An application of carbohydrate polymers-based surface-modified gold nanoparticles for improved target delivery to liver cancer therapy - A systemic review

Gold nanoparticles have been broadly investigated as cancer diagnostic and therapeutic agents. Gold nanoparticles are a favorable drug delivery vehicle with their unique subcellular size and good biocompatibility. Chitosan, agarose, fucoidan, porphyran, carrageenan, ulvan and alginate are all examples of biologically active macromolecules. Since they are biocompatible, biodegradable, and irritant-free, they find extensive application in biomedical and macromolecules. The versatility of these compounds is enhanced because they are amenable to modification by functional groups like sulfation, acetylation, and carboxylation. In an eco-friendly preparation process, the biocompatibility and targeting of GNPs can be improved by functionalizing them with polysaccharides. This article provides an update on using carbohydrate-based GNPs in liver cancer treatment, imaging, and drug administration. Selective surface modification of several carbohydrate types and further biological uses of GNPs are focused on.

Computational Insights into the Adsorption of Ligands on Gold Nanosurfaces

We study the adsorption process of model peptides, nucleobases, and selected standard ligands on gold through the development of a computational protocol based on fully atomistic classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combined with umbrella sampling techniques. The specific features of the interface components, namely, the molecule, the metallic substrate, and the solvent, are taken into account through different combinations of force fields (FFs), which are found to strongly affect the results, especially changing absolute and relative adsorption free energies and trends. Overall, noncovalent interactions drive the process along the adsorption pathways. Our findings also show that a suitable choice of the FF combinations can shed light on the affinity, position, orientation, and dynamic fluctuations of the target molecule with respect to the surface. The proposed protocol may help the understanding of the adsorption process at the microscopic level and may drive the in-silico design of biosensors for detection purposes.

Immobilized doxorubicin and ribociclib carbamate linkers encaged in surface modified cubosomes spatially target tumor reductive environment to enhance antitumor efficacy

In the present investigation, we have strategically synthesized Glutathione (GSH) stimuli-sensitive analogues using carbamate linkers (CL) of DOX (DOX-CL) and RB (RB-CL) which were then anchored to gold nanoparticles (Au-DOX-CL, Au-RB-CL) using mPEG as a spacer. It was observed that carbamate linkage (CL) with four carbon spacer is critical, to position the terminal thiol group, to access the carbamate group efficiently to achieve GSH-assisted release of DOX and RB in tumor-specific environment. When assessed for GSH reductase activity in MDA-MB 231 cell lines, Au-DOX-CL and Au-RB-CL showed nearly 4.18 and 3.13 fold higher GSH reductive activity as compared to the control group respectively. To achieve spatial tumor targeting with a high payload of DOX and RB, Au-DOX-CL and Au-RB-CL were encapsulated in the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) modified liquid crystalline cubosomes i.e. CPP-Cu(Au@CL-DR). After internalization, the prototype nanocarriers release respective drugs at a precise GSH concentration inside the tumor tissues, amplifying drug concentration to a tune of five-fold. The drug concentrations remain within the therapeutic window for 72 h with a significant reduction of RB (7.8-fold) and DOX (6-fold) concentrations in vital organs, rendering reduced toxicity and improved survival. Overall, this constitutes a promising chemotherapeutic strategy against cancer and its potential application in the offing.

The first facile optical density-dependent approach for the analysis of doxorubicin, an oncogenic agent accompanied with the co-prescribed drug; paclitaxel

Doxorubicin (DRB) is an anthracycline oncogenic drug extracted from cultures of Streptomyces peucetius var. caesius. It is frequently recommended as an anti-neoplastic agent for the treatment of diverse malignancies. It exerts its antineoplastic effect either via inhibiting the enzyme topoisomerase II and/or via intercalation to DNA or reactive oxygen species generation. In the present article, the direct, simple, one-pot, somewhat eco-safe, and non-extractive spectrophotometric system was executed to track doxorubicin, a chemotherapeutic remedy, in the presence of paclitaxel, a naturally occurring Taxan antineoplastic radical, through the greenness rated method. DRB's optical density was studied in various mediums and solvents to develop the current approach. An acidic ethanolic solution was found to increase the optical density of the sample significantly. At 480 nm., the most remarkable optical density was obtained. Various experimental factors, including intrinsic media, solvent, pH, and stability time, were investigated and controlled. The current approach achieved linearity within the 0.6-40.0 µg mL-1 range, accompanied by a limit of both detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ) of 0.18 and 0.55 µg mL-1, correspondingly. The approach was validated under the ICH guidelines (Quality Guidelines). The system's greenness and enhancement degree were estimated.

Investigation of the Characteristics and Antibacterial Activity of Polymer-Modified Copper Oxide Nanoparticles

The proliferation of drug-resistant pathogens continues to increase, giving rise to serious public health concerns. Many researchers have formulated metal oxide nanoparticles for use as novel antibacterial agents. In the present study, copper oxide (CuO) was synthesized by simple hydrothermal synthesis, and doping was performed to introduce different polymers onto the NP surface for bacteriostasis optimization. The polymer-modified CuO NPs were analyzed further with XRD, FTIR, TEM, DLS and zeta potential to study their morphology, size, and the charge of the substrate. The results indicate that polymer-modified CuO NPs had a significantly higher bacteriostatic rate than unmodified CuO NPs. In particular, polydopamine (PDA)-modified CuO (CuO-PDA) NPs, which carry a weakly negative surface charge, exhibited excellent antibacterial effects, with a bacteriostatic rate of up to 85.8 ± 0.2% within 3 h. When compared to other polymer-modified CuO NPs, CuO-PDA NPs exhibited superior bacteriostatic activity due to their smaller size, surface charge, and favorable van der Waals interactions. This may be attributed to the fact that the CuO-PDA NPs had relatively lipophilic structures at pH 7.4, which increased their affinity for the lipopolysaccharide-containing outer membrane of the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli.

Polymer coated gold nanoshells for combinational photochemotherapy of pancreatic cancer with gemcitabine

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal malignancies with limited therapeutic options and dismal prognosis. Gemcitabine is the front-line drug against pancreatic cancer however with limited improvement of therapeutic outcomes. In this study we envisaged the integration of GEM with gold nanoshells which constitute an interesting class of nanomaterials with excellent photothermal conversion properties. Nanoshells were coated with thiol-capped poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate polymers of different molecular weight via Au-S attachment. It was found that the molecular weight of the polymers affects the in vitro performance of the formulations; more importantly we demonstrate that the EC50 of nanoshell loaded GEM can be suppressed but fully restored and even improved upon laser irradiation. Our proposed nanoformulations outperformed the cytotoxicity of the parent drug and showed confined synergism under the tested in vitro conditions.

Active targeting of gold nanoparticles as cancer therapeutics

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are of increasing interest for their unique properties and their biocompatability, minimal toxicity, multivalency and size tunability make them exciting drug carriers. The functionalisaton of AuNPs with targeting moieties allows for their selective delivery to cancers, with antibodies, proteins, peptides, aptamers, carbohydrates and small molecules all exploited. Here, we review the recent advances in targeted-AuNPs for the treatment of cancer, with a particular focus on these classes of targeting ligands. We highlight the benefits and potential drawbacks of each ligand class and propose directions in which the field could grow.

Review on marine carbohydrate-based gold nanoparticles represented by alginate and chitosan for biomedical application

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been attracted considerable attention in cancer therapy, drug delivery and other applications due to their unique physical, chemical, and optical properties. Marine carbohydrates are important biological macromolecules that widely exist in marine algae and animals, such as alginate, carrageenan, porphyran, fucoidan, ulvan, agarose, and chitosan. Their excellent properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability and no irritation, make them widely used in biomedicine and nanomaterials fields. More importantly, they can be easily modified by functional groups, such as sulfation, acetylation, and carboxylation, to further extend their applications. The marine carbohydrates functionalized AuNPs can increase their biocompatibility and targeting in a green preparation method. Here, we review recent advances on marine carbohydrate-based AuNPs for cancer therapy, imaging, drug delivery and other biomedical fields. The topics of selective surface modification in different carbohydrates and further biomedical applications of AuNPs are also discussed.

Milk-exosome based pH/light sensitive drug system to enhance anticancer activity against oral squamous cell carcinoma

A multimodal drug delivery system targeting the tumor microenvironment is an inspiring method for treating cancer tissues, including oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC). Such approaches require an efficient and safe drug carrier. Bovine milk derived exosomes are ideal because the source is adequate and have advantages of both synthetic and cell-mediated nano carriers. In the present study, we developed a pH/light sensitive drug system based on milk-exosomes for OSCC therapy. It was called exosome–doxorubicin–anthracene endoperoxide derivative (Exo@Dox–EPT1, NPs). Milk-exosomes were conjugated to doxorubicin (Dox) by a pH-cleavable bond, which can rapture under an acidic microenvironment. Besides, endoperoxides and chlorin e6 (Ce6) were also loaded and the endoperoxides undergo thermal cycloreversion and release singlet oxygen to kill cancer cells. We have also investigated the body distribution, antitumor effects, and biocompatibility of the nanoparticles. The new milk-exosome-based drug delivery system showed controlled drug-release, biocompatibility and, proved to be effective in treating OSCC.

A multimodal drug delivery system targeting the tumor microenvironment is an inspiring method for treating cancer tissues, including oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC).

Design and Synthesis of Hybrid PEGylated Metal Monopicolinate Cyclam Ligands for Biomedical Applications

In this study, we report, for the first time, the synthesis of two original nanosystems, based on gold Au(III) and copper Cu(II): simple gold-copper nanoparticles (Cu⁰AuNPs) and enriched monopicolinate cyclam (L1)-Cu(II)-Au(III)-complex (L1@Cu²⁺AuNPs). The two nanomaterials differ substantially by the chelation or not of the Cu(II) ions during the NPs synthesis process. The two hybrid nanoparticles (Cu⁰AuNPs; L1@Cu²⁺AuNPs) were deeply studied from the chemical and physical point of view, using many different analytical techniques such as Raman and UV-vis spectroscopy, electron transmission microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. Both nanosystems show morphological and good chemical stability at pH 4 values and in physiological conditions during 98 h. Undifferentiated and neural differentiated murine embryonic stem cells were used as a model system for in vitro experiments to reveal the effects of NPs on these cells. The comparative study between Cu⁰AuNPs and L1@Cu²⁺AuNPs highlights that copper chelated in its +2 oxidation state in the NPs is more functional for biological application.

Recent Development of pH-Responsive Polymers for Cancer Nanomedicine

Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide with more than 10 million new cases every year. Tumor-targeted nanomedicines have shown substantial improvements of the therapeutic index of anticancer agents, addressing the deficiencies of conventional chemotherapy, and have had a tremendous growth over past several decades. Due to the pathophysiological characteristics that almost all tumor tissues have lower pH in comparison to normal healthy tissues, among various tumor-targeted nanomaterials, pH-responsive polymeric materials have been one of the most prevalent approaches for cancer diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we summarized the types of pH-responsive polymers, describing their chemical structures and pH-response mechanisms; we illustrated the structure-property relationships of pH-responsive polymers and introduced the approaches to regulating their pH-responsive behaviors; we also highlighted the most representative applications of pH-responsive polymers in cancer imaging and therapy. This review article aims to provide general guidelines for the rational design of more effective pH-responsive nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

A gold nanoflower-based traceable drug delivery system for intracellular SERS imaging-guided targeted chemo-phototherapy

Accurate and effective drug delivery in tumor cells significantly improves the curative effect with high drug delivery efficiency, low toxicity and side effects and has become an urgent demand for anticancer therapy. In this paper, a novel traceable and targeted drug delivery nanosystem (i.e. AuNF-nanocarriers) with high drug encapsulation and pH-controlled release was prepared based on gold nanoflowers (AuNFs) for efficient intracellular SERS imaging-guided chemo-phototherapy. SERS-active flower-like gold nanoparticles with large surface area were synthesized first and then modified with Raman and RGD molecules in sequence to prepare bright, traceable and targeted SERS tags of A549 human lung cancer cells. Furthermore, thiolated-PAA (PAA-SH) was synthesized and utilized for the first time to modify the SERS tags with a layer of negative charges for efficient pH-dependent loading and release of the anticancer drug doxorubicin. Based on the A549 human lung cancer cell model, the availability of the proposed AuNF-nanocarriers for efficient intracellular SERS imaging-guided chemo-phototherapy was studied and the results indicate that the AuNF-based drug delivery system exhibited attractive characteristics such as good stability, efficiency and pH-controlled drug loading and release, traceable and targeted delivery, as well as SERS imaging and chemo-phototherapy functions, and shows great potential for powerful SERS-imaging and as a theranostic candidate for precision nanomedicine that could achieve sensitive and accurate tumor detection and therapy.

Polyphosphonate ligands: From synthesis to design of hybrid PEGylated nanoparticles toward phototherapy studies

The use of phosphonate ligands to modify the nanoparticle (NPs) surface has attracted a strong interest in the last years for the design of highly functional hybrid materials. Here, we applied a methodology to synthesize bisphosphonates having functionalized PEG side chains with a specific length in order to design a novel class of hybrid nanomaterials composed by tetraphosphonate-complex-gold COOH-terminated PEG-coated NPs (Bis-PO-PEG-AuNPs). The synthetic approach consist in three steps: (1) Complexation between new phosphonate ligands (Bis PO) and tetrachloroauric acid (HAuCl₄) to form gold clusters; (2) adsorption of COOH-terminated PEG molecules (PEG) onto Bis PO-Au complex; (3) reduction of metal ions in that vicinity, growth of gold particles and colloidal stabilization. The obtained snow-shape-like hybrid nanoparticles, have been characterized by ultra-violet/visible, Raman spectroscopies, and electron microscopy imaging, involving their optical properties and photothermal activity in pancreatic adenocarcinoma cancer cells (PDAC).

Fluorescence guided photothermal/photodynamic ablation of tumours using pH-responsive chlorin e6-conjugated gold nanorods

Photothermal/photodynamic therapies (PTT/PDT) have been widely accepted as non-invasive therapeutic modalities to erase tumours. However, both therapies face the problem of precisely locating tumours and reducing their side effects. Herein, chlorin e6 conjugated gold nanorod, (Ce6-PEG-AuNR), a type of gold nanorod-photosensitizer conjugate, is designed as a kind of nano-therapeutic agent to simultaneously realize combined PTT/PDT. Compared to free Ce6, the fluorescence of Ce6 adhered to the conjugate is effectively quenched by the longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) of in the Ce6-PEG-AuNR. However, the specific fluorescence of Ce6 can be recovered in tumour tissue when Ce6 is separated from the conjugate owing to the cleavage of hydrazone bond between Ce6 and PEG caused by intracellular acidic conditions in tumour tissue. Based on this effect, we can precisely locate tumours and further kill cancer cells by combined PTT/PDT. In addition, the combined therapy (PTT/PDT) function is more efficient in cancer treatment than that of PTT or PDT alone. Therefore, Ce6-PEG-AuNR can serve as a promising dual-modal phototherapeutic agent as well as a tumour-sensitive fluorescent probe to diagnose and treat cancer.

Bioanalytical Measurements Enabled by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Probes

Since its discovery in 1974, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has gained momentum as an important tool in analytical chemistry. SERS is used widely for analysis of biological samples, ranging from in vitro cell culture models, to ex vivo tissue and blood samples, and direct in vivo application. New insights have been gained into biochemistry, with an emphasis on biomolecule detection, from small molecules such as glucose and amino acids to larger biomolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids. These measurements have increased our understanding of biological systems, and significantly, they have improved diagnostic capabilities. SERS probes display unique advantages in their detection sensitivity and multiplexing capability. We highlight key considerations that are required when performing bioanalytical SERS measurements, including sample preparation, probe selection, instrumental configuration, and data analysis. Some of the key bioanalytical measurements enabled by SERS probes with application to in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo biological environments are discussed.

Label-Free Molecular Imaging of Biological Cells and Tissues by Linear and Nonlinear Raman Spectroscopic Approaches

Raman spectroscopy is an emerging technique in bioanalysis and imaging of biomaterials owing to its unique capability of generating spectroscopic fingerprints. Imaging cells and tissues by Raman microspectroscopy represents a nondestructive and label-free approach. All components of cells or tissues contribute to the Raman signals, giving rise to complex spectral signatures. Resonance Raman scattering and surface-enhanced Raman scattering can be used to enhance the signals and reduce the spectral complexity. Raman-active labels can be introduced to increase specificity and multimodality. In addition, nonlinear coherent Raman scattering methods offer higher sensitivities, which enable the rapid imaging of larger sampling areas. Finally, fiber-based imaging techniques pave the way towards in vivo applications of Raman spectroscopy. This Review summarizes the basic principles behind medical Raman imaging and its progress since 2012.

Reverse Size Dependences of the Cellular Uptake of Triangular and Spherical Gold Nanoparticles

Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) show promise as both drug and imaging carriers with applications in both diagnosis and therapy. For the safe and effective use of such gold nanomaterials in the biomedical field, it is crucial to understand how the size and shape of the nanomaterials affect their biological features, such as in vitro cellular uptake speed and accumulation as well as cytotoxicity. Herein, we focus on triangular gold nanoparticles (TNPs) of four different sizes (side length 46, 55, 72, and 94 nm; thickness 30 nm) and compare the cellular internalization efficiency with those of spherical nanoparticles (SNPs) of various diameters (22, 39, and 66 nm). Both surfaces were coated with anionic thiol ligands. Inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometry (ICP-ES) data demonstrated that TNPs with longer sides showed higher levels of uptake into RAW264.7 and HeLa cells. On the other hand, in the case of SNPs, those with smaller diameters showed higher levels of uptake in both cells. Our results support the notion of a reverse size dependence of TNPs and SNPs in terms of cellular uptake. For HeLa cells, in particular, 20-fold more efficient internalization was observed for TNPs with longer sides (72 nm side length) compared to SNPs (66 nm) with a similar surface area. These results highlight the importance of the shape of nanomaterials on their interactions with cells and provide a useful guideline for the use of TNPs.

Tunable Design of Gold(III)-Doxorubicin Complex-PEGylated Nanocarrier. The Golden Doxorubicin for Oncological Applications

To date, the translation of Au (III) complexes into chemotherapeutic agents has been hindered by their low stability under physiological conditions, a crucial parameter in drug development. In this study, we report an innovative four-step synthesis of a stable Au (III)-doxorubicin (DOX) complex, acting as a key constitutive component of doxorubicin-loaded PEG-coated nanoparticles (DOX IN-PEG-AuNPs). For therapeutic purposes, such AuNPs were then functionalized with the anti-Kv11.1 polyclonal antibody (pAb), which specifically recognizes the hERG1 channel that is overexpressed on the membrane of human pancreatic cancer cells. The nature of the interactions between DOX and Au (III) ions was probed by various analytical techniques (Raman spectroscopy, UV-vis, and (1)H NMR), which enabled studying the Au (III)-DOX interactions during AuNPs formation. The theoretical characterization of the vibrational bands and the electronic transitions of the Au (III)-DOX complex calculated through computational studies showed significant qualitative agreement with the experimental observations on AuNPs samples. Stability in physiological conditions and efficient drug loading (up to to 85 w/w %) were achieved, while drug release was strongly dependent on the structure of DOX IN-PEG-AuNPs and on the pH. Furthermore, the interactions among DOX, PEG, and Au (III) ions in DOX IN-PEG-AuNPs differed significantly from those found in polymer-modified AuNPs loaded with DOX by covalent linkage, referred to as DOX ON-PEG-AuNPs. In vitro experiments indeed demonstrated that such differences strongly influenced the therapeutic potential of AuNPs in pancreatic cancer treatment, with a significant increase of the DOX therapeutic index when complexed to Au (III) ions. Collectively, our study demonstrated that Au (III)-DOX complexes as building blocks of PEGylated AuNPs constitutes a promising approach to transform promising Au (III) complexes into real chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Functionalized, Long-Circulating, and Ultrasmall Gold Nanocarriers for Overcoming the Barriers of Low Nanoparticle Delivery Efficiency and Poor Tumor Penetration

The development of sophisticated nanoplatforms for in vivo targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to solid tumors has the potential for not only improving therapeutic efficacy but also minimizing systemic toxicity. However, the currently low delivery efficiency (about 1% of the injected dose) and the limited tumor penetration of nanoparticles remain two major challenges. Here we report a class of functionalized, long-circulating, and ultrasmall gold nanocarriers (5 nm gold core and 20 nm overall hydrodynamic diameter) for improved drug delivery and deep tumor penetration. By using doxorubicin as a model drug, our design also includes a pH-sensitive hydrazone linkage that is stable at neutral or slightly basic pH but is rapidly cleaved in the acidic tumor microenvironments and intracellular organelles. With a circulation halftime of 1.6 days, the small particle size is an important feature not only for efficient extravasation and accumulation via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, but also for faster nanoparticle diffusion and improved tumor penetration. In xenograft animal models, the results demonstrate that up to 8% of the injected nanoparticles can be accumulated at the tumor sites, among the highest nanoparticle delivery efficiencies reported in the literature. Also, histopathological and direct visual examinations reveal dark-colored tumors with deep nanoparticle penetration and distribution throughout the tumor mass. In comparison with pure doxorubicin which is known to cause considerable heart, kidney, and lung toxicity, in vivo animal data indicate that this class of functionalized and ultrasmall gold nanoparticles indeed provides better therapeutic efficacies with no apparent toxicity in vital organs.

Biological synthesis of Au nanoparticles using liquefied mash of cassava starch and their functionalization for enhanced hydrolysis of xylan by recombinant xylanase

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) have shown the potential for a variety of applications due to their unique physical and chemical properties. In this study, a facile and affordable method for the synthesis of AuNPs via the liquefied mash of cassava starch has been described and the functionalized AuNPs by L-cysteine improved activity of recombinant xylanase was demonstrated. UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and zeta potential measurements were performed to characterize the AuNPs and monitor their synthesis. The presence of Au was confirmed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and the X-ray diffraction patterns showed that Au nanocrystals were face-centered cubic. The C=O stretching vibration in the Fourier transform infrared spectrum of AuNPs suggested that the hemiacetal C-OH of sugar molecules performed the reduction of Au³⁺ to Au⁰. The presence of C and O in the EDX spectrum and the negative zeta potential of AuNPs suggested that the biomolecules present in liquefied cassava mash were responsible for the stabilization of AuNPs. The surface of AuNPs was easily functionalized by L-cysteine, which improved the stability of AuNPs. Moreover, cysteine-functionalized AuNPs could significantly improve recombinant xylanase efficiency and stability.

Janus Silver-Mesoporous Silica Nanocarriers for SERS Traceable and pH-Sensitive Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

A facile and cheap strategy was used to fabricate the novel Janus silver-mesoporous silica nanoparticles with excellent SPR and mesoporous properties for simultaneous SERS imaging and pH-responsive drug release, leading to the efficient cancer theranostic with less toxic effects.

Nanostructure-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering biosensors for nucleic acids and proteins

Detection of nucleic acid and protein targets related to human health and safety has attracted widespread attention. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a powerful tool for biomarker detection because of its ultrahigh detection sensitivity and unique fingerprinting spectra. In this review, we first introduce the development of nanostructure-based SERS-active substrates and SERS nanotags, which greatly influence the performance of SERS biosensors. We then focus on recent advances in SERS biosensors for DNA, microRNA and protein determination, including label-free, labeled and multiplex analyses as well as in vivo imaging. Finally, the prospects and challenges of such nanostructure-based SERS biosensors are discussed.

Non-covalent modification of graphene oxide nanocomposites with chitosan/dextran and its application in drug delivery

Graphene oxide nanosheets non-covalent functionalized with chitosan/dextran was successfully developed via LbL self-assembly technique for anti-cancer drug delivery application.

Doxorubicin-loaded ionic liquid–polydopamine nanoparticles for combined chemotherapy and microwave thermal therapy of cancer

Doxorubicin-loaded ionic liquid–polydopamine (IL–PDA–DOX) nanocomposites were obtained with high antitumor efficacy for combined chemotherapy and microwave thermal therapy of cancer.