Synthesis, Characterization, and BSA Binding Properties of Carboxylated Merocyanine-Based Fluorophores

This study describes the synthesis of new carboxylated merocyanine dyes by Knoevenagel condensation between 4-carboxybenzaldehyde and indolium/benzoindolium- and benzothiazolium-based coupling compounds. The condensations were performed in the presence of ammonium acetate, and the products were obtained in good yields after simple purification. These merocyanines exhibit UV-A-to-blue absorption and blue-to-green fluorescence emission, characterized by relatively large Stokes shift values (∼5000 cm-1). In addition, quantum chemical calculations were conducted to better explore the electronic and photophysical properties of the merocyanines under study. Thermal analysis via thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed distinct decomposition stages for the merocyanines, with stability up to 200 °C. Cyclic voltammetry revealed irreversible waves for donor oxidation and acceptor reduction. On the basis of the onset potentials, the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energies were estimated to be between -5.38 and -5.47 eV, and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energies were calculated to range from -3.20 to -3.24 eV. These values suggest a narrow electrochemical band gap of 2.07 to 2.13 eV. Finally, fluorescence quenching experiments using the intrinsic fluorescence of the Trp residues in BSA were successfully applied to these compounds, indicating strong interactions with this protein via a static mechanism. The docking simulations corroborated the interaction between the merocyanines and BSA.

Reversible photo control of proton chemistry

Spatial, temporal, and remote control of proton chemistry can be achieved by using photoacids, which are molecules that transform from weak to strong acids under light. Most of proton chemistry is driven by a high concentration of protons ([H⁺]), which is difficult to obtain using excited-state photoacids. Metastable-stable state photoacids (mPAHs) can reversibly generate a high [H⁺] under visible light with a moderate intensity. It has been widely applied in different fields, e.g. fueling dissipative assemblies, driving molecular machines, controlling organic reactions, powering nanoreactors, curing diseases, manipulating DNA and proteins, developing smart materials, capturing carbon dioxide in air etc. This article compares mPAH with excited-state photoacid as well as common acids e.g. HCl to explain its advantages. Recent studies on the thermal dynamics, kinetics, and photoreaction of mPAHs are reported. The advantages and disadvantages of the three types of mPAHs, i.e. merocyanine, indazole, and TCF mPAHs, are compared with regard to photo-induced [H⁺], switching rate, and other properties. The mechanisms of controlling or driving functional systems, which involve acid-base reactions, acid catalyzed reactions, ionic bonding, coordination bonding, hydrogen bonding, ion exchange, cation-π interaction, solubility, swellability, permeability, and pH change in biosystems, are described. Applications of mPAHs in the chemical, material, energy, biotechnology and biomedical fields published in the past 5 years are reviewed. Prospects in the development and application of mPAHs are discussed.

Experimental and Theoretical Characterization of Ultrafast Water-Soluble Photochromic Photoacids

UV-visible transient absorption spectroscopy and quantum mechanical simulations are combined to elucidate the photochemical mechanism of two metastable merocyanine/spiropyran photoacids, 2-[(E)-2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)ethenyl]-3,3-dimethyl-1-(3-sulfopropyl)-3H-indol-1-ium (phenylhydroxy-MCH) and 2-[(E)-2-(1H-indazol-7-yl)ethenyl]-3-(3-sulfopropyl)-1,3-benzothiazol-3-ium (indazole-MCH). Transient absorption spectra demonstrate that trans-acid isomerization to the cis form results in deprotonation on a picosecond time scale. Ring closure to form spiropyran follows promptly from the appropriate conformation or follows at longer time delays (≫3.5 ns) following a barrier crossing for single-bond isomerization to the appropriate conformation. Consistent with the results of Berton et al. [ Chem. Sci. 2020, 11, 8457-8468] , we find that cis-phenylhydroxy-MCH is a stronger acid than trans-phenylhydroxy-MCH. The decrease in pK_a upon isomerization is further investigated to benchmark quantum chemical methods for their accuracy. Calculations were performed with nine levels of theory including continuum solvent models and explicit water. The calculations are not sufficient to describe the ΔpK_a following isomerization of these photoacids, and more work is necessary to properly evaluate the physical basis for the acidity of the cis photoacids.

Thermodynamics and kinetics of protonated merocyanine photoacids in water

Metastable-state photoacids (mPAHs) are chemical species whose photo-activated state is long-lived enough to allow for proton diffusion. Liao's photoacid (1) represents the archetype of mPAHs, and is being widely used on account of its unique capability to change the acidity of aqueous solutions reversibly. The behavior of 1 in water, however, still remains poorly understood. Herein, we provide in-depth insights on the thermodynamics and kinetics of 1 in water through a series of comparative 1H NMR and UV-Vis studies and relative modelling. Under dark conditions, we quantified a three-component equilibrium system where the dissociation (K a) of the open protonated form (MCH) is followed by isomerization (K c) of the open deprotonated form (MC) to the closed spiropyran form (SP) - i.e., in the absence of light, the ground state acidity can be expressed as K GS a = K a(1 + K c). On the other hand, under powerful and continuous light irradiation we were able to assess, for the first time experimentally, the dissociation constant (K MS a) of the protonated metastable state (cis-MCH). In addition, we found that thermal ring-opening of SP is always rate-determining regardless of pH, whereas hydrolysis is reminiscent of what is found for Schiff bases. The proposed methodology is general, and it was applied to two other compounds bearing a shorter (ethyl, 2) and a longer (butyl, 3) alkyl-1-sulfonate bridge. We found that the pK a remains constant, whereas both pK c and pK MS a linearly increase with the length of the alkyl bridge. Importantly, all results are consistent with a four-component model cycle, which describes perfectly the full dynamics of proton release/uptake of 1-3 in water. The superior hydrolytic stability and water solubility of compound 3, together with its relatively high pK GS a (low K c), allowed us to achieve fully reversible jumps of 2.5 pH units over 18 consecutive cycles (6 hours).

Effects of Substituents on Metastable-State Photoacids: Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of their Photochemical Properties

Recently, metastable-state photoacids have been widely used to control proton transfer in numerous chemical and biological processes as well as applications with visible light. Generally, substituents have a great influence on the photochemical properties of molecules, which will further affect their applications. Yet, the effects of substituents on metastable-state photoacids have not been studied systematically. In this work, 16 metastable-state photoacid derivatives were designed and synthesized on the basis of substituents having a large range of σ-π electron-donor-acceptor capabilities. The effects of substituents on the color display [or maximum absorption band(s)], solubility, pK_a values, dark/photoacidity, photosensitivity, and relaxation kinetic(s) were investigated in detail. This study will be helpful for the targeted design and synthesis of promising photoacids and the application of their photocontrolled proton-release processes in functional materials/devices.

Localized pH Pulses in PBS Buffer Repeatedly Induced by Visible Light

The pH of biological systems is important for the activity of enzymes, and abnormal cellular pH is related to many diseases. Spatial and temporal modulation of pH with light will be useful for studying the pH effects on enzymatic functions and disease mechanisms and may lead to new drug delivery and therapeutic methods. However, the pH of biological systems is maintained by pH buffers, which implies that only temporary pH change (pH pulse) can be induced in an open system. A key fundamental problem is whether a photoinduced pH pulse can be strong and long enough to generate a significant effect. In this work, a photoinduced pH pulse in a micrometer hydrophilic film in PBS buffer has been demonstrated. The thin film was made of an metastable-state photoacid (mPAH) polymer. It is an open system that allows exchange of protons. A quick release of the protons from the mPAHs and the proton exchange between the film and PBS resulted in a pH pulse generated by moderate visible-light irradiation. The magnitude of the pulse is 1.4-1.9 units with maximum pH change occurring after ∼18 s of the irradiation. Since the mPAH is a reversible photoacid, the pH pulse could be repeatedly generated after the photoacid recovered in the dark. This work shows that photochemical modulation of pH is possible even in buffered solutions.

The evolution of spiropyran: fundamentals and progress of an extraordinarily versatile photochrome

Spiropyrans have played a pivotal role in the emergence of the field of chromism following their discovery in the early 20th century, with almost ubiquitous use in materials applications especially since their photochromism was discovered in 1952.

A Reversible Proton Generator with On/Off Thermoswitch

A reversible polymer photoacid with a thermal on/off switch at physiological temperature able to trigger a large pH modulation of its environment is prepared. Light is used to control the acidity of the solution. Additionally, the temperature could be used to modulate the photoacid efficiency, practically turning on and off the ability of the polymer to produce protons. The behavior of this thermoresponsive photoacid copolymer is the result of the combined action of the temperature-responsive N-isopropylacrylamide and of a reversible photoacid monomer based on a spiropyran derivative. The acidification of the aqueous medium is activated by irradiation at λ = 460 nm. The reverse reaction is achieved by removing the light stimuli or by exposing the solution to UV-light. Increasing the temperature above the lower critical solution temperature of the copolymer deactivates the photoacid and irradiation at λ = 460 nm does not lead to the generation of protons or to any detectable change in the pH value of the solution. Hence, the addition of N-isopropylacrylamide as a comonomer acts as a thermal on/off switch for the photoacid and the coupling of temperature-and light-responsiveness in the polyphotoacids yields a "thermophotoacid".

Design and Applications of Metastable-State Photoacids

Proton transfer is one of the most common processes in nature, and many chemical, material, and biological processes are sensitive to proton concentration, from acid-catalyzed reactions to the activities of many enzymes. Photoacids that reversibly undergo proton dissociation upon irradiation promise remote spatial and temporal control over proton-sensitive processes and could provide a way to convert photoenergy into other types of energy. The recently discovered metastable-state photoacids can produce a large proton concentration with high efficiency and good reversibility. A reversible pH change of over 2 units has been demonstrated using an aqueous solution of a metastable-state photoacid. Additionally, moderate-intensity visible light, for example, from LEDs and sunlight, can be used to activate this type of photoacid. This photocontrolled proton release occurs in aqueous and nonaqueous solutions and in polymeric materials. Therefore, this type of photoacid can be conveniently incorporated into different systems to control various proton transfer processes. Metastable-state photoacids are generally designed by linking an electron-accepting moiety and a weakly acidic nucleophilic moiety with a double bond. Photoinduced trans-cis isomerization of the double bond allows a nucleophilic cyclization reaction to occur between the two moieties. The tandem reaction generates a highly acidic metastable form, which releases a proton. In the dark, the metastable form relaxes to the original form and takes back the proton. Several electron-accepting and nucleophilic moieties have been used to construct different types of metastable-state photoacids for different applications. The advantages and disadvantages of these photoacids in terms of their photoacidity, dark acidity, reversibility, stability, etc. will be discussed in this Account. Metastable-state photoacids have been used to catalyze bond formation and bond-breaking reactions in which the reactions can be activated and stopped by turning on and off irradiation, respectively. They have been used to reversibly protonate molecules to affect the ionic and hydrogen bonding between molecules or between different moieties of a molecule. Protonation can also alter the electronic configuration of molecules to change their electronic and optical properties. Since a proton has a positive charge, photoacids have been used to control ion exchange processes. Applying metastable-state photoacids to control Fisher esterification, volume-changing hydrogels, the killing of bacteria, odorant release, the color of materials, the formation of nanoparticles, and polymer conductivity has been reported by our group. Metastable-state photoacids have also been utilized to control supramolecular assemblies, molecular switches, microbial fuel cells, cationic sensors, nanoparticle aggregation, and ring-opening polymerizations. The future prospects of this research area will be discussed at the end of this Account.

Photocontrolled proton transfer in solution and polymers using a novel photoacid with strong C–H acidity

A easily-prepared photoacid with low O–H dark acidity and high C–H photoacidity reversibly protonated different acidochromic dyes in polymer films.

Synthesis of g-C3N4/Bi2O3/TiO2 composite nanotubes: enhanced activity under visible light irradiation and improved photoelectrochemical activity

g-C₃N₄ and Bi₂O₃ were successfully incorporated into TiO₂ nanotubes. The photocurrent generated by g-C₃N₄/Bi₂O₃/TiO₂-NTs was about 15 times higher.g-C₃N₄/Bi₂O₃/TiO₂-NT has a higher PEC response for the degradation of organic pollutants.