Antibacterial and photochemical properties of cellulose nanofiber-titania nanocomposites loaded with two different types of antibiotic medicines

Recent advancements and perspectives on processable natural biopolymers: Cellulose, chitosan, eggshell membrane, and silk fibroin

With the rapid development of the global economy and the continuous consumption of fossil resources, sustainable and biodegradable natural biomass has garnered extensive attention as a promising substitute for synthetic polymers. Due to their hierarchical and nanoscale structures, natural biopolymers exhibit remarkable mechanical properties, along with excellent innate biocompatibility and biodegradability, demonstrating significant potential in various application scenarios. Among these biopolymers, proteins and polysaccharides are the most commonly studied due to their low cost, abundance, and ease of use. However, the direct processing/conversion of proteins and polysaccharides into their final products has been a long-standing challenge due to their natural morphology and compositions. In this review, we emphasize the importance of processing natural biopolymers into high-value-added products through sustainable and cost-effective methods. We begin with the extraction of four types of natural biopolymers: cellulose, chitosan, eggshell membrane, and silk fibroin. The processing and post-functionalization strategies for these natural biopolymers are then highlighted. Alongside their unique structures, the versatile potential applications of these processable natural biopolymers in biomedical engineering, biosensors, environmental engineering, and energy applications are illustrated. Finally, we provide a summary and future outlook on processable natural biopolymers, underscoring the significance of converting natural biopolymers into valuable biomaterial platforms.

Tailoring visible-light active TiO2/cellulose nanocomposites with controlled crystalline structure for enhanced photocatalytic performance

This work involves a green and simple synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles on cellulose under mild conditions without the need for calcination via hydrolysis of titanium oxysulfate (TiOSO4). The synthesis conditions, such as sulfuric acid concentration (0-10% wt), temperature (70-90 ℃), and time (4-8 h), focused on precisely controlling the structure of TiO2 to enhance its photocatalytic effectiveness under visible light. At a lower 2.5 wt% sulfuric acid concentration, pure anatase was formed on the cellulose, while an increase in the range of 5.0-7.5 wt% sulfuric acid concentration yielded a rutile phase, resulting in a mixed phase of anatase and rutile on the cellulose. The pure rutile phase was found at a low temperature (70 ℃), while increased temperature led to the formation of the anatase phase. These results confirmed that the formation of crystalline TiO2 phase on the cellulose depended on sulfuric acid concentration and temperature for hydrolysis. Additionally, the photocatalytic properties of the obtained materials were evaluated by degradationvisible of Rhodamine B (RhB) under UV and visible light. The findings revealed that the mixed phase (anatase/rutile) of TiO2 on the cellulose demonstrated a superior photocatalytic efficiency (99.2%) compared to pure anatase (85.75%) and rutile (75.08%) when exposed to visible light.

Cellulose nanocrystals: Fundamentals and biomedical applications

The present review explores the recent developments of cellulose nanocrystals, a class of captivating nanomaterials in variety of applications. CNCs are made by acid hydrolysing cellulosic materials like wood, cotton, tunicate, flax fibers by sonochemistry. It has many desirable properties, including a high tensile strength, wide surface area, stiffness, exceptional colloidal stability, and the ability to be modified. CNCs are colloidally stable, hydrophilic, and rigid rod-shaped bio-based nanomaterials in the form of rigid rods with high strength and surface area that has a diverse set of applications and properties. The intriguing features emerging from numerous fibers studies, such as renewable character and biodegradability, piqued the curiosity of many researchers who worked on lowering the size of these fibers. Physicochemical properties such as rheological, mechanical, thermal, lipid crystalline, swelling capacity, microstructural properties result in affecting surface-area to volume ratio and crystallinity of cellulose nanocrystals. The present article highlights the fundamentals of cellulose nanocrystals such as sources, isolation, fabrication, properties and surface modification with an emphasis on plethora of biomedical applications. Selected nanocellulose studies with significant findings on cellular labelling and bioimaging, tissue engineering, biosensors, gene delivery, anti-viral property, anti-bacterial property, ocular delivery, modified drug release, anti-cancer activity and enzyme immobilization are emphasized.

Cellulose-Based Nanofibril Composite Materials as a New Approach to Fight Bacterial Infections

Antibiotic resistant microorganisms have become an enormous global challenge, and are predicted to cause hundreds of millions of deaths. Therefore, the search for novel/alternative antimicrobial agents is a grand global challenge. Cellulose is an abundant biopolymer with the advantages of low cost, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. With the recent growth of nanotechnology and nanomedicine, numerous researchers have investigated nanofibril cellulose to try to develop an anti-bacterial biomaterial. However, nanofibril cellulose has no inherent antibacterial activity, and therefore cannot be used on its own. To empower cellulose with anti-bacterial properties, new efficient nanomaterials have been designed based on cellulose-based nanofibrils as potential wound dressings, food packaging, and for other antibacterial applications. In this review we summarize reports concerning the therapeutic potential of cellulose-based nanofibrils against various bacterial infections.

Recent Progress on Cellulose-Based Ionic Compounds for Biomaterials

Glycans play important roles in all major kingdoms of organisms, such as archea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide on the Earth, plays a predominant role for mechanical stability in plants, and finds a plethora of applications by humans. Beyond traditional use, biomedical application of cellulose becomes feasible with advances of soluble cellulose derivatives with diverse functional moieties along the backbone and modified nanocellulose with versatile functional groups on the surface due to the native features of cellulose as both cellulose chains and supramolecular ordered domains as extractable nanocellulose. With the focus on ionic cellulose-based compounds involving both these groups primarily for biomedical applications, a brief introduction about glycoscience and especially native biologically active glycosaminoglycans with specific biomedical application areas on humans is given, which inspires further development of bioactive compounds from glycans. Then, both polymeric cellulose derivatives and nanocellulose-based compounds synthesized as versatile biomaterials for a large variety of biomedical applications, such as for wound dressings, controlled release, encapsulation of cells and enzymes, and tissue engineering, are separately described, regarding the diverse routes of synthesis and the established and suggested applications for these highly interesting materials.

Hemocompatibility of Nanotitania-Nanocellulose Hybrid Materials

In order to develop a new type of improved wound dressing, we combined the wound healing properties of nanotitania with the advantageous dressing properties of nanocellulose to create three different hybrid materials. The hemocompatibility of the synthesized hybrid materials was evaluated in an in vitro human whole blood model. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the molecular interaction between hybrid nanotitania and blood proteins. Two of the hybrid materials prepared with 3 nm colloidal titania and 10 nm hydrothermally synthesized titania induced strong coagulation and platelet activation but negligible complement activation. Hence, they have great potential as a new dressing for promoting wound healing. Unlike the other two, the third hybrid material using molecular ammonium oxo-lactato titanate as a titania source inhibited platelet consumption, TAT generation, and complement activation, apparently via lowered pH at the surface interface. It is therefore suitable for applications where a passivating surface is desired, such as drug delivery systems and extracorporeal circuits. This opens the possibility for a tailored blood response through the surface functionalization of titania.

Nanocellulose in Drug Delivery and Antimicrobially Active Materials

In recent years, nanocellulose (NC) has also attracted a great deal of attention in drug delivery systems due to its unique physical properties, specific surface area, low risk of cytotoxicity, and excellent biological properties. This review is focused on nanocellulose based systems acting as carriers to be used in drug or antimicrobial delivery by providing different but controlled and sustained release of drugs or antimicrobial agents, respectively, thus showing potential for different routes of applications and administration. Microorganisms are increasingly resistant to antibiotics, and because, generally, the used metal or metal oxide nanoparticles at some concentration have toxic effects, more research has focused on finding biocompatible antimicrobial agents that have been obtained from natural sources. Our review contains the latest research from the last five years that tested nanocellulose-based materials in the field of drug delivery and antimicrobial activity.

Bacterial Nanocellulose and Titania Hybrids: Cytocompatible and Cryopreservable Cell Carriers

Carrier-assisted cell transplantation offers new strategies to improve the clinical outcomes of cellular therapies. Bacterial nanocellulose (BC) is an emerging biopolymer that might be of great value in the development of animal-free, customizable, and temperature-stable novel cell carriers. Moreover, BC exhibits a myriad of modification possibilities to incorporate additional functionalities. Here, we have synthesized BC-titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanocomposites (BC/TiO₂) to evaluate and compare the suitability of not only BC but also a model hybrid nanobiomaterial as cell transplantation supports. This work provides thorough information on the interactions between BC-based substrates and model human cells in terms of cell attachment, morphology, proliferation rate, and metabolic activity. Two methods to partially retrieve the adhered cells are also reported. Both BC and BC/TiO₂ substrates are positively evaluated in terms of cytocompatibility and endotoxin content without detecting major differences between BC and BC nanocomposites. Lastly, the effective cryopreservation of cells-BC and cells-BC/TiO₂ constructs, yielding high cell viability and intact cell carrier's characteristics after thawing, is demonstrated. Taken together, our results show that both BC and BC/TiO₂ enable to integrate the processes of expansion and long-term storage of human cells in transportable, robust and easy to manipulate supports.

Nanocellulose-based polymer hybrids and their emerging applications in biomedical engineering and water purification

Nanocellulose, derived from cellulose hydrolysis, has unique optical and mechanical properties, high surface area, and good biocompatibility. It is frequently used as a reinforcing agent to improve the native properties of materials. The presence of functional groups in its surface enables the alteration of its behavior and its use under different conditions. Nanocellulose is typically used in the form of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), or bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). CNCs and CNFs have a high aspect ratio with typical lengths of ∼100-250 nm and 0.1-2 μm, respectively; BNC is nanostructured cellulose produced by bacteria. Nanohybrid materials are a combination of organic or inorganic nanomaterials with macromolecules forming a single composite and typically exhibit superior optical, thermal, and mechanical properties to those of native polymers, owing to the greater interactions between the macromolecule matrix and the nanomaterials. Excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability make nanocellulose an ideal material for applications in biomedicine. Unlike native polymers, nanocellulose-based nanohybrids exhibit a sustained drug release ability, which can be further optimized by changing the content or chemical environment of the nanocellulose, as well as the external stimuli, such as the pH and electric fields. In this review, we describe the process of extraction of nanocellulose from different natural sources; its effects on the structural, morphological, and mechanical properties of polymers; and its various applications.

Nanocrystalline cellulose: Preparation, physicochemical properties, and applications in drug delivery systems

Cancer is the leading cause of death all over the world and chemotherapy is an important approach to fight cancer, however, there are many obstacles against successful cancer chemotherapy such as development of multidrug resistance, poor solubility of chemotherapeutic agents and adverse side effects to healthy tissues. An important strategy to overcome these obstacles, is the use of nanotechnology. In recent years, natural polymers such as cellulose and its nanoform structure, nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC), have attracted the interest of researchers in the field of nanotechnology and specially drug delivery systems, due to biocompatibility and biodegradability of NCC. Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer and changes to NCC by several chemical and mechanical methods. In this review, we mainly focus on the methods for production of NCC, physicochemical properties and medical applications of NCC (e.g. regenerative medicine, replacement of vascular grafts, tissue engineering, anti-bacterial/anti-viral applications, diagnosis and biosensing) with a special emphasize on drug delivery systems.

A review on versatile applications of blends and composites of CNC with natural and synthetic polymers with mathematical modeling

Cellulose is world's most abundant, renewable and recyclable polysaccharide on earth. Cellulose is composed of both amorphous and crystalline regions. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are extracted from crystalline region of cellulose. The most attractive feature of CNC is that it can be used as nanofiller to reinforce several synthetic and natural polymers. In this article, a comprehensive overview of modification of several natural and synthetic polymers using CNCs as reinforcer in respective polymer matrix is given. The immense activities of CNCs are successfully utilized to enhance the mechanical properties and to broaden the field of application of respective polymer. All the technical scientific issues have been discussed highlighting the recent advancement in biomedical and packaging field.

Nanocellulose-Based Antibacterial Materials

In recent years, nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials have attracted a great deal of attention due to their unique and potentially useful features. In this review, several representative types of nanocellulose and modification methods for antimicrobial applications are mainly focused on. Recent literature related with the preparation and applications of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials is reviewed. The fabrication of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials for wound dressings, drug carriers, and packaging materials is the focus of the research. The most important additives employed in the preparation of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials are presented, such as antibiotics, metal, and metal oxide nanoparticles, as well as chitosan. These nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials can benefit many applications including wound dressings, drug carriers, and packaging materials. Finally, the challenges of industrial production and potentials for development of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials are discussed.

Photocatalytic degradation of naphthalene using calcined FeZnO/ PVA nanofibers

Recently, the incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles into polymers has gained great attention owing to their ample of applications. The green mediated synthesis Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles have been incorporated into PVA nanofibers through electro spinning for the application of photocatalytic degradation. The PVA polymer concentration was optimized to obtain uniform fibers without beads. The Fe-doped ZnO nanofibers were characterized by various analyzing techniques. The results show that good physicochemical with high surface area, uniformity in fiber with an average diameter ranges from 150 to 300 and 50-200 nm for un-calcined and calcined Fe-doped ZnO nanofiber respectively. The photocatalytic activity of nanofibers was examined by the degradation of naphthalene. The efficiency was observed 96 and 81% for calcined and un-calcined nanofibers, respectively. The reusable efficacy of Fe-doped ZnO calcined nanofiber as a catalyst was studied. These studies corroborated that the calcined Fe-doped ZnO nanofiber as promising material for catalytic applications.

Hybrid Drug Delivery Patches Based on Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals and Colloid Titania-Synthesis and Antibacterial Properties

Spherical cellulose nanocrystal-based hybrids grafted with titania nanoparticles were successfully produced for topical drug delivery. The conventional analytical filter paper was used as a precursor material for cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) production. Cellulose nanocrystals were extracted via a simple and quick two-step process based on first the complexation with Cu(II) solution in aqueous ammonia followed by acid hydrolysis with diluted H₂SO₄. Triclosan was selected as a model drug for complexation with titania and further introduction into the nanocellulose based composite. Obtained materials were characterized by a broad variety of microscopic, spectroscopic, and thermal analysis methods. The drug release studies showed long-term release profiles of triclosan from the titania based nanocomposite that agreed with Higuchi model. The bacterial susceptibility tests demonstrated that released triclosan retained its antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. It was found that a small amount of titania significantly improved the antibacterial activity of obtained nanocomposites, even without immobilization of model drug. Thus, the developed hybrid patches are highly promising candidates for potential application as antibacterial agents.

Preparation and characterization of contact active antibacterial surface based on chemically modified nanofibrillated cellulose by phenanthridinium silane salt

The main object of this research is chemical modification of the nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) surface with a phenanthridinium silane salt to develop durable non-leaching antibacterial surface. Initially, (3-trimethoxysilylpropyl) phenanthridinium iodide (TMSPhI) as an antibacterial agent was synthesized using (3-chloropropyl trimethoxysilane) (CPTMS) and phenanthridine in the presence of potassium iodide. Subsequently, NFC was cationized by reaction of its hydroxyl groups with the trimethoxysilane group of TMSPhI to prepare the modified sample (NFC-TMSPhI). The synthesized TMSPhI was characterized by FT-IR, ¹H and ¹³C NMR spectroscopies. The modified NFC samples were also characterized by FE-SEM/EDX, XRD, TGA, elemental analysis, contact angle measurement, FT-IR, UV-Visible and fluorescence spectroscopies. The obtained NFC-TMSPhI samples presented fluorescence property at the maximum emission wavelength in the range of 539-549 nm. Additionally, the antibacterial activity of the modified samples were evaluated quantitatively against Gram-positive (S. aureus) and Gram-negative (E. coli) bacteria. All the modified samples displayed promising results with at least bacteriostatic effect or bactericidal properties. Finally, the cytotoxic effect of the modified sample on human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) and two cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and Hela) was investigated that showed dose- and surface charge-dependent toxicity.

Anti-organic fouling and anti-biofouling poly(piperazineamide) thin film nanocomposite membranes for low pressure removal of heavy metal ions

Propensity towards anti-organic fouling, anti-biofouling property and low rejection of multivalent cation (monovalent counter ion) restricts the application of the state-of-art poly(piperazineamide) [poly(PIP)] thin film composite (TFC) nanofiltration (NF) membrane for the treatment of water containing toxic heavy metal ions, organic fouling agents and microbes. Herein, we report the preparation of thin film nanocomposite (TFNC) NF membranes with improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy, anti-biofouling property, and anti-organic fouling properties compared to that of poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane. The TFNC NF membranes were prepared by the interfacial polymerization (IP) between PIP and trimesoyl chloride followed by post-treatment with polyethyleneimine (PEI) or PEI-polyethylene glycol conjugate and then immobilization of Ag NP. The IP was conducted on a polyethersulfone/poly(methyl methacrylate)-co-poly(vinyl pyrollidone)/silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) blend ultrafiltration membrane support. The TFNC membranes exhibited >99% rejection of Pb²⁺, 91-97% rejection of Cd²⁺, 90-96% rejection of Co²⁺ and 95-99% rejection of Cu²⁺ with permeate flux ∼40Lm^-2h^-1 at applied pressure 0.5MPa. The improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy of the modified NF membranes is attributed to the development of positive surface charge as well as lowering of surface pore size compared to that of unmodified poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane.

Water Resistant Cellulose - Titanium Dioxide Composites for Photocatalysis

Novel water resistant photocatalytic composites of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)-polyamide-amine-epichlorohydrin (PAE)-TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by a simple two-step mixing process. The composites produced are flexible, uniform, reproducible and reusable; they can readily be removed from the pollutant once used. Small amount of TiO2 NPs are required for the loaded composites to exhibit a remarkable photocatalytic activity which is quantified here as achieving at least 95% of methyl orange degradation under 150 min of UV light irradiation for the composite with best combination. The cellulose network combined with PAE strongly retains NPs and hinders their release in the environment. PAE dosage (10 and 50 mg/g MFC) controls the NP retention in the cellulose fibrous matrix. As TiO2 content increases, the photocatalytic activity of the composites levels off to a constant; this is reached at 2wt% TiO2 NPs for 10 mg/g PAE and 20wt% for 50 mg/g PAE. SEM and SAXS analysis confirms the uniform distribution of NPs and their formation of aggregates in the cellulose fibre network. These economical and water resistant photocatalytic paper composites made by a simple, robust and easily scalable process are ideal for applications such as waste water treatment where efficiency, reusability and recyclability are important.

Dispersion of TiO2 nanoparticles improves burn wound healing and tissue regeneration through specific interaction with blood serum proteins

Burn wounds are one of the most important causes of mortality and especially morbidity around the world. Burn wound healing and skin tissue regeneration remain thus one of the most important challenges facing the mankind. In the present study we have addressed this challenge, applying a solution-stabilized dispersion TiO2 nanoparticles, hypothesizing that their ability to adsorb proteins will render them a strong capacity in inducing body fluid coagulation and create a protective hybrid material coating. The in vitro study of interaction between human blood and titania resulted at enhanced TiO2 concentrations in formation of rather dense gel composite materials and even at lower content revealed specific adsorption pattern initiating the cascade response, promising to facilitate the regrowth of the skin. The subsequent in vivo study of the healing of burn wounds in rats demonstrated formation of a strongly adherent crust of a nanocomposite, preventing infection and inflammation with quicker reduction of wound area compared to untreated control. The most important result in applying the TiO2 dispersion was the apparently improved regeneration of damaged tissues with appreciable decrease in scar formation and skin color anomalies.

Cellulose nanofibrils/chitosan based transdermal drug delivery vehicle for controlled release of ketorolac tromethamine

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) have attracted attention as a promising material in the biomedical field because of their outstanding properties such as hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high surface area.