10583290 DOI: 10.1115/1.4063179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Electrophysiological recording and stimulation of neuron activities are important for us to understand the function and dysfunction of the nervous system. To record/stimulate neuron activities as voltage fluctuation extracellularly, microelectrode array (MEA) implants are a promising tool to provide high temporal and spatial resolution for neuroscience studies and medical treatments. The design configuration and recording capabilities of the MEAs have evolved dramatically since their invention and manufacturing process development has been a key driving force for such advancement. Over the past decade, since the White House Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative launched in 2013, advanced manufacturing processes have enabled advanced MEAs with increased channel count and density, access to more brain areas, more reliable chronic performance, as well as minimal invasiveness and tissue reaction. In this state-of-the-art review paper, three major types of electrophysiological recording MEAs widely used nowadays, namely, microwire-based, silicon-based, and flexible MEAs are introduced and discussed. Conventional design and manufacturing processes and materials used for each type are elaborated, followed by a review of further development and recent advances in manufacturing technologies and the enabling new designs and capabilities. The review concludes with a discussion on potential future directions of manufacturing process development to enable the long-term goal of large-scale high-density brain-wide chronic recordings in freely moving animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongyang Yi
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, 1 University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854
| | - Yao Yao
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Missouri, 416 South 6th Street, Columbia, MO 65211
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Missouri, E3437C Thomas & Nell Lafferre Hall, 416 South 6th Street, Columbia, MO 65211
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, 1 University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854
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2
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Prüfer M, Wenger C, Bier FF, Laux EM, Hölzel R. Activity of AC electrokinetically immobilized horseradish peroxidase. Electrophoresis 2022; 43:1920-1933. [PMID: 35904497 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202200073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is an AC electrokinetic effect mainly used to manipulate cells. Smaller particles, like virions, antibodies, enzymes, and even dye molecules can be immobilized by DEP as well. In principle, it was shown that enzymes are active after immobilization by DEP, but no quantification of the retained activity was reported so far. In this study, the activity of the enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is quantified after immobilization by DEP. For this, HRP is immobilized on regular arrays of titanium nitride ring electrodes of 500 nm diameter and 20 nm widths. The activity of HRP on the electrode chip is measured with a limit of detection of 60 fg HRP by observing the enzymatic turnover of Amplex Red and H2 O2 to fluorescent resorufin by fluorescence microscopy. The initial activity of the permanently immobilized HRP equals up to 45% of the activity that can be expected for an ideal monolayer of HRP molecules on all electrodes of the array. Localization of the immobilizate on the electrodes is accomplished by staining with the fluorescent product of the enzyme reaction. The high residual activity of enzymes after AC field induced immobilization shows the method's suitability for biosensing and research applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike Prüfer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP GmbH - Leibniz Institute for Innovative Microelectronics, Frankfurt/Oder, Germany
| | - Frank F Bier
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Laux
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Ralph Hölzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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3
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Stanke S, Wenger C, Bier FF, Hölzel R. AC electrokinetic immobilization of influenza virus. Electrophoresis 2022; 43:1309-1321. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Stanke
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI‐BB) Potsdam‐Golm Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology University of Potsdam Potsdam‐Golm Germany
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP – Leibnizinstitut für innovative Mikroelektronik Frankfurt/Oder Germany
- Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus–Senftenberg Cottbus Germany
| | - Frank F. Bier
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology University of Potsdam Potsdam‐Golm Germany
| | - Ralph Hölzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI‐BB) Potsdam‐Golm Germany
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4
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Hyler AR, Hong D, Davalos RV, Swami NS, Schmelz EM. A novel ultralow conductivity electromanipulation buffer improves cell viability and enhances dielectrophoretic consistency. Electrophoresis 2021; 42:1366-1377. [PMID: 33687759 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202000324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cell separation has become a critical diagnostic, research, and treatment tool for personalized medicine. Despite significant advances in cell separation, most widely used applications require the use of multiple, expensive antibodies to known markers in order to identify subpopulations of cells for separation. Dielectrophoresis (DEP) provides a biophysical separation technique that can target cell subpopulations based on phenotype without labels and return native cells for downstream analysis. One challenge in employing any DEP device is the sample being separated must be transferred into an ultralow conductivity medium, which can be detrimental in retaining cells' native phenotypes for separation. Here, we measured properties of traditional DEP reagents and determined that after just 1-2 h of exposure and subsequent culture, cells' viability was significantly reduced below 50%. We developed and tested a novel buffer (Cyto Buffer) that achieved 6 weeks of stable shelf-life and demonstrated significantly improved viability and physiological properties. We then determined the impact of Cyto Buffer on cells' dielectric properties and morphology and found that cells retained properties more similar to that of their native media. Finally, we vetted Cyto Buffer's usability on a cell separation platform (Cyto R1) to determine combined efficacy for cell separations. Here, more than 80% of cells from different cell lines were recovered and were determined to be >70% viable following exposure to Cyto Buffer, flow stimulation, electromanipulation, and downstream collection and growth. The developed buffer demonstrated improved opportunities for electrical cell manipulation, enrichment, and recovery for next generation cell separations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daly Hong
- CytoRecovery, Inc., Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Rafael V Davalos
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Nathan S Swami
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Eva M Schmelz
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.,Human Nutrition, Foods and Exercise, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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5
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Characterization and Separation of Live and Dead Yeast Cells Using CMOS-Based DEP Microfluidics. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12030270. [PMID: 33800809 PMCID: PMC8001765 DOI: 10.3390/mi12030270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This study aims at developing a miniaturized CMOS integrated silicon-based microfluidic system, compatible with a standard CMOS process, to enable the characterization, and separation of live and dead yeast cells (as model bio-particle organisms) in a cell mixture using the DEP technique. DEP offers excellent benefits in terms of cost, operational power, and especially easy electrode integration with the CMOS architecture, and requiring label-free sample preparation. This can increase the likeliness of using DEP in practical settings. In this work the DEP force was generated using an interdigitated electrode arrays (IDEs) placed on the bottom of a CMOS-based silicon microfluidic channel. This system was primarily used for the immobilization of yeast cells using DEP. This study validated the system for cell separation applications based on the distinct responses of live and dead cells and their surrounding media. The findings confirmed the device’s capability for efficient, rapid and selective cell separation. The viability of this CMOS embedded microfluidic for dielectrophoretic cell manipulation applications and compatibility of the dielectrophoretic structure with CMOS production line and electronics, enabling its future commercially mass production.
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Liu Y, Hayes MA. Orders-of-Magnitude Larger Force Demonstrated for Dielectrophoresis of Proteins Enabling High-Resolution Separations Based on New Mechanisms. Anal Chem 2020; 93:1352-1359. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yameng Liu
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1604, United States
| | - Mark A. Hayes
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1604, United States
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7
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An Approach to Ring Resonator Biosensing Assisted by Dielectrophoresis: Design, Simulation and Fabrication. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11110954. [PMID: 33105846 PMCID: PMC7690605 DOI: 10.3390/mi11110954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The combination of extreme miniaturization with a high sensitivity and the potential to be integrated in an array form on a chip has made silicon-based photonic microring resonators a very attractive research topic. As biosensors are approaching the nanoscale, analyte mass transfer and bonding kinetics have been ascribed as crucial factors that limit their performance. One solution may be a system that applies dielectrophoretic forces, in addition to microfluidics, to overcome the diffusion limits of conventional biosensors. Dielectrophoresis, which involves the migration of polarized dielectric particles in a non-uniform alternating electric field, has previously been successfully applied to achieve a 1000-fold improved detection efficiency in nanopore sensing and may significantly increase the sensitivity in microring resonator biosensing. In the current work, we designed microring resonators with integrated electrodes next to the sensor surface that may be used to explore the effect of dielectrophoresis. The chip design, including two different electrode configurations, electric field gradient simulations, and the fabrication process flow of a dielectrohoresis-enhanced microring resonator-based sensor, is presented in this paper. Finite element method (FEM) simulations calculated for both electrode configurations revealed ∇E2 values above 1017 V2m−3 around the sensing areas. This is comparable to electric field gradients previously reported for successful interactions with larger molecules, such as proteins and antibodies.
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8
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Hayes MA. Dielectrophoresis of proteins: experimental data and evolving theory. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:3801-3811. [PMID: 32314000 PMCID: PMC7250158 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02623-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The ability to selectively move and trap proteins is core to their effective use as building blocks and for their characterization. Analytical and preparative strategies for proteins have been pursued and modeled for nearly a hundred years, with great advances and success. Core to all of these studies is the separation, isolation, purification, and concentration of pure homogeneous fractions of a specific protein in solution. Processes to accomplish this useful solution include biphasic equilibrium (chromatographies, extractions), mechanical, bulk property, chemical equilibria, and molecular recognition. Ultimately, the goal of all of these is to physically remove all non-like protein molecules-to the finest detail: all atoms in the full three-dimensional structure being identical down the chemical bond and bulk structure chirality. One strategy which has not been effectively pursued is exploiting the higher order subtle electrical properties of the protein-solvent system. The advent of microfluidic systems has enabled the use of very high electric fields and well-defined gradients such that extremely high resolution separations of protein mixtures are possible. These advances and recognition of these capabilities have caused a re-evaluation of the underlying theoretical models and they were found to be inadequate. New theoretical descriptions are being considered which align more closely to the total forces present and the subtlety of differences between similar proteins. These are focused on the interfacial area between the protein and hydrating solvent molecules, as opposed to the macroscale assumptions of homogeneous solutions and particles. This critical review examines all data which has been published that place proteins in electric field gradients which induce collection of those proteins, demonstrating a force greater than dispersive effects or countering forces. Evolving theoretical constructs are presented and discussed, and a general estimate of future capabilities using the higher order effects and the high fields and precise gradients of microfluidic systems is discussed. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Hayes
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Mail Stop 1604, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA.
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9
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Matbaechi Ettehad H, Soltani Zarrin P, Hölzel R, Wenger C. Dielectrophoretic Immobilization of Yeast Cells Using CMOS Integrated Microfluidics. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E501. [PMID: 32429098 PMCID: PMC7281093 DOI: 10.3390/mi11050501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a dielectrophoretic system for the immobilization and separation of live and dead cells. Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is a promising and efficient investigation technique for the development of novel lab-on-a-chip devices, which characterizes cells or particles based on their intrinsic and physical properties. Using this method, specific cells can be isolated from their medium carrier or the mixture of cell suspensions (e.g., separation of viable cells from non-viable cells). Main advantages of this method, which makes it favorable for disease (blood) analysis and diagnostic applications are, the preservation of the cell properties during measurements, label-free cell identification, and low set up cost. In this study, we validated the capability of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) integrated microfluidic devices for the manipulation and characterization of live and dead yeast cells using dielectrophoretic forces. This approach successfully trapped live yeast cells and purified them from dead cells. Numerical simulations based on a two-layer model for yeast cells flowing in the channel were used to predict the trajectories of the cells with respect to their dielectric properties, varying excitation voltage, and frequency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honeyeh Matbaechi Ettehad
- IHP–Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany; (P.S.Z.); (C.W.)
| | - Pouya Soltani Zarrin
- IHP–Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany; (P.S.Z.); (C.W.)
| | - Ralph Hölzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany;
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP–Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany; (P.S.Z.); (C.W.)
- BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
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Hilton SH, Crowther CV, McLaren A, Smithers JP, Hayes MA. Biophysical differentiation of susceptibility and chemical differences in Staphylococcus aureus. Analyst 2020; 145:2904-2914. [PMID: 32072998 DOI: 10.1039/c9an01449g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Differentiating bacteria strains using biophysical forces has been the focus of recent studies using dielectrophoresis (DEP). The refinement of these studies has created high-resolution separations such that very subtle properties of the cells are enough to induce significant differences in measurable biophysical properties. These high-resolution capabilities build upon the advantages of DEP which include small sample sizes and fast analysis times. Studies focusing on differentiating antimicrobial resistant and susceptible bacteria potentially have significant impact on human health and medical care. A prime example is Staphylococcus aureus, which commonly colonizes adults without ill effects. However, the pathogen is an important cause of infections, including surgical site infections. Treatment of S. aureus infections is generally possible with antimicrobials, but antimicrobial resistance has emerged. Of special importance is resistance to methicillin, an antimicrobial created in response to resistance to penicillin. Here, dielectrophoresis is used to study methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and -susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) strains, both with and without the addition of a fluorescent label. The capture onset potential of fluorescently-labeled MRSA (865 ± 71 V) and thus the ratio of electrokinetic to dielectrophoretic mobility, was found to be higher than that of fluorescently-labeled MSSA (685 ± 61 V). This may be attributable to the PBP2a enzyme present in the MRSA strain and not in the MSSA bacteria. Further, unlabeled MRSA was found to have a capture onset potential of 732 ± 44 V, while unlabeled MSSA was found to have a capture onset potential of 562 ± 59 V. This shows that the fluorescently-labeled bacteria require a higher applied potential, and thus ratio of mobilities, to capture than the unlabeled bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Huey Hilton
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA..
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11
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AC electrokinetic immobilization of organic dye molecules. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:3859-3870. [PMID: 32125465 PMCID: PMC7235070 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02480-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The application of inhomogeneous AC electric fields for molecular immobilization is a very fast and simple method that does not require any adaptions to the molecule’s functional groups or charges. Here, the method is applied to a completely new category of molecules: small organic fluorescence dyes, whose dimensions amount to only 1 nm or even less. The presented setup and the electric field parameters used allow immobilization of dye molecules on the whole electrode surface as opposed to pure dielectrophoretic applications, where molecules are attracted only to regions of high electric field gradients, i.e., to the electrode tips and edges. In addition to dielectrophoresis and AC electrokinetic flow, molecular scale interactions and electrophoresis at short time scales are discussed as further mechanisms leading to migration and immobilization of the molecules. Graphical Abstract ![]()
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Matbaechi Ettehad H, Yadav RK, Guha S, Wenger C. Towards CMOS Integrated Microfluidics Using Dielectrophoretic Immobilization. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2019; 9:bios9020077. [PMID: 31195725 PMCID: PMC6628019 DOI: 10.3390/bios9020077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is a nondestructive and noninvasive method which is favorable for point-of-care medical diagnostic tests. This technique exhibits prominent relevance in a wide range of medical applications wherein the miniaturized platform for manipulation (immobilization, separation or rotation), and detection of biological particles (cells or molecules) can be conducted. DEP can be performed using advanced planar technologies, such as complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) through interdigitated capacitive biosensors. The dielectrophoretically immobilization of micron and submicron size particles using interdigitated electrode (IDE) arrays is studied by finite element simulations. The CMOS compatible IDEs have been placed into the silicon microfluidic channel. A rigorous study of the DEP force actuation, the IDE’s geometrical structure, and the fluid dynamics are crucial for enabling the complete platform for CMOS integrated microfluidics and detection of micron and submicron-sized particle ranges. The design of the IDEs is performed by robust finite element analyses to avoid time-consuming and costly fabrication processes. To analyze the preliminary microfluidic test vehicle, simulations were first performed with non-biological particles. To produce DEP force, an AC field in the range of 1 to 5 V (peak-to-peak) is applied to the IDE. The impact of the effective external and internal properties, such as actuating DEP frequency and voltage, fluid flow velocity, and IDE’s geometrical parameters are investigated. The IDE based system will be used to immobilize and sense particles simultaneously while flowing through the microfluidic channel. The sensed particles will be detected using the capacitive sensing feature of the biosensor. The sensing and detecting of the particles are not in the scope of this paper and will be described in details elsewhere. However, to provide a complete overview of this system, the working principles of the sensor, the readout detection circuit, and the integration process of the silicon microfluidic channel are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honeyeh Matbaechi Ettehad
- IHP-Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany.
| | - Rahul Kumar Yadav
- IHP-Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany.
| | - Subhajit Guha
- IHP-Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany.
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP-Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany.
- Brandenburg Medical School Theodor Fontane, 16816 Neuruppin, Germany.
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Hilton SH, Hayes MA. A mathematical model of dielectrophoretic data to connect measurements with cell properties. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:2223-2237. [PMID: 30879117 PMCID: PMC6459731 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-01757-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) brings about the high-resolution separations of cells and other bioparticles arising from very subtle differences in their properties. However, an unanticipated limitation has arisen: difficulty in assignment of specific biological features which vary between two cell populations. This hampers the ability to interpret the significance of the variations. To realize the opportunities made possible by dielectrophoresis, the data and the diversity of structures found in cells and bioparticles must be linked. While the crossover frequency in DEP has been studied in-depth and exploited in applications using AC fields, less attention has been given when a DC field is present. Here, a new mathematical model of dielectrophoretic data is introduced which connects the physical properties of cells to specific elements of the data from potential- or time-varied DEP experiments. The slope of the data in either analysis is related to the electrokinetic mobility, while the potential at which capture initiates in potential-based analysis is related to both the electrokinetic and dielectrophoretic mobilities. These mobilities can be assigned to cellular properties for which values appear in the literature. Representative examples of high and low values of properties such as conductivity, zeta potential, and surface charge density for bacteria including Streptococcus mutans, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Pasteurella multocida, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus are considered. While the many properties of a cell collapse into one or two features of data, for a well-vetted system the model can indicate the extent of dissimilarity. The influence of individual properties on the features of dielectrophoretic data is summarized, allowing for further interpretation of data. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Huey Hilton
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Mail Stop 1604, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Mark A Hayes
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Mail Stop 1604, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA.
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14
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Electrode-based AC electrokinetics of proteins: A mini-review. Bioelectrochemistry 2018; 120:76-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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15
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Laux EM, Knigge X, Bier FF, Wenger C, Hölzel R. Aligned Immobilization of Proteins Using AC Electric Fields. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2016; 12:1514-1520. [PMID: 26779699 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201503052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Protein molecules are aligned and immobilized from solution by AC electric fields. In a single-step experiment, the enhanced green fluorescent proteins are immobilized on the surface as well as at the edges of planar nanoelectrodes. Alignment is found to follow the molecules' geometrical shape with their longitudinal axes parallel to the electric field. Simultaneous dielectrophoretic attraction and AC electroosmotic flow are identified as the dominant forces causing protein movement and alignment. Molecular orientation is determined by fluorescence microscopy based on polarized excitation of the proteins' chromophores. The chromophores' orientation with respect to the whole molecule supports X-ray crystal data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Laux
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Am Mühlenberg 13, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Xenia Knigge
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Am Mühlenberg 13, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Frank F Bier
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Am Mühlenberg 13, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP GmbH-Leibniz Institute for Innovative Microelectronics, Im Technologiepark 25, 15235, Frankfurt/Oder, Germany
| | - Ralph Hölzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB), Am Mühlenberg 13, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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Birkholz M, Mai A, Wenger C, Meliani C, Scholz R. Technology modules from micro- and nano-electronics for the life sciences. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 8:355-77. [PMID: 26391194 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The capabilities of modern semiconductor manufacturing offer remarkable possibilities to be applied in life science research as well as for its commercialization. In this review, the technology modules available in micro- and nano-electronics are exemplarily presented for the case of 250 and 130 nm technology nodes. Preparation procedures and the different transistor types as available in complementary metal-oxide-silicon devices (CMOS) and BipolarCMOS (BiCMOS) technologies are introduced as key elements of comprehensive chip architectures. Techniques for circuit design and the elements of completely integrated bioelectronics systems are outlined. The possibility for life scientists to make use of these technology modules for their research and development projects via so-called multi-project wafer services is emphasized. Various examples from diverse fields such as (1) immobilization of biomolecules and cells on semiconductor surfaces, (2) biosensors operating by different principles such as affinity viscosimetry, impedance spectroscopy, and dielectrophoresis, (3) complete systems for human body implants and monitors for bioreactors, and (4) the combination of microelectronics with microfluidics either by chip-in-polymer integration as well as Si-based microfluidics are demonstrated from joint developments with partners from biotechnology and medicine. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2016, 8:355-377. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1367 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Birkholz
- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - A Mai
- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - C Wenger
- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - C Meliani
- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - R Scholz
- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
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17
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Laux EM, Knigge X, Bier FF, Wenger C, Hölzel R. Dielectrophoretic immobilization of proteins: Quantification by atomic force microscopy. Electrophoresis 2015; 36:2094-101. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Laux
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology; Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB); Potsdam-Golm Germany
| | - Xenia Knigge
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology; Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB); Potsdam-Golm Germany
| | - Frank F. Bier
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology; Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB); Potsdam-Golm Germany
| | - Christian Wenger
- IHP GmbH-Leibniz Institute for Innovative Microelectronics; Frankfurt (Oder) Germany
| | - Ralph Hölzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology; Branch Bioanalytics and Bioprocesses (IZI-BB); Potsdam-Golm Germany
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18
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Abstract
There is a growing interest in protein dielectrophoresis (DEP) for biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. However, the DEP behavior of proteins is still not well understood which is important for successful protein manipulation. In this paper, we elucidate the information gained in dielectric spectroscopy (DS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and how these techniques may be of importance for future protein DEP manipulation. EIS and DS can be used to determine the dielectric properties of proteins predicting their DEP behavior. Basic principles of EIS and DS are discussed and related to protein DEP through examples from previous studies. Challenges of performing DS measurements as well as potential designs to incorporate EIS and DS measurements in DEP experiments are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alexandra Ros
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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19
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Nakano A, Luo J, Ros A. Temporal and spatial temperature measurement in insulator-based dielectrophoretic devices. Anal Chem 2014; 86:6516-24. [PMID: 24889741 PMCID: PMC4082381 DOI: 10.1021/ac501083h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Insulator-based dielectrophoresis is a relatively new analytical technique with a large potential for a number of applications, such as sorting, separation, purification, fractionation, and preconcentration. The application of insulator-based dielectrophoresis (iDEP) for biological samples, however, requires the precise control of the microenvironment with temporal and spatial resolution. Temperature variations during an iDEP experiment are a critical aspect in iDEP since Joule heating could lead to various detrimental effects hampering reproducibility. Additionally, Joule heating can potentially induce thermal flow and more importantly can degrade biomolecules and other biological species. Here, we investigate temperature variations in iDEP devices experimentally employing the thermosensitive dye Rhodamin B (RhB) and compare the measured results with numerical simulations. We performed the temperature measurement experiments at a relevant buffer conductivity range commonly used for iDEP applications under applied electric potentials. To this aim, we employed an in-channel measurement method and an alternative method employing a thin film located slightly below the iDEP channel. We found that the temperature does not deviate significantly from room temperature at 100 μS/cm up to 3000 V applied such as in protein iDEP experiments. At a conductivity of 300 μS/cm, such as previously used for mitochondria iDEP experiments at 3000 V, the temperature never exceeds 34 °C. This observation suggests that temperature effects for iDEP of proteins and mitochondria under these conditions are marginal. However, at larger conductivities (1 mS/cm) and only at 3000 V applied, temperature increases were significant, reaching a regime in which degradation is likely to occur. Moreover, the thin layer method resulted in lower temperature enhancement which was also confirmed with numerical simulations. We thus conclude that the thin film method is preferable providing closer agreement with numerical simulations and further since it does not depend on the iDEP channel material. Overall, our study provides a thorough comparison of two experimental techniques for direct temperature measurement, which can be adapted to a variety of iDEP applications in the future. The good agreement between simulation and experiment will also allow one to assess temperature variations for iDEP devices prior to experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asuka Nakano
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Jinghui Luo
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Alexandra Ros
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
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