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Okada T, Kawawaki T, Takemae K, Tomihari S, Kosaka T, Niihori Y, Negishi Y. Tiara-like Hexanuclear Nickel-Platinum Alloy Nanocluster. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:1539-1545. [PMID: 38299566 PMCID: PMC10860137 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c03594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Tiara-like metal nanoclusters (TNCs) have attracted a great deal of attention because of their high stability and easy synthesis under atmospheric conditions as well as their high activity in various catalytic reactions. Alloying is one of the methods that can be used to control the physicochemical properties of nanoclusters, but few studies have reported on alloy TNCs. In this study, we synthesized alloy TNCs [NixPt6-x(PET)12, where x = 1-5 and PET = 2-phenylethanethiolate] consisting of thiolate, nickel (Ni), and platinum (Pt). We further evaluated the stability, geometric structure, and electronic structure by high-performance liquid chromatography and density functional theory calculations. The results revealed that NixPt6-x(PET)12 has a distorted structure and is therefore less stable than single-metal TNCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoshige Okada
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
| | - Tokuhisa Kawawaki
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
- Research
Institute for Science and Technology, Tokyo
University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278−8510, Japan
| | - Kana Takemae
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
| | - Shiho Tomihari
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
| | - Taiga Kosaka
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Niihori
- Research
Institute for Science and Technology, Tokyo
University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278−8510, Japan
| | - Yuichi Negishi
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1−3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162−8601, Japan
- Research
Institute for Science and Technology, Tokyo
University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278−8510, Japan
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2
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Rojas-Poblete M, Rodríguez-Kessler PL, Guajardo-Maturana R, Olea Ulloa C, Muñoz-Castro A. Nature and Role of Formal Charge of the ion Inclusion in Hexanuclear Platinium(II) Host-Guest Species. Insights from Relativistic DFT Calculations. Inorganica Chim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2022.121298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3
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Wu N, Jiao L, Song S, Wei X, Cai X, Huang J, Sha M, Gu W, Song W, Zhu C. Tuning the Ratio of Pt(0)/Pt(II) in Well-Defined Pt Clusters Enables Enhanced Electrocatalytic Reduction/Oxidation of Hydrogen Peroxide for Sensitive Biosensing. Anal Chem 2021; 93:15982-15989. [PMID: 34797969 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Rational design and construction of advanced sensing platforms for sensitive detection of H2O2 released from living cells is one of the challenges in the field of physiology and pathology. Noble metal clusters are a kind of nanomaterials with well-defined chemical composition and special atomic structures, which have been widely explored in catalysis, biosensing, and therapy. Compared with noble metal nanoparticles, noble metal clusters exhibit great potential in electrochemical biosensing due to their high atom utilization efficiency and abundant reactive active sites. Herein, Pt nanoclusters anchored on hollow carbon spheres (PtNCS/HCS) were successfully prepared for sensitive detection of H2O2. By tuning the ratio of Pt(0)/Pt(II) at different annealing temperatures, the optimized PtNCS/HCS-550 showed higher H2O2 reduction and oxidation catalytic activities than other control samples. Density functional theory calculations revealed that H2O2*can be better activated and dissociated in the Pt0II model featured with the co-existence of Pt(0)/Pt(II) and the key intermediates OOH*/OH* have a stronger interaction with the Pt0II model. As a concept application, the electrochemical biosensing platform was successfully applied to sensitive detection of H2O2 released from the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nannan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Lei Jiao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Shaojia Song
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoqian Wei
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoli Cai
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Jiajia Huang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Meng Sha
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Wenling Gu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Weiyu Song
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, P.R. China
| | - Chengzhou Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Intelligent Biosensing Technology and Health, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
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4
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Zhuang Z, Du C, Li P, Zhang Z, Fang Z, Guo J, Chen W. Pt21(C4O4SH5)21 clusters: atomically precise synthesis and enhanced electrocatalytic activity for hydrogen generation. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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5
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Zhang C, Gao L, Yuan Q, Zhao L, Niu W, Cai P, Li J, Han X, He Z, Gao F, Wang Y, Jiang H, Chai Z, Gao X. Is GSH Chelated Pt Molecule Inactive in Anti-Cancer Treatment? A Case Study of Pt 6 GS 4. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2002044. [PMID: 32500659 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202002044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Platinum (Pt) drugs are widely used in anti-cancer treatment although many reports advocated that tumor cells could inactivate Pt drugs via glutathione-Pt (GSH-Pt) adducts formation. To date, GSH chelated Pt molecules have not been assessed in cancer treatment because GSH-Pt adducts are not capable of killing cancer cells, which is widely accepted and well followed. In this report, endogenous biothiol is utilized to precisely synthesize a GSH chelated Pt molecule (Pt6 GS4 ). This Pt6 GS4 molecule can be well taken up by aggressive triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. Subsequently, its metabolites could enter nuclei to interact with DNA, finally the DNA-Pt complex triggers TNBC cell apoptosis via the p53 pathway. Impressively, high efficacy for anti-cancer treatment is achieved by Pt6 GS4 both in vitro and in vivo when compared with traditional first-line carboplatin in the same dosage. Compared with carboplatin, Pt6 GS4 keeps tumor bearing mice alive for a longer time and is non-toxic for the liver and kidneys. This work opens a route to explore polynuclear Pt compound with accurate architecture for enhancing therapeutic effects and reducing systemic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
| | - Liang Gao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
| | - Qing Yuan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
| | - Lina Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Wenchao Niu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
| | - Pengju Cai
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jiaojiao Li
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
| | - Xu Han
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Zhesheng He
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Fuping Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yaling Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Huaidong Jiang
- School of Physical Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, 201210, P. R. China
| | - Zhifang Chai
- CAS Key Laboratory for the Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Xueyun Gao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, P. R. China
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6
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Wan XK, Wu HB, Guan BY, Luan D, Lou XWD. Confining Sub-Nanometer Pt Clusters in Hollow Mesoporous Carbon Spheres for Boosting Hydrogen Evolution Activity. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1901349. [PMID: 31879997 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201901349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical water splitting is considered as a promising approach to produce clean and sustainable hydrogen fuel. As a new class of nanomaterials with high ratio of surface atoms and tunable composition and electronic structure, metal clusters are promising candidates as catalysts. Here, a new strategy is demonstrated to synthesize active and stable Pt-based electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution by confining Pt clusters in hollow mesoporous carbon spheres (Pt5 /HMCS). Such a structure would effectively stabilize the Pt clusters during the ligand removal process, leading to remarkable electrocatalytic performance for hydrogen production in both acidic and alkaline solutions. Particularly, the optimal Pt5 /HMCS electrocatalyst exhibits 12 times the mass activity of Pt in commercial Pt/C catalyst with similar Pt loading. This study exemplifies a simple yet effective approach to improve the cost effectiveness of precious-metal-based catalysts with stabilized metal clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Kai Wan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Hao Bin Wu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Bu Yuan Guan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Deyan Luan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Xiong Wen David Lou
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
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7
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George A, Maman MP, Bhattacharyya K, Das Chakraborty S, S A, Das BC, Senapati D, Datta A, Mandal S. Aggregation induced non-emissive-to-emissive switching of molecular platinum clusters. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:5914-5919. [PMID: 30892370 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr00979e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We show here for the first time the Aggregation Induced Emission (AIE) mechanism and solvatochromic impact on Pt-SG (SG-deprotonated glutathione) nanoclusters. In this work, the AIE properties of Pt-SG clusters were investigated through computational and spectroscopic investigations. Computational data established that aggregation triggers a distinct change in the frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs) from metal d-orbital centered FMOs in the monomer to metal-thiolate and thiolate centered FMOs in the dimer improving the radiative decay process. Solvent dependent photoluminescence studies proved that a Lewis-acidic environment can significantly perturb the metal-thiolate and thiolate centered FMOs that are involved in the electronic transitions as predicted by our computational work. These semiconducting clusters exhibit a large Stokes shift and zero spectral overlap between absorption and emission which makes this Pt-SG cluster an excellent material for solar concentrators and solid-state light emitters. This AIE-OFF-ON emission was utilized to delineate a proof-of-concept sensor device that is sensitive to temperature and an acid/base.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu George
- School of Chemistry, Indian Institute Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram-695551, India.
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8
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Feng Y, Peng C, Li Y, Hu J, Deng Q, Wu Q, Xu Z. Superhydrophobic nanocomposite coatings with photoinitiated three-dimensional networks based on reactive graphene nanosheet-induced self-wrinkling patterned surfaces. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 536:149-159. [PMID: 30366180 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2018.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Bionic superhydrophobicity including high contact angle, low sliding angle and nonstick property, combined with both strong pH and ultraviolet (UV) resistance, is difficult to simultaneously achieve for large-scale preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces by blending polymer with a nonreactive inorganic nanofiller. EXPERIMENTS A series of high pH and UV-irradiation-resistant superhydrophobic nanocomposite films were prepared through UV-light-assisted chemical cross-linking among ternary components under nitrogen protection. Ethoxylated bisphenol A diacrylate, 2-(perfluorooctyl) ethyl acrylate, reactive thiol-coupled graphene nanosheets and photoinitiator were evenly mixed, followed by UV-irradiation curing. FINDINGS Abundant 3D networks could be formed. A robust self-wrinkling surface morphology was formed due to a UV-curing-induced inner tension in the composites, 2D morphology-induced flexibility for graphene nanosheets and fluorine-bearing component-induced phase separation at the wetted surfaces. High roughness and use of the fluorine element endows the surfaces with superhydrophobicity and oleophobicity. A favorable nonstick performance was obtained. Superhydrophobicity could be maintained despite changing the film-forming substrate, pH of soaking solutions from 1 to 12, or use of a prolonged UV-irradiation time reaching 120 h. Therefore, both superhydrophobicity/oleophobicity and strong pH/UV resistance are finely balanced. This work might open up the way for large-scale fabrication of promising superhydrophobic surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yefeng Feng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing 408100, PR China
| | - Cheng Peng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing 408100, PR China.
| | - Yandong Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing 408100, PR China
| | - Jianbing Hu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing 408100, PR China
| | - Qihuang Deng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing 408100, PR China.
| | - Qin Wu
- Department of Fashion Communication and Media, Jiangxi Institute of Fashion Technology, Nanchang 330201, PR China
| | - Zhichao Xu
- Ministry of Education's Key Laboratory of Poyang Lake Wetland and Watershed Research, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, PR China
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9
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Chauhan V, Khanna SN. Strong Effect of Organic Ligands on the Electronic Structure of Metal-Chalcogenide Clusters. J Phys Chem A 2018; 122:6014-6020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.8b03355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Chauhan
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2000, United States
| | - Shiv N. Khanna
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2000, United States
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10
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Imaoka T, Akanuma Y, Haruta N, Tsuchiya S, Ishihara K, Okayasu T, Chun WJ, Takahashi M, Yamamoto K. Platinum clusters with precise numbers of atoms for preparative-scale catalysis. Nat Commun 2017; 8:688. [PMID: 28947792 PMCID: PMC5613004 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00800-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Subnanometer noble metal clusters have enormous potential, mainly for catalytic applications. Because a difference of only one atom may cause significant changes in their reactivity, a preparation method with atomic-level precision is essential. Although such a precision with enough scalability has been achieved by gas-phase synthesis, large-scale preparation is still at the frontier, hampering practical applications. We now show the atom-precise and fully scalable synthesis of platinum clusters on a milligram scale from tiara-like platinum complexes with various ring numbers (n = 5-13). Low-temperature calcination of the complexes on a carbon support under hydrogen stream affords monodispersed platinum clusters, whose atomicity is equivalent to that of the precursor complex. One of the clusters (Pt10) exhibits high catalytic activity in the hydrogenation of styrene compared to that of the other clusters. This method opens an avenue for the application of these clusters to preparative-scale catalysis.The catalytic activity of a noble metal nanocluster is tied to its atomicity. Here, the authors report an atom-precise, fully scalable synthesis of platinum clusters from molecular ring precursors, and show that a variation of only one atom can dramatically change a cluster's reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takane Imaoka
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan.
- ERATO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan.
- PRESTO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan.
| | - Yuki Akanuma
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Naoki Haruta
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
- ERATO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan
| | - Shogo Tsuchiya
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Kentaro Ishihara
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Takeshi Okayasu
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Wang-Jae Chun
- ERATO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, International Christian University, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Masaki Takahashi
- ERATO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Yamanashi University, Kofu, 400-8501, Japan
| | - Kimihisa Yamamoto
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan.
- ERATO-JST, Saitama, Kawaguchi, 332-0012, Japan.
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11
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Chauhan V, Reber AC, Khanna SN. Metal Chalcogenide Clusters with Closed Electronic Shells and the Electronic Properties of Alkalis and Halogens. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:1871-1877. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b09416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Chauhan
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States
| | - Arthur C. Reber
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States
| | - Shiv N. Khanna
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States
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