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Bouwens T, Bakker TMA, Zhu K, Huijser A, Mathew S, Reek JNH. Rotaxane-Functionalized Dyes for Charge-Rectification in p-Type Photoelectrochemical Devices. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2306032. [PMID: 38110821 PMCID: PMC10916627 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202306032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
A supramolecular photovoltaic strategy is applied to enhance power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of photoelectrochemical devices by suppressing electron-hole recombination after photoinduced electron transfer (PET). Here, the author exploit supramolecular localization of the redox mediator-in close proximity to the dye-through a rotaxane topology, reducing electron-hole recombination in p-type dye-sensitized solar cells (p-DSSCs). Dye PRotaxane features 1,5-dioxynaphthalene recognition sites (DNP-arms) with a mechanically-interlocked macrocyclic redox mediator naphthalene diimide macrocycle (3-NDI-ring), stoppering synthetically via click chemistry. The control molecule PStopper has stoppered DNP-arms, preventing rotaxane formation with the 3-NDI-ring. Transient absorption and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy studies show ultrafast (211 ± 7 fs and 2.92 ± 0.05 ps) PET from the dye-moiety of PRotaxane to its mechanically interlocked 3-NDI-ring-acceptor, slowing down the electron-hole recombination on NiO surfaces compared to the analogue . p-DSSCs employing PRotaxane (PCE = 0.07%) demonstrate a 30% PCE increase compared to PStopper (PCE = 0.05%) devices, combining enhancements in both open-circuit voltages (VOC = 0.43 vs 0.36 V) and short-circuit photocurrent density (JSC = -0.39 vs -0.34 mA cm-2 ). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy shows that PRotaxane devices exhibit hole lifetimes (τh ) approaching 1 s, a 16-fold improvement compared to traditional I- /I3 - -based systems (τh = 50 ms), demonstrating the benefits obtained upon nanoengineering of interfacial dye-regeneration at the photocathode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessel Bouwens
- van ’t Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamScience Park 904Amsterdam1098 XHThe Netherlands
| | - Tijmen M. A. Bakker
- van ’t Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamScience Park 904Amsterdam1098 XHThe Netherlands
| | - Kaijian Zhu
- PhotoCatalytic Synthesis GroupMESA+ Institute for NanotechnologyUniversity of TwenteP.O. Box 217Enschede7500 AEThe Netherlands
| | - Annemarie Huijser
- PhotoCatalytic Synthesis GroupMESA+ Institute for NanotechnologyUniversity of TwenteP.O. Box 217Enschede7500 AEThe Netherlands
| | - Simon Mathew
- van ’t Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamScience Park 904Amsterdam1098 XHThe Netherlands
| | - Joost N. H. Reek
- van ’t Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamScience Park 904Amsterdam1098 XHThe Netherlands
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2
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Gidi L, Amalraj J, Tenreiro C, Ramírez G. Recent progress, trends, and new challenges in the electrochemical production of green hydrogen coupled to selective electrooxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). RSC Adv 2023; 13:28307-28336. [PMID: 37753399 PMCID: PMC10519153 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra05623f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The production of clean electrical energy and the correct use of waste materials are two topics that currently concern humanity. In order to face both problems, extensive work has been done on the electrolytic production of green H2 coupled with the electrooxidative upgrading of biomass platform molecules. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is obtained from forest waste biomass and can be selectively oxidized to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) by electrochemical pathways. FDCA is an attractive precursor to polyethylene furanoate (PEF), with the potential to replace petroleum-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET). An integrated electrochemical system can simultaneously produce H2 and FDCA at a lower energy cost than that required for electrolytic water splitting. Here, the benefits of the electrochemical production of H2 and FDCA over other production methods are presented, as well as the innovative applications of each reaction product and the advantages of carrying out both reactions in a coupled system. The recently reported progress is disclosed, through an exploration of electrocatalyst materials used in simultaneous production, including the use of nickel foams (NF) as modification substrates, noble and non-noble metals, metal non-oxides, metal oxides, spinel oxides and the introduction of oxygen vacancies. Based on the latest trends, the next challenges associated with its large-scale production are proposed for its implementation in the industrial world. This work can offer a guideline for the detailed understanding of the electrooxidation of HMF towards FDCA with the production of H2, as well as the design of advanced electrocatalysts for the sustainable use of renewable resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leyla Gidi
- Laboratory of Material Science, Chemistry Institute of Natural Resources, Universidad de Talca P.O. Box 747 Talca 3460000 Chile
| | - John Amalraj
- Laboratory of Material Science, Chemistry Institute of Natural Resources, Universidad de Talca P.O. Box 747 Talca 3460000 Chile
| | - Claudio Tenreiro
- Industrial Technologies Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Talca Curicó 3340000 Chile
| | - Galo Ramírez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860 Santiago 7820436 Chile
- Millenium Institute on Green Ammonia as Energy Vector (MIGA) Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul Santiago 7820436 Chile
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3
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Xu X, Li Y, Liu C, Zhang P, Fan K, Wu X, Shan Y, Li F. Optimized H 2-evolving dye-sensitized LaFeO 3 photocathodes prepared via the layer-by-layer assembly of dyes and catalysts. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:5848-5853. [PMID: 37092596 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt00542a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
A molecular dye and a molecular catalyst were loaded onto the surface of a mesoporous LaFeO3 (LFO) film via layer-by-layer assembly relying on the coordination of phosphates and Zr4+. After assembling six layers of the dye and four layers of the catalyst, the (NiP-4 + PQA-6)@LFO photocathode exhibited a significant photocurrent for light-driven H2 generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximeng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Yingzheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Chang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Peili Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Ke Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Xiujuan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Yu Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
| | - Fusheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices, Institute for Energy Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, 116024 Dalian, China.
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4
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Garcia-Osorio DA, Shalvey TP, Banerji L, Saeed K, Neri G, Phillips LJ, Hutter OS, Casadevall C, Antón-García D, Reisner E, Major JD, Cowan AJ. Hybrid photocathode based on a Ni molecular catalyst and Sb 2Se 3 for solar H 2 production. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:944-947. [PMID: 36597867 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc04810h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We report a H2 evolving hybrid photocathode based on Sb2Se3 and a precious metal free molecular catalyst. Through the use of a high surface area TiO2 scaffold, we successfully increased the Ni molecular catalyst loading from 7.08 ± 0.43 to 45.76 ± 0.81 nmol cm-2, achieving photocurrents of 1.3 mA cm-2 at 0 V vs. RHE, which is 81-fold higher than the device without the TiO2 mesoporous layer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas P Shalvey
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
| | - Liam Banerji
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
| | - Khezar Saeed
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK. .,Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark
| | - Gaia Neri
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
| | - Laurie J Phillips
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
| | - Oliver S Hutter
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK. .,Department of Mathematics, Physics and Electrical Engineering, Northumbria University, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Carla Casadevall
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | | | - Erwin Reisner
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Jonathan D Major
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
| | - Alexander J Cowan
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZF, UK.
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5
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian R. James
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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6
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Bajada MA, Sanjosé-Orduna J, Di Liberto G, Tosoni S, Pacchioni G, Noël T, Vilé G. Interfacing single-atom catalysis with continuous-flow organic electrosynthesis. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:3898-3925. [PMID: 35481480 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00100d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The global warming crisis has sparked a series of environmentally cautious trends in chemistry, allowing us to rethink the way we conduct our synthesis, and to incorporate more earth-abundant materials in our catalyst design. "Single-atom catalysis" has recently appeared on the catalytic spectrum, and has truly merged the benefits that homogeneous and heterogeneous analogues have to offer. Further still, the possibility to activate these catalysts by means of a suitable electric potential could pave the way for a true integration of diverse synthetic methodologies and renewable electricity. Despite their esteemed benefits, single-atom electrocatalysts are still limited to the energy sector (hydrogen evolution reaction, oxygen reduction, etc.) and numerous examples in the literature still invoke the use of precious metals (Pd, Pt, Ir, etc.). Additionally, batch electroreactors are employed, which limit the intensification of such processes. It is of paramount importance that the field continues to grow in a more sustainable direction, seeking new ventures into the space of organic electrosynthesis and flow electroreactor technologies. In this piece, we discuss some of the progress being made with earth abundant homogeneous and heterogeneous electrocatalysts and flow electrochemistry, within the context of organic electrosynthesis, and highlight the prospects of alternatively utilizing single-atom catalysts for such applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Bajada
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Jesús Sanjosé-Orduna
- Flow Chemistry Group, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giovanni Di Liberto
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Sergio Tosoni
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Timothy Noël
- Flow Chemistry Group, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gianvito Vilé
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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7
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Operando Photo-Electrochemical Catalysts Synchrotron Studies. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12050839. [PMID: 35269331 PMCID: PMC8912469 DOI: 10.3390/nano12050839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The attempts to develop efficient methods of solar energy conversion into chemical fuel are ongoing amid climate changes associated with global warming. Photo-electrocatalytic (PEC) water splitting and CO2 reduction reactions show high potential to tackle this challenge. However, the development of economically feasible solutions of PEC solar energy conversion requires novel efficient and stable earth-abundant nanostructured materials. The latter are hardly available without detailed understanding of the local atomic and electronic structure dynamics and mechanisms of the processes occurring during chemical reactions on the catalyst–electrolyte interface. This review considers recent efforts to study photo-electrocatalytic reactions using in situ and operando synchrotron spectroscopies. Particular attention is paid to the operando reaction mechanisms, which were established using X-ray Absorption (XAS) and X-ray Photoelectron (XPS) Spectroscopies. Operando cells that are needed to perform such experiments on synchrotron are covered. Classical and modern theoretical approaches to extract structural information from X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) spectra are discussed.
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8
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Cobb SJ, Badiani VM, Dharani AM, Wagner A, Zacarias S, Oliveira AR, Pereira IAC, Reisner E. Fast CO 2 hydration kinetics impair heterogeneous but improve enzymatic CO 2 reduction catalysis. Nat Chem 2022; 14:417-424. [PMID: 35228690 PMCID: PMC7612589 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-021-00880-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The performance of heterogeneous catalysts for electrocatalytic CO2 reduction (CO2R) suffers from unwanted side reactions and kinetic inefficiencies at the required large overpotential. However, immobilised CO2R enzymes — such as formate dehydrogenase — can operate with high turnover and selectivity at a minimal overpotential and are therefore ‘ideal’ model catalysts. Here, through the co-immobilisation of carbonic anhydrase, we study the effect of CO2 hydration on the local environment and performance of a range of disparate CO2R systems from enzymatic (formate dehydrogenase) to heterogeneous systems. We show that the co-immobilisation of carbonic anhydrase increases the kinetics of CO2 hydration at the electrode. This benefits enzymatic CO2 reduction — despite the decrease in CO2 concentration — due to a reduction in local pH change, whereas it is detrimental to heterogeneous catalysis (on Au), because the system is unable to suppress the H2 evolution side reaction. Understanding the role of CO2 hydration kinetics within the local environment on the performance of electrocatalyst systems provides important insights for the development of next generation synthetic CO2R catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J Cobb
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Vivek M Badiani
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Azim M Dharani
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Andreas Wagner
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sónia Zacarias
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ana Rita Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Inês A C Pereira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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9
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Understanding the local chemical environment of bioelectrocatalysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2114097119. [PMID: 35058361 PMCID: PMC8795565 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2114097119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioelectrochemistry employs an array of high-surface-area meso- and macroporous electrode architectures to increase protein loading and the electrochemical current response. While the local chemical environment has been studied in small-molecule and heterogenous electrocatalysis, conditions in enzyme electrochemistry are still commonly established based on bulk solution assays, without appropriate consideration of the nonequilibrium conditions of the confined electrode space. Here, we apply electrochemical and computational techniques to explore the local environment of fuel-producing oxidoreductases within porous electrode architectures. This improved understanding of the local environment enabled simple manipulation of the electrolyte solution by adjusting the bulk pH and buffer pKa to achieve an optimum local pH for maximal activity of the immobilized enzyme. When applied to macroporous inverse opal electrodes, the benefits of higher loading and increased mass transport were employed, and, consequently, the electrolyte adjusted to reach −8.0 mA ⋅ cm−2 for the H2 evolution reaction and −3.6 mA ⋅ cm−2 for the CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR), demonstrating an 18-fold improvement on previously reported enzymatic CO2RR systems. This research emphasizes the critical importance of understanding the confined enzymatic chemical environment, thus expanding the known capabilities of enzyme bioelectrocatalysis. These considerations and insights can be directly applied to both bio(photo)electrochemical fuel and chemical synthesis, as well as enzymatic fuel cells, to significantly improve the fundamental understanding of the enzyme–electrode interface as well as device performance.
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10
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Stratakes BM, Wells KA, Kurtz DA, Castellano FN, Miller AJM. Photochemical H 2 Evolution from Bis(diphosphine)nickel Hydrides Enables Low-Overpotential Electrocatalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:21388-21401. [PMID: 34878278 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c10628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Molecules capable of both harvesting light and forming new chemical bonds hold promise for applications in the generation of solar fuels, but such first-row transition metal photoelectrocatalysts are lacking. Here we report nickel photoelectrocatalysts for H2 evolution, leveraging visible-light-driven photochemical H2 evolution from bis(diphosphine)nickel hydride complexes. A suite of experimental and theoretical analyses, including time-resolved spectroscopy and continuous irradiation quantum yield measurements, led to a proposed mechanism of H2 evolution involving a short-lived singlet excited state that undergoes homolysis of the Ni-H bond. Thermodynamic analyses provide a basis for understanding and predicting the observed photoelectrocatalytic H2 evolution by a 3d transition metal based catalyst. Of particular note is the dramatic change in the electrochemical overpotential: in the dark, the nickel complexes require strong acids and therefore high overpotentials for electrocatalysis; but under illumination, the use of weaker acids at the same applied potential results in a more than 500 mV improvement in electrochemical overpotential. New insight into first-row transition metal hydride photochemistry thus enables photoelectrocatalytic H2 evolution without electrochemical overpotential (at the thermodynamic potential or 0 mV overpotential). This catalyst system does not require sacrificial chemical reductants or light-harvesting semiconductor materials and produces H2 at rates similar to molecular catalysts attached to silicon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany M Stratakes
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Kaylee A Wells
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8204, United States
| | - Daniel A Kurtz
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Felix N Castellano
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8204, United States
| | - Alexander J M Miller
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
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11
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Muñoz-García AB, Benesperi I, Boschloo G, Concepcion JJ, Delcamp JH, Gibson EA, Meyer GJ, Pavone M, Pettersson H, Hagfeldt A, Freitag M. Dye-sensitized solar cells strike back. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:12450-12550. [PMID: 34590638 PMCID: PMC8591630 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01336f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are celebrating their 30th birthday and they are attracting a wealth of research efforts aimed at unleashing their full potential. In recent years, DSCs and dye-sensitized photoelectrochemical cells (DSPECs) have experienced a renaissance as the best technology for several niche applications that take advantage of DSCs' unique combination of properties: at low cost, they are composed of non-toxic materials, are colorful, transparent, and very efficient in low light conditions. This review summarizes the advancements in the field over the last decade, encompassing all aspects of the DSC technology: theoretical studies, characterization techniques, materials, applications as solar cells and as drivers for the synthesis of solar fuels, and commercialization efforts from various companies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Belén Muñoz-García
- Department of Physics "Ettore Pancini", University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Iacopo Benesperi
- School of Natural and Environmental Science, Newcastle University, Bedson Building, NE1 7RU Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - Gerrit Boschloo
- Department of Chemistry, Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 523, 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Javier J Concepcion
- Chemistry Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, USA
| | - Jared H Delcamp
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Gibson
- School of Natural and Environmental Science, Newcastle University, Bedson Building, NE1 7RU Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - Gerald J Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Michele Pavone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | | | - Anders Hagfeldt
- Department of Chemistry, Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 523, 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden.
- University Management and Management Council, Vice Chancellor, Uppsala University, Segerstedthuset, 752 37 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marina Freitag
- School of Natural and Environmental Science, Newcastle University, Bedson Building, NE1 7RU Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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12
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Schild J, Reuillard B, Morozan A, Chenevier P, Gravel E, Doris E, Artero V. Approaching Industrially Relevant Current Densities for Hydrogen Oxidation with a Bioinspired Molecular Catalytic Material. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:18150-18158. [PMID: 34677065 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c07093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Integration of efficient platinum-group-metal (PGM)-free catalysts to fuel cells and electrolyzers is a prerequisite to their large-scale deployment. Here, we describe the development of a molecular-based anode for the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) through noncovalent integration of a DuBois type Ni bioinspired molecular catalyst at the surface of a carbon nanotube modified gas diffusion layer. This mild immobilization strategy enabled us to gain high control over the loading in catalytic sites. Additionally, through the adjustment of the hydration level of the active layer, a new record current density of 214 ± 20 mA cm-2 could be reached at 0.4 V vs RHE with the PGM-free anode, at 25 °C. Near industrially relevant current densities were obtained at 55 °C with 150 ± 20 and 395 ± 30 mA cm-2 at 0.1 and 0.4 V overpotentials, respectively. These results further demonstrate the relevance of such molecular approaches for the development of electrocatalytic platforms for energy conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémy Schild
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, 17 rue des Martyrs F-38054 Grenoble Cedex, France.,Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SCBM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Bertrand Reuillard
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, 17 rue des Martyrs F-38054 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Adina Morozan
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, 17 rue des Martyrs F-38054 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Pascale Chenevier
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, SyMMES, 17 rue des Martyrs, F-38054 Grenoble Cedex, France
| | - Edmond Gravel
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SCBM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Eric Doris
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SCBM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Vincent Artero
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG, Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, 17 rue des Martyrs F-38054 Grenoble Cedex, France
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13
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Kim Y, Kriegel S, Bessmertnykh‐Lemeune A, Harris KD, Limoges B, Balland V. Interplay Between Charge Accumulation and Oxygen Reduction Catalysis in Nanostructured TiO
2
Electrodes Functionalized with a Molecular Catalyst. ChemElectroChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202100424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yee‐Seul Kim
- Université de Paris Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591, CNRS 75013 Paris France
| | - Sébastien Kriegel
- Université de Paris Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591, CNRS 75013 Paris France
| | - Alla Bessmertnykh‐Lemeune
- ENS de Lyon, UMR 5182, CNRS Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 Laboratoire de Chimie 69342 Lyon France
| | - Kenneth D. Harris
- NRC Nanotechnology Research Centre Edmonton Alberta T6G 2 M9 Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta T6G 2 V4 Canada
| | - Benoît Limoges
- Université de Paris Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591, CNRS 75013 Paris France
| | - Véronique Balland
- Université de Paris Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591, CNRS 75013 Paris France
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14
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Immobilization of molecular catalysts on electrode surfaces using host-guest interactions. Nat Chem 2021; 13:523-529. [PMID: 33767362 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-021-00652-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Anchoring molecular catalysts on electrode surfaces combines the high selectivity and activity of molecular systems with the practicality of heterogeneous systems. Molecular catalysts, however, are far less stable than traditional heterogeneous electrocatalysts, and therefore a method to easily replace anchored molecular catalysts that have degraded could make such electrosynthetic systems more attractive. Here we applied a non-covalent 'click' chemistry approach to reversibly bind molecular electrocatalysts to electrode surfaces through host-guest complexation with surface-anchored cyclodextrins. The host-guest interaction is remarkably strong and enables the flow of electrons between the electrode and the guest catalyst. Electrosynthesis in both organic and aqueous media was demonstrated on metal oxide electrodes, with stability on the order of hours. The catalytic surfaces can be recycled by controlled release of the guest from the host cavities and the readsorption of fresh guest.
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15
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Benazzi E, Cristino V, Boaretto R, Caramori S, Natali M. Photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution using CdTe xS 1-x quantum dots as sensitizers on NiO photocathodes. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:696-704. [PMID: 33346259 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt03567j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The design of active photocathodes for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is a crucial step in the development of dye-sensitized photoelectrochemical cells (DS-PECs) aimed at solar-assisted water splitting. In the present work, we report on the use of orange CdTexS1-x quantum dots (QDs) with an average diameter of ca. 3.5 nm, featuring different capping agents (MAA, MPA, and MSA) for the sensitization of electrodes based on nanostructured NiO. Photoelectrochemical characterization of the resulting NiO|QDs electrodes in the presence of [CoIII(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 as an irreversible electron acceptor elects MAA-capped QDs as the most active sample to achieve substantial photocurrent densities thanks to both improved surface coverage and injection ability. Functionalization of the NiO|QDs electrodes with either heterogeneous Pt or the molecular nickel bis(diphosphine) complex (1) as the hydrogen evolving catalysts (HECs) yields active photocathodes capable of promoting hydrogen evolution upon photoirradiation (maximum photocurrent densities of -16(±2) and -20(±1) μA·cm-2 for Pt and 1 HECs, respectively, at 0 V vs. NHE, 70-80% faradaic efficiency, maximum IPCE of ca. 0.2%). The photoelectrochemical activity is limited by the small surface concentration of the QD sensitizers on the NiO surface and the competitive light absorption by the NiO material which suggests that the match between dye adsorption and the available surface area is critical to achieving efficient hydrogen evolution by thiol-capped QDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Benazzi
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy.
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16
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Wu HL, Li XB, Tung CH, Wu LZ. Bioinspired metal complexes for energy-related photocatalytic small molecule transformation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:15496-15512. [PMID: 33300513 DOI: 10.1039/d0cc05870j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bioinspired transformation of small-molecules to energy-related feedstocks is an attractive research area to overcome both the environmental issues and the depletion of fossil fuels. The highly effective metalloenzymes in nature provide blueprints for the utilization of bioinspired metal complexes for artificial photosynthesis. Through simpler structural and functional mimics, the representative herein is the pivotal development of several critical small molecule conversions catalyzed by metal complexes, e.g., water oxidation, proton and CO2 reduction and organic chemical transformation of small molecules. Of great achievement is the establishment of bioinspired metal complexes as catalysts with high stability, specific selectivity and satisfactory efficiency to drive the multiple-electron and multiple-proton processes related to small molecule transformation. Also, potential opportunities and challenges for future development in these appealing areas are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Lin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China.
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17
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Brunner FM, Neville ML, Kubiak CP. Investigation of Immobilization Effects on Ni(P 2N 2) 2 Electrocatalysts. Inorg Chem 2020; 59:16872-16881. [PMID: 33197170 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.0c01669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
A new synthetic route to complexes of the type Ni(P2N2)22+ with highly functionalized phosphine substituents and the investigation of immobilization effects on these catalysts is reported. Ni(P2N2)22+ complexes have been extensively studied as homogeneous and surface-attached molecular electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). A synthesis based on postsynthetic modification of PArBr2NPh2 was developed and is described here. Phosphonate-modified ligands and their corresponding nickel complexes were isolated and characterized. Subsequent deprotection of the phosphonic ester derivatives provided the first Ni(P2N2)22+ catalyst that can be covalently attached via pendent phosphonate groups to an electrode without involvement of the important pendent amine groups. Mesoporous TiO2 electrodes were surface modified by attachment of the new phosphonate functionalized Ni(P2N2)22+ complexes, and these provided electrocatalytic materials that proved to be competent and stable for sustained HER in aqueous solution at mild pH and low overpotential. We directly compared the new ligand to a previously reported complex that utilized the amine moiety for surface attachment. Using HER as the benchmark reaction, the P-attached catalyst showed a marginally (9-14%) higher turnover number than its N-attached counterpart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix M Brunner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0358, La Jolla, California 92093-0358, United States
| | - Michael L Neville
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0358, La Jolla, California 92093-0358, United States
| | - Clifford P Kubiak
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0358, La Jolla, California 92093-0358, United States
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18
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Bozal-Ginesta C, Mesa CA, Eisenschmidt A, Francàs L, Shankar RB, Antón-García D, Warnan J, Willkomm J, Reynal A, Reisner E, Durrant JR. Charge accumulation kinetics in multi-redox molecular catalysts immobilised on TiO 2. Chem Sci 2020; 12:946-959. [PMID: 34163861 PMCID: PMC8178996 DOI: 10.1039/d0sc04344c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Multi-redox catalysis requires the accumulation of more than one charge carrier and is crucial for solar energy conversion into fuels and valuable chemicals. In photo(electro)chemical systems, however, the necessary accumulation of multiple, long-lived charges is challenged by recombination with their counterparts. Herein, we investigate charge accumulation in two model multi-redox molecular catalysts for proton and CO2 reduction attached onto mesoporous TiO2 electrodes. Transient absorption spectroscopy and spectroelectrochemical techniques have been employed to study the kinetics of photoinduced electron transfer from the TiO2 to the molecular catalysts in acetonitrile, with triethanolamine as the hole scavenger. At high light intensities, we detect charge accumulation in the millisecond timescale in the form of multi-reduced species. The redox potentials of the catalysts and the capacity of TiO2 to accumulate electrons play an essential role in the charge accumulation process at the molecular catalyst. Recombination of reduced species with valence band holes in TiO2 is observed to be faster than microseconds, while electron transfer from multi-reduced species to the conduction band or the electrolyte occurs in the millisecond timescale. Finally, under light irradiation, we show how charge accumulation on the catalyst is regulated as a function of the applied bias and the excitation light intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlota Bozal-Ginesta
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London 80 Wood Lane London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Camilo A Mesa
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London 80 Wood Lane London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Annika Eisenschmidt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Laia Francàs
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London 80 Wood Lane London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Ravi B Shankar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London Exhibition Road London SW7 2AZ UK
| | - Daniel Antón-García
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Julien Warnan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Janina Willkomm
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - Anna Reynal
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London 80 Wood Lane London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
| | - James R Durrant
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London 80 Wood Lane London W12 0BZ UK
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19
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Wang Y, Zhu Y, Sun L, Li F. Selective CO Production by Photoelectrochemical CO 2 Reduction in an Aqueous Solution with Cobalt-Based Molecular Redox Catalysts. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:41644-41648. [PMID: 32820886 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c14533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Light-driven CO2 reduction was performed in a two-electrode photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) composed of a Co4O4 cubane complex-modified BiVO4 photoanode and a cobalt phthalocyanine complex-modified carbon cloth (cc) cathode. The hybrid electrodes assembled by the simple physical absorption of hydrophobic molecular catalysts exhibit long-term stability in an aqueous solution. Under 1 sun AM 1.5 G illumination, simultaneous oxygen and CO evolution at an approximately 2:1 ratio were achieved in a CO2-saturated NaHCO3 aqueous solution with high faradic efficiency up to 87% for CO production. Control experiments revealed a crucial role of immobilized molecular catalysts in promoting the activity and selectivity for both half-reactions. A solar-to-CO conversion efficiency of 0.44% was realized at a cell potential of 0.8 V, which is the highest efficiency for CO2 to CO conversion in PEC devices based on noble-metal-free materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Center on Molecular Devices, Dalian University of Technology (DUT), Dalian 116024, China
| | - Yong Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Center on Molecular Devices, Dalian University of Technology (DUT), Dalian 116024, China
| | - Licheng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Center on Molecular Devices, Dalian University of Technology (DUT), Dalian 116024, China
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm 10044, Sweden
| | - Fei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Center on Molecular Devices, Dalian University of Technology (DUT), Dalian 116024, China
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20
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Wielend D, Vera-Hidalgo M, Seelajaroen H, Sariciftci NS, Pérez EM, Whang DR. Mechanically Interlocked Carbon Nanotubes as a Stable Electrocatalytic Platform for Oxygen Reduction. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:32615-32621. [PMID: 32573248 PMCID: PMC7383929 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c06516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Mechanically interlocking redox-active anthraquinone onto single-walled carbon nanotubes (AQ-MINT) gives a new and advanced example of a noncovalent architecture for an electrochemical platform. Electrochemical studies of AQ-MINT as an electrode reveal enhanced electrochemical stability in both aqueous and organic solvents compared to physisorbed AQ-based electrodes. While maintaining the electrochemical properties of the parent anthraquinone molecules, we observe a stable oxygen reduction reaction to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Using such AQ-MINT electrodes, 7 and 2 μmol of H2O2 are produced over 8 h under basic and neutral conditions, while the control system of SWCNTs produces 2.2 and 0.5 μmol, respectively. These results reveal the potential of this rotaxane-type immobilization approach for heterogenized electrocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Wielend
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Institute of Physical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Mariano Vera-Hidalgo
- IMDEA
Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, c/Faraday 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Hathaichanok Seelajaroen
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Institute of Physical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Niyazi Serdar Sariciftci
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Institute of Physical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Emilio M. Pérez
- IMDEA
Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, c/Faraday 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Dong Ryeol Whang
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Institute of Physical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Department
of Advanced Materials, Hannam University, 1646 Yuseong-Daro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea
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21
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Gurrentz JM, Rose MJ. Non-Catalytic Benefits of Ni(II) Binding to an Si(111)-PNP Construct for Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Evolution Reaction: Metal Ion Induced Flat Band Potential Modulation. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:5657-5667. [PMID: 32163273 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b12824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We report here the remarkable and non-catalytic beneficial effects of a Ni(II) ion binding to a Si|PNP type surface as a result of significant thermodynamic band bending induced by ligand attachment and Ni(II) binding. We unambiguously deconvolute the thermodynamic flat band potentials (VFB) from the kinetic onset potentials (Von) by synthesizing a specialized bis-PNP macrochelate that enables one-step Ni(II) binding to a p-Si(111) substrate. XPS analysis and rigorous control experiments confirm covalent attachment of the designed ligand and its resulting Ni(II) complex. Illuminated J-V measurements under catalytic conditions show that the Si|BisPNP-Ni substrate exhibits the most positive onset potential for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) (-0.55 V vs Fc/Fc+) compared to other substrates herein. Thermodynamic flat band potential measurements in the dark reveal that Si|BisPNP-Ni also exhibits the most positive VFB value (-0.02 V vs Fc/Fc+) by a wide margin. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy data generated under illuminated, catalytic conditions demonstrate a surprising lack of correlation evident between Von and equivalent circuit element parameters commonly associated with HER. Overall, the resulting paradigm comprises a system wherein the extent of band bending induced by metal ion binding is the primary driver of photoelectrochemical (PEC)-HER benefits, while the kinetic (catalytic) effects of the PNP-Ni(II) are minimal. This suggests that dipole and band-edge engineering must be a primary design consideration (not secondary to catalyst) in semiconductor|catalyst hybrids for PEC-HER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Gurrentz
- The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78757, United States
| | - Michael J Rose
- The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78757, United States
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22
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Green Synthetic Fuels: Renewable Routes for the Conversion of Non-Fossil Feedstocks into Gaseous Fuels and Their End Uses. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13020420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Innovative renewable routes are potentially able to sustain the transition to a decarbonized energy economy. Green synthetic fuels, including hydrogen and natural gas, are considered viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Indeed, they play a fundamental role in those sectors that are difficult to electrify (e.g., road mobility or high-heat industrial processes), are capable of mitigating problems related to flexibility and instantaneous balance of the electric grid, are suitable for large-size and long-term storage and can be transported through the gas network. This article is an overview of the overall supply chain, including production, transport, storage and end uses. Available fuel conversion technologies use renewable energy for the catalytic conversion of non-fossil feedstocks into hydrogen and syngas. We will show how relevant technologies involve thermochemical, electrochemical and photochemical processes. The syngas quality can be improved by catalytic CO and CO2 methanation reactions for the generation of synthetic natural gas. Finally, the produced gaseous fuels could follow several pathways for transport and lead to different final uses. Therefore, storage alternatives and gas interchangeability requirements for the safe injection of green fuels in the natural gas network and fuel cells are outlined. Nevertheless, the effects of gas quality on combustion emissions and safety are considered.
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23
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Cheema H, Watson J, Shinde PS, Rodrigues RR, Pan S, Delcamp JH. Precious metal-free solar-to-fuel generation: SSM-DSCs powering water splitting with NanoCOT and NiMoZn electrocatalysts. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:1569-1572. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cc09209a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A precious metal-free sequential series multijunction dye-sensitized solar cell (SSM-DSC)-powered water electrolysis system is demonstrated using NanoCOT and NiMoZn electrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pravin S. Shinde
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- The University of Alabama
- Tuscaloosa
- USA
| | | | - Shanlin Pan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- The University of Alabama
- Tuscaloosa
- USA
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24
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Weder N, Probst B, Sévery L, Fernández-Terán RJ, Beckord J, Blacque O, Tilley SD, Hamm P, Osterwalder J, Alberto R. Mechanistic insights into photocatalysis and over two days of stable H 2 generation in electrocatalysis by a molecular cobalt catalyst immobilized on TiO 2. Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy00330a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Molecular and heterogeneous water reduction combined: Over 2 days of electrocatalysis of a cobalt polypyridyl catalyst immobilized on TiO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Weder
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Probst
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Laurent Sévery
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | | | - Jan Beckord
- Department of Physics
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Olivier Blacque
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - S. David Tilley
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Peter Hamm
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | | | - Roger Alberto
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Zurich
- 8057 Zurich
- Switzerland
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25
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Mesa CA, Francàs L, Yang KR, Garrido-Barros P, Pastor E, Ma Y, Kafizas A, Rosser TE, Mayer MT, Reisner E, Grätzel M, Batista VS, Durrant JR. Multihole water oxidation catalysis on haematite photoanodes revealed by operando spectroelectrochemistry and DFT. Nat Chem 2019; 12:82-89. [DOI: 10.1038/s41557-019-0347-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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26
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Bouwens T, Mathew S, Reek JNH. p-Type dye-sensitized solar cells based on pseudorotaxane mediated charge-transfer. Faraday Discuss 2019; 215:393-406. [PMID: 30951057 DOI: 10.1039/c8fd00169c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of p-type dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) remains low compared to that of n-type congeners due to charge recombination events. We report a supramolecular approach to reduce recombination at the NiO-dye interface, realized by using the cyclophane cyclobis(paraquat-p-phenylene) ring (RING4+/RING3˙+) as a redox mediator and a dye (PN) functionalized with a 1,5-dioxynaphthalene (DNP) recognition site, promoting the supramolecular formation of a pseudorotaxane capable of directing charge transfer away from the NiO-dye interface. The binding affinity of RING4+ to PN is high (Kass = 3.4 × 104 M-1), with quenching of the photoexcited dye (PN*) ascribed to reduction of RING4+ to RING3˙+. The reduced RING3˙+ exhibits a lower binding affinity to PN, facilitating exchange with the excess RING4+ present in solution. This supramolecular phenomenon was implemented into p-type DSSCs by anchoring the PN dye on a NiO photocathode in conjunction with the RING4+/RING3˙+ redox couple, yielding a 10 fold enhancement in the short-circuit photocurrent (JSC) compared to control devices utilizing P1 dye or the methylviologen (MV2+/MV˙+) redox couple that cannot form pseudorotaxanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessel Bouwens
- Homogeneous Supramolecular and Bio-inspired Catalysis, Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences (HIMS), University of Amsterdam (UvA), Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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27
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Shen C, Jie S, Chen H, Liu Z. The Co-N-C Catalyst Synthesized With a Hard-Template and Etching Method to Achieve Well-Dispersed Active Sites for Ethylbenzene Oxidation. Front Chem 2019; 7:426. [PMID: 31245361 PMCID: PMC6580930 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomass obtained from organic residues gradually becomes one of the optimal renewable feedstock of value added chemicals. Herein, the Co-N-C catalyst was prepared via a hard-template and etching method using the casein as C and N sources, magnesium oxide as the template, and cobalt porphyrin as the metal precursor. The obtained Co-N-C catalyst exhibited excellent catalytic performance for selective oxidation of ethylbenzene with a conversion rate of 96.5% under mild conditions. Moreover, the catalysts were investigated by techniques such as BET, XRD, Raman, transmission electron microscopic (TEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results showed that the etching progress could improve the dispersion of Co and the exposure of active sites. Herein, the efficient oxidation of ethylbenzene was attributed to the well-dispersed Co-N species and the increased specific surface area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Shen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, China
| | - Shanshan Jie
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, China
| | - Hong Chen
- School of Materials Science Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan, China
| | - Zhigang Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, China
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28
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Zhang B, Sun L. Artificial photosynthesis: opportunities and challenges of molecular catalysts. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:2216-2264. [PMID: 30895997 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00897c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Molecular catalysis plays an essential role in both natural and artificial photosynthesis (AP). However, the field of molecular catalysis for AP has gradually declined in recent years because of doubt about the long-term stability of molecular-catalyst-based devices. This review summarizes the development history of molecular-catalyst-based AP, including the fundamentals of AP, molecular catalysts for water oxidation, proton reduction and CO2 reduction, and molecular-catalyst-based AP devices, and it provides an analysis of the advantages, challenges, and stability of molecular catalysts. With this review, we aim to highlight the following points: (i) an investigation on molecular catalysis is one of the most promising ways to obtain atom-efficient catalysts with outstanding intrinsic activities; (ii) effective heterogenization of molecular catalysts is currently the primary challenge for the application of molecular catalysis in AP devices; (iii) development of molecular catalysts is a promising way to solve the problems of catalysis involved in practical solar fuel production. In molecular-catalysis-based AP, much has been attained, but more challenges remain with regard to long-term stability and heterogenization techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biaobiao Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden.
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29
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Dalle K, Warnan J, Leung JJ, Reuillard B, Karmel IS, Reisner E. Electro- and Solar-Driven Fuel Synthesis with First Row Transition Metal Complexes. Chem Rev 2019; 119:2752-2875. [PMID: 30767519 PMCID: PMC6396143 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of renewable fuels from abundant water or the greenhouse gas CO2 is a major step toward creating sustainable and scalable energy storage technologies. In the last few decades, much attention has focused on the development of nonprecious metal-based catalysts and, in more recent years, their integration in solid-state support materials and devices that operate in water. This review surveys the literature on 3d metal-based molecular catalysts and focuses on their immobilization on heterogeneous solid-state supports for electro-, photo-, and photoelectrocatalytic synthesis of fuels in aqueous media. The first sections highlight benchmark homogeneous systems using proton and CO2 reducing 3d transition metal catalysts as well as commonly employed methods for catalyst immobilization, including a discussion of supporting materials and anchoring groups. The subsequent sections elaborate on productive associations between molecular catalysts and a wide range of substrates based on carbon, quantum dots, metal oxide surfaces, and semiconductors. The molecule-material hybrid systems are organized as "dark" cathodes, colloidal photocatalysts, and photocathodes, and their figures of merit are discussed alongside system stability and catalyst integrity. The final section extends the scope of this review to prospects and challenges in targeting catalysis beyond "classical" H2 evolution and CO2 reduction to C1 products, by summarizing cases for higher-value products from N2 reduction, C x>1 products from CO2 utilization, and other reductive organic transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jane J. Leung
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Bertrand Reuillard
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Isabell S. Karmel
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
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30
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Bae S, Kim H, Jeon D, Ryu J. Catalytic Multilayers for Efficient Solar Water Oxidation through Catalyst Loading and Surface-State Passivation of BiVO 4 Photoanodes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:7990-7999. [PMID: 30757899 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b20785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We studied the kinetics of photoelectrochemical (PEC) water oxidation using a model photoanode BiVO4 modified with various water oxidation catalysts (WOCs) by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. In particular, we prepared BiVO4 photoanodes with catalytic multilayers (CMs), where cationic polyelectrolytes and anionic polyoxometalate (POM) WOCs were assembled in a desired amount at a nanoscale precision, and compared their performance with those with well-known WOCs such as cobalt phosphate (CoPi) and NiOOH. Our comparative kinetics analysis suggested that the deposition of the CMs improved the kinetics of both the photogenerated charge carrier separation/transport in bulk BiVO4 due to passivation of surface recombination centers and water oxidation at the electrode/electrolyte interface due to deposition of efficient molecular WOCs. On the contrary, the conventional WOCs were mostly effective in the former and less effective in the latter, which is consistent with previous reports. These findings explain why the CMs exhibit an outstanding performance. We also found that separated charge carriers can be efficiently transported to POM WOCs via a hopping mechanism due to the delicate architecture of the CMs, which is reminiscent of natural photosynthetic systems. We believe that this study can not only broaden our understanding on the underlying mechanism of PEC water oxidation but also provide insights for the design and fabrication of novel electrochemical and PEC devices, including efficient water oxidation photoanodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanghyun Bae
- Department of Energy Engineering, School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan 44919 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunwoo Kim
- Department of Energy Engineering, School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan 44919 , Republic of Korea
| | - Dasom Jeon
- Department of Energy Engineering, School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan 44919 , Republic of Korea
| | - Jungki Ryu
- Department of Energy Engineering, School of Energy and Chemical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST) , Ulsan 44919 , Republic of Korea
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31
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Lloret-Fillol J, Costas M. Water oxidation at base metal molecular catalysts. ADVANCES IN ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adomc.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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32
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Bozal-Ginesta C, Durrant JR. Artificial photosynthesis - concluding remarks. Faraday Discuss 2019; 215:439-451. [PMID: 31237602 DOI: 10.1039/c9fd00076c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This paper follows on from the Concluding Remarks presentation of the 3rd Faraday Discussion Meeting on Artificial Photosynthesis, Cambridge, UK, 25-27th March 2019. It aims to discuss the context for the research discussed at this meeting, starting with an overview of the motivation for research on artificial photosynthesis. It then goes onto analysing the composition and trends in the field of artificial photosynthesis, and its scale relative to other related research areas, primarily using the results of searches of publication databases. As such, we hope it provides helpful insights to researchers in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bozal-Ginesta
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, UK.
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33
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Bergamini G, Natali M. Homogeneous vs. heterogeneous catalysis for hydrogen evolution by a nickel(ii) bis(diphosphine) complex. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:14653-14661. [DOI: 10.1039/c9dt02846c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A nickel(ii) bis(diphosphine) complex bearing carboxylic acid groups has been tested as a catalyst for hydrogen evolution under different conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Bergamini
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- University of Ferrara
- Ferrara
- Italy
| | - Mirco Natali
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences
- University of Ferrara
- Ferrara
- Italy
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34
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Sebata S, Takizawa SY, Ikuta N, Murata S. Photofunctions of iridium(iii) complexes in vesicles: long-lived excited states and visible-light sensitization for hydrogen evolution in aqueous solution. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:14914-14925. [DOI: 10.1039/c9dt03144h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Utilization of DPPC vesicles allows water-insoluble photoactive Ir(iii) complexes to be dispersed in bulk aqueous solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinogu Sebata
- Department of Basic Science
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
- The University of Tokyo
- Tokyo 153-8902
- Japan
| | - Shin-ya Takizawa
- Department of Basic Science
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
- The University of Tokyo
- Tokyo 153-8902
- Japan
| | - Naoya Ikuta
- Department of Basic Science
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
- The University of Tokyo
- Tokyo 153-8902
- Japan
| | - Shigeru Murata
- Department of Basic Science
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
- The University of Tokyo
- Tokyo 153-8902
- Japan
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35
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Yu ZJ, Lou WY, Junge H, Päpcke A, Chen H, Xia LM, Xu B, Wang MM, Wang XJ, Wu QA, Lou BY, Lochbrunner S, Beller M, Luo SP. Thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) dyes as efficient organic photosensitizers for photocatalytic water reduction. CATAL COMMUN 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
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36
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Rosser TE, Hisatomi T, Sun S, Antón‐García D, Minegishi T, Reisner E, Domen K. La 5 Ti 2 Cu 0.9 Ag 0.1 S 5 O 7 Modified with a Molecular Ni Catalyst for Photoelectrochemical H 2 Generation. Chemistry 2018; 24:18393-18397. [PMID: 29752767 PMCID: PMC6348378 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201801169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The stable and efficient integration of molecular catalysts into p-type semiconductor materials is a contemporary challenge in photoelectrochemical fuel synthesis. Here, we report the combination of a phosphonated molecular Ni catalyst with a TiO2 -coated La5 Ti2 Cu0.9 Ag0.1 S5 O7 photocathode for visible light driven H2 production. This hybrid assembly provides a positive onset potential, large photocurrents, and high Faradaic yield for more than three hours. A decisive feature of the hybrid electrode is the TiO2 interlayer, which stabilizes the oxysulfide semiconductor and allows for robust attachment of the phosphonated molecular catalyst. This demonstration of an oxysulfide-molecular catalyst photocathode provides a novel platform for integrating molecular catalysts into photocathodes and the large photovoltage of the presented system makes it ideal for pairing with photoanodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Rosser
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo-kuTokyo113-8656Japan
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas ChemistryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - Takashi Hisatomi
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo-kuTokyo113-8656Japan
- Current affiliation: Center for Energy & Environmental ScienceShinshu University4-17-1 Wakasato, Nagano-shiNagano380-8553Japan
| | - Song Sun
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo-kuTokyo113-8656Japan
- National Synchrotron Radiation LaboratoryCollaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy MaterialsUniversity of Science & Technology of ChinaHefeiAnhui230029P. R. China
| | - Daniel Antón‐García
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas ChemistryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - Tsutomu Minegishi
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo-kuTokyo113-8656Japan
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas ChemistryDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of CambridgeLensfield RoadCambridgeCB2 1EWUK
| | - Kazunari Domen
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo-kuTokyo113-8656Japan
- Center for Energy & Environmental ScienceShinshu University4-17-1 Wakasato, Nagano-shiNagano380-8553Japan
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37
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Sokol KP, Robinson WE, Oliveira AR, Warnan J, Nowaczyk MM, Ruff A, Pereira IAC, Reisner E. Photoreduction of CO 2 with a Formate Dehydrogenase Driven by Photosystem II Using a Semi-artificial Z-Scheme Architecture. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:16418-16422. [PMID: 30452863 PMCID: PMC6307851 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b10247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Solar-driven
coupling of water oxidation with CO2 reduction
sustains life on our planet and is of high priority in contemporary
energy research. Here, we report a photoelectrochemical
tandem device that performs photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to formate. We employ a semi-artificial design, which wires
a W-dependent formate dehydrogenase (FDH) cathode to a photoanode
containing the photosynthetic water oxidation enzyme, Photosystem
II, via a synthetic dye with complementary light absorption. From
a biological perspective, the system achieves a metabolically inaccessible
pathway of light-driven CO2 fixation to formate. From a
synthetic point of view, it represents a proof-of-principle system
utilizing precious-metal-free catalysts for selective CO2-to-formate conversion using water as an electron donor. This hybrid
platform demonstrates the translatability and versatility of coupling
abiotic and biotic components to create challenging models for solar
fuel and chemical synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna P Sokol
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - William E Robinson
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Ana R Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier (ITQB NOVA) , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Julien Warnan
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
| | - Marc M Nowaczyk
- Plant Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology & Biotechnology , Ruhr-Universität Bochum , Universitätsstraße 150 , 44780 Bochum , Germany
| | - Adrian Ruff
- Analytical Chemistry - Center for Electrochemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Ruhr-Universität Bochum , Universitätsstraße 150 , 44780 Bochum , Germany
| | - Inês A C Pereira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier (ITQB NOVA) , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Av. da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , U.K
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38
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Liu T, Zhang B, Sun L. Iron-Based Molecular Water Oxidation Catalysts: Abundant, Cheap, and Promising. Chem Asian J 2018; 14:31-43. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201801253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianqi Liu
- Department of Chemistry; KTH Royal Institute of Technology; Teknikringen 30 Stockholm 10044 Sweden
| | - Biaobiao Zhang
- Department of Chemistry; KTH Royal Institute of Technology; Teknikringen 30 Stockholm 10044 Sweden
| | - Licheng Sun
- Department of Chemistry; KTH Royal Institute of Technology; Teknikringen 30 Stockholm 10044 Sweden
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Institute of Artificial Photosynthesis, DUT-KTH Joint Education and Research Centre on Molecular Devices; Dalian University of Technology; Dalian 116024 China
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39
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Mezzetti A, Fumagalli F, Alfano A, Iadicicco D, Antognazza MR, di Fonzo F. Stable hybrid organic/inorganic photocathodes for hydrogen evolution with amorphous WO 3 hole selective contacts. Faraday Discuss 2018; 198:433-448. [PMID: 28272631 DOI: 10.1039/c6fd00216a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Photoelectrochemical H2 production through hybrid organic/inorganic interfaces exploits the capability of polymeric absorbers to drive photo-induced electron transfer to an electrocatalyst in a water environment. Photoelectrode architectures based on solution-processed organic semiconductors are now emerging as low-cost alternatives to crystalline inorganic semiconductors based on Si, oxides and III-V alloys. In this work, we demonstrate that the stability of a hybrid organic/inorganic photocathode, employing a P3HT:PCBM blend as photoactive material, can be considerably improved by introducing an electrochemically stable WO3 hole selective layer, paired with a TiO2 electron selective layer. This hybrid photoelectrode exhibits a photocurrent of 2.48 mA cm-2 at 0 VRHE, +0.56 VRHE onset potential and a state-of the art operational activity of more than 10 hours. This work gives the perspective that photoelectrodes based on organic semiconductors, coupled with proper inorganic selective contacts, represent a sound new option for the efficient and durable photoelectrochemical conversion of solar energy into fuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Mezzetti
- Center for Nano Science and Technology@PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Pascoli 70/3, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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40
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Willkomm J, Reisner E. Photo- and electrocatalytic H 2 evolution with cobalt oxime complexes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.4019/bjscc.71.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janina Willkomm
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge
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41
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Windle CD, Massin J, Chavarot-Kerlidou M, Artero V. A protocol for quantifying hydrogen evolution by dye-sensitized molecular photocathodes and its implementation for evaluating a new covalent architecture based on an optimized dye-catalyst dyad. Dalton Trans 2018; 47:10509-10516. [PMID: 29845182 DOI: 10.1039/c8dt01210e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A protocol that combines gas chromatography and a high-sensitivity micro Clark-type electrode is described to quantify hydrogen production across gas and solution phases for systems operating at very low currents such as dye-sensitized H2-evolving photocathodes. Data indicate that a significant fraction of H2 remains in aqueous solution even after several hours of experiments. Using this protocol, re-evaluation of a dye-sensitized H2-evolving photocathode based on a dye-catalyst dyad showed a reproducible 66% increase of the faradaic efficiency compared with previously reported headspace GC measurements [Kaeffer et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 12308-12311]. This dyad was based on an organic push-pull dye where donor and acceptor are separated by one thiophene group. Insertion of a second thiophene group between the donor and acceptor led to a more efficient system with 30% improved faradaic efficiency for H2 evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Windle
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France.
| | - Julien Massin
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France.
| | - Murielle Chavarot-Kerlidou
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France.
| | - Vincent Artero
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Biologie des Métaux, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble 38000, France.
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42
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Virca CN, Lohmolder JR, Tsang JB, Davis MM, McCormick TM. Effect of Ligand Modification on the Mechanism of Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Production by Ni(pyridinethiolate)3– Derivatives. J Phys Chem A 2018; 122:3057-3065. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.7b11912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. N. Virca
- Portland State University, 1825 Southwest Broadway, Portland, Oregon 97232, United States
| | - J. R. Lohmolder
- Portland State University, 1825 Southwest Broadway, Portland, Oregon 97232, United States
| | - J. B. Tsang
- Portland State University, 1825 Southwest Broadway, Portland, Oregon 97232, United States
| | - M. M. Davis
- Portland State University, 1825 Southwest Broadway, Portland, Oregon 97232, United States
| | - T. M. McCormick
- Portland State University, 1825 Southwest Broadway, Portland, Oregon 97232, United States
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43
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Creissen CE, Warnan J, Reisner E. Solar H 2 generation in water with a CuCrO 2 photocathode modified with an organic dye and molecular Ni catalyst. Chem Sci 2018; 9:1439-1447. [PMID: 29629169 PMCID: PMC5875021 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc04476c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dye-sensitised photoelectrochemical (DSPEC) cells have emerged in recent years as a route to solar fuel production. However, fuel-forming photocathodes are presently limited by photo-corrodible narrow band gap semiconductors or the small range of available wide bandgap p-type semiconductors such as NiO that display low performance with dyes. Here, we introduce CuCrO2 as a suitable p-type semiconductor for visible light-driven H2 generation upon co-immobilisation of a phosphonated diketopyrrolopyrrole dye with a Ni-bis(diphosphine) catalyst. The hybrid CuCrO2 photocathode displays an early photocurrent onset potential of +0.75 V vs. RHE and delivers a photocurrent of 15 μA cm-2 at 0.0 V vs. RHE in pH 3 aqueous electrolyte solution under UV-filtered simulated solar irradiation. Controlled potential photoelectrolysis at 0.0 V vs. RHE shows good stability and yields a Ni catalyst-based turnover number of 126 ± 13 towards H2 after 2 h. This precious metal-free system outperforms an analogous NiO|dye/catalyst assembly and therefore highlights the benefits of using CuCrO2 as a novel material for DSPEC applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Creissen
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK .
| | - Julien Warnan
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK .
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK .
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44
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Tong H, Jiang Y, Zhang Q, Li J, Jiang W, Zhang D, Li N, Xia L. Enhanced Interfacial Charge Transfer on a Tungsten Trioxide Photoanode with Immobilized Molecular Iridium Catalyst. CHEMSUSCHEM 2017; 10:3268-3275. [PMID: 28612494 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201700721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The rational design of active photoanodes for photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is crucial for future applications in sustainable energy conversion. A combination of catalysts with photoelectrodes is generally required to improve surface kinetics and suppress surface recombination. In this study, we present WO3 photoanode modified with the iridium complex [(H4 dphbpy)IrIII (Cp*)Cl]Cl (Ir-PO3 H2 ; H4 dphbpy=2,2'-bipyridine-4,4'-bisphosphonic acid, Cp*=pentamethylcyclopentadiene (WO3 +Ir-PO3 H2 )- for PEC water oxidation. When Ir-PO3 H2 is anchored to a WO3 electrode, the photoanode shows a significant improvement in both photocurrent and faradaic efficiency compared to the bare WO3 photoanode. Under simulated sunlight illumination (AM 1.5G, 100 mW cm-2 ) with an applied bias of 1.23 V (vs. reversible hydrogen electrode), the photoanode exhibits a photocurrent of 1.16 mA cm-2 in acidic conditions, which is double that of the bare WO3 photoanode. The faradaic efficiency is promoted from 56 % to 95 %. Kinetic studies reveal that Ir-PO3 H2 exhibits a different interfacial charge-transfer mechanism on the WO3 photoanode for PEC water oxidation compared to iridium oxide. Ir-PO3 H2 , as a water-oxidation catalyst, can accelerate the surface charge transfer through rapid surface kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haili Tong
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Yi Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Qian Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Jialing Li
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Wenchao Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Donghui Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Na Li
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
| | - Lixin Xia
- College of Chemistry, Liaoning University, Shenyang, 110036, P.R. China
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45
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Bazrafshan H, Shajareh Touba R, Alipour Tesieh Z, Dabirnia S, Nasernejad B. Hydrothermal synthesis of Co3O4 nanosheets and its application in photoelectrochemical water splitting. CHEM ENG COMMUN 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/00986445.2017.1344651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Bazrafshan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
| | - Razieh Shajareh Touba
- Department of Chemistry, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Alipour Tesieh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeideh Dabirnia
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahram Nasernejad
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
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46
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Leung JJ, Warnan J, Nam DH, Zhang JZ, Willkomm J, Reisner E. Photoelectrocatalytic H 2 evolution in water with molecular catalysts immobilised on p-Si via a stabilising mesoporous TiO 2 interlayer. Chem Sci 2017; 8:5172-5180. [PMID: 28970903 PMCID: PMC5618793 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc01277b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A versatile platform for the immobilisation of molecular catalysts on a readily-prepared Si photocathode with a mesoporous TiO2 layer is reported.
The development of photoelectrodes capable of light-driven hydrogen evolution from water is an important approach for the storage of solar energy in the form of a chemical energy carrier. However, molecular catalyst-based photocathodes remain scarcely reported and typically suffer from low efficiencies and/or stabilities due to inadequate strategies for interfacing the molecular component with the light-harvesting material. In this study, we report the straightforward preparation of a p-silicon|mesoporous titania|molecular catalyst photocathode assembly that is active towards proton reduction in aqueous media with an onset potential of +0.4 V vs. RHE. The mesoporous TiO2 scaffold acts as an electron shuttle between the silicon and the catalyst, while also stabilising the silicon from passivation and enabling a high loading of molecular catalysts (>30 nmol (geometrical cm)–2). When a Ni bis(diphosphine)-based catalyst is anchored on the surface of the electrode, a high turnover number of ∼1 × 103 was obtained from photoelectrolysis under UV-filtered simulated solar irradiation at 1 Sun after 24 h at pH 4.5. Notwithstanding its aptitude for molecular catalyst immobilisation, the p-Si|TiO2 photoelectrode showed great versatility towards different catalysts and pH conditions, with photoelectrocatalytic H2 generation also being achieved with platinum and a hydrogenase as catalyst, highlighting the flexible platform it represents for many potential reductive catalysis transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane J Leung
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
| | - Julien Warnan
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
| | - Dong Heon Nam
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
| | - Jenny Z Zhang
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
| | - Janina Willkomm
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry , Department of Chemistry , University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge CB2 1EW , UK . ; http://www-reisner.ch.cam.ac.uk
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47
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Patel J, Majee K, Raj M, Vatsa A, Rai S, Padhi SK. Effect of Quinoline Substitution on Water Oxidation by [Ru(Ql-tpy)(bpy)(OH2
)](PF6
)2. ChemistrySelect 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201700074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jully Patel
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
| | - Karunamay Majee
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
| | - Manaswini Raj
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
| | - Aditi Vatsa
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
| | - Surabhi Rai
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
| | - Sumanta Kumar Padhi
- Artificial Photosynthesis Laboratory; Department of Applied Chemistry; Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines); Dhanbad India 826004
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48
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Rosser TE, Reisner E. Understanding Immobilized Molecular Catalysts for Fuel-Forming Reactions through UV/Vis Spectroelectrochemistry. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b00326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Rosser
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
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49
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Cho SK, Chang J. Electrochemically Identified Ultrathin Water-Oxidation Catalyst in Neutral pH Solution Containing Ni 2+ and Its Combination with Photoelectrode. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:432-442. [PMID: 31457449 PMCID: PMC6641076 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.6b00448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Water oxidation electrocatalyzed by Ni2+ under neutral conditions was investigated using various electrochemical analyses. The addition of Ni2+ in a phosphate-buffered solution catalyzed the oxidation of water, as confirmed by the detection of oxygen generation via scanning electrochemical microscopy. A combination of cyclic voltammetry, coulometric titration, and electrochemical quartz microbalance measurements identified the catalysis as heterogeneous and the catalyst as a Ni-based ultrathin (<4 nm) layer ("Ni-Pi"). Analysis of the potential- and pH-dependency of the titrated amount of charge revealed that the catalyst was deposited only under anodic polarization conditions and was removed under unpolarized conditions; the catalyst may be Ni(III) oxide, and its formation and oxidation appeared to be chemically irreversible. The diffusion-limited nature of water oxidation catalyzed by Ni2+ was closely related to the phosphate ions involved in the catalyst formation and the accompanying catalysis. Although the catalytic performance of Ni2+ alone was not remarkable, it exhibited a synergetic effect with BiVO4 for photoelectrochemical water oxidation, which can compete with Co-Pi-decorated BiVO4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Ki Cho
- Department
of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Kumoh
National Institute of Technology, 61 Daehak-ro, Gumi-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do 730-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinho Chang
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for NanoBio Applied Technology, Sungshin Women’s University, 55 Dobong-ro, 76ga-gil, Gangbuk-gu, Seoul 142-732, Republic
of Korea
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50
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Li CT, Lin RYY, Lin JT. Sensitizers for Aqueous-Based Solar Cells. Chem Asian J 2017; 12:486-496. [PMID: 28070969 DOI: 10.1002/asia.201601627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 01/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Aqueous dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are attractive due to their sustainability, the use of water as a safe solvent for the redox mediators, and their possible applications in photoelectrochemical water splitting. However, the higher tendency of dye leaching by water and the lower wettability of dye molecules are two major obstacles that need to be tackled for future applications of aqueous DSSCs. Sensitizers designed for aqueous DSSCs are discussed based on their functions, such as modification of the molecular skeleton and the anchoring group for better stability against dye leaching by water, and the incorporation of hydrophilic entities into the dye molecule or the addition of a surfactant to the system to increase the wettability of the dye for more facile dye regeneration. Surface treatment of the photoanode to deter dye leaching or improve the wettability of the dye molecule is also discussed. Redox mediators designed for aqueous DSSCs are also discussed. The review also includes quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells, with a focus on improvements in QD loading and suppression of interfacial charge recombination at the photoanode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ting Li
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Ryan Yeh-Yung Lin
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jiann T Lin
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
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