Extraction of triterpenoids and phenolic compounds from Ganoderma lucidum: optimization study using the response surface methodology

Effects of different wall-breaking methods on the nutrient release of Ganoderma lucidum spore powder during in vitro digestion

BACKGROUND

The hard double-walled structure of Ganoderma lucidum spore powder (GLSP) is difficult for the human body to digest, so it is very important to break the wall of GLSP. In this study, the wall of GLSP was broken by mechanical milling at room temperature (MM-R) and ultra-fine grinding at low temperature (UFG-L), respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with MM-R, UFG-L could better retain the sporangium powder's morphological and structural integrity. During in vitro digestion, compared with unbroken GLSP, the released amounts of polysaccharides and triterpenes from broken GLSP were significantly increased, and they increased with the increase of specific surface area. The bioaccessibility of polysaccharide and triterpene from unbroken GLSP after the intestinal stage were 29.52% and 5.37%, respectively. The bioaccessibility of polysaccharides and triterpene from broken GLSP by MM-R after the intestinal phase were 39.73-72.45% and 16.44-24.97%, while those by UFG-L were 44.53-104.18% and 12.96-32.90%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The active ingredients of broken GLSP showed better digestion and absorption abilities than unbroken GLSP. Moreover, the specific surface area of GLSP by UFG-L was lower than that by MM-R, and the bioaccessibility of GLSP by UFG-L was higher than that by MM-R. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Synergistic apoptotic effects of ethanolic extracts of ginger and Ganoderma lucidum in a colorectal cancer cell line

Current conventional therapy for colorectal cancer includes surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, all of which produce side effects. Herbal medicine can control the side effects of conventional treatments. We investigated the synergistic effect of a mixture of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger) and Ganoderma lucidum extracts on colorectal cancer cell apoptosis in vitro. We prepared ethanolic extracts of ginger (GEE) and G. lucidum (GLEE). Cytotoxicity was evaluated using MTT assay and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of each extract was calculated. The effect of these extracts on apoptosis in cancer cells was assessed using flow cytometry; Bax, Bcl2 and caspase-3 gene expression was evaluated using real-time PCR. GEE and GLEE decreased CT-26 cell viability significantly in a dose-dependent manner; however, the combined application of GEE + GLEE was most effective. Bax:Bcl-2 gene expression ratio, caspase-3 gene expression and the number of apoptotic cells were increased significantly in CT-26 cells treated at the IC50 level of each compound, especially in the GEE + GLEE treatment group. Combined ginger and Ganoderma lucidum extracts exhibited synergistic antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on colorectal cancer cells.

Comparison of the dried properties of Ganoderma lucidum produced by the convective dryer and infrared dryer

Ganoderma lucidum is a promising medicine with a high amount of antioxidants and calcium. The selection of appropriate drying process methods in food science has a chief role to reach the best final characteristics. This study aimed to investigate the effects of air velocity and temperature in the convective dryer, sample distance, and infrared power in infrared dryers on the drying kinetics and quality of Ganoderma lucidum slices. In addition, Response Surface Methodology based on central composition design was used to optimize and analyze drying conditions. The ranges of temperature and air velocity were 40-60 °C and 0.5-1.5 m/s, respectively in the convective drying process while the range of distance and infrared power was 4-16 cm and 500-1500 W, respectively in the infrared drying process. It is worth mentioning that antioxidant and calcium contents were greatly enhanced during the drying procedures. Moreover, the values of the total color difference ranged between 8.21 and 19.66 for the convective dryer and 8.14 and 28.85 for the infrared dryer. A kinetic study indicated that dried samples by the infrared dryer could rapidly reach equilibrium moisture content due to exposure to IR radiation. Consequently, the results indicated that the infrared dryer has better performance than the convective dryer regarding drying time, energy consumption, and amount of calcium and antioxidant.

Biotransformation of triterpenoid ganoderic acids from exogenous diterpene dihydrotanshinone I in the cultures of Ganoderma sessile

BACKGROUND

Triterpenoids have shown a wide range of biological activities including antitumor and antiviral effects. Typically, triterpenes are synthesized through the mevalonate pathway and are extracted from natural plants and fungi. In this work, triterpenoids, ganoderic acids (GAs) were discovered to be produced via biotransformation of a diterpene, 15,16-dihydrotanshinone I (DHT) in the liquid cultured Ganoderma sessile mycelium.

RESULTS

Firstly, the biotransformation products, two rare GAs were isolated and purified by column chromatography, and characterized using HR-ESI-MS spectrometry and NMR spectrometry. The two compounds were Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-15α,22,β-diacetoxy-3β-hydroxy-26-oic acid (LTHA) and Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-15α,22,β-diacetoxy-3β-carbonyl-26-oic acid (LTCA). Then, transcriptome and proteome technologies were employed to measure the expression of mRNA and protein, which further confirmed that triterpenoid GAs could be transformed from exogenous diterpenoid DHT. At the molecular level, we proposed a hypothesis of the mechanism by which DHT converted to GAs in G. sessile mycelium, and the possible genes involved in biotransformation were verified by RT-qPCR.

CONCLUSIONS

Two rare GAs were obtained and characterized. A biosynthetic pathway of GAs from DHT was proposed. Although the synthetic route was not confirmed, this study provided important insights into omics resources and candidate genes for studying the biotransformation of diterpenes into triterpenes.

Extraction, identification, and starch-digestion inhibition of phenolics from Euryale ferox seed coat

BACKGROUND

Euryale ferox is an important cash crop and valuable tonic in traditional medicine. The seeds of E. ferox are rich in starch, which is hard to digest, and the digestion speed is significantly slower than that of rice starch. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of E. ferox seed-coat phenolics (EFCPs) on the digestion of E. ferox seed starch.

RESULTS

EFCPs were extracted and identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. We optimized the extraction parameters, and the final extraction yield was about 1.49%. We identified seven phenolics from the E. ferox seed-coat extracts: gallic acid, digalloylhexoside, catechin, procyanidin B2, epicatechin, ellagic acid, and epicatechin gallate. Quantitative analysis results showed that the E. ferox seed phenolics mainly distributed in the seed coat and the gallic acid, digalloylhexoside, and epicatechin gallate were three main phenolic compounds. The phenolics displayed strong inhibitory activities on α-glucosidase and α-amylase with an IC₅₀ of 3.25 μg mL^-1 and 1.36 mg mL^-1 respectively. Furthermore, these phenolics could interact with starch by hydrogen bonds, which might make its starch more difficult to digest.

CONCLUSION

Our investigation suggests that the EFCPs can strongly inhibit the digestion of E. ferox seed starch by inhibiting the α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities and interacting with starch by hydrogen bonds; therefore, E. ferox seeds have a promising application prospect in foods for hypoglycemia. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Response surface methodology as a tool to optimize the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant sources

Response surface methodology (RSM) is a widely used mathematical and statistical technique for modeling and optimizing the process for the extraction of bioactive compounds. This review explains the optimization approach through the use of experimental design and empirical models for response prediction and the utilization of the desirability function for multiple response optimization. This paper also reviews recent studies on the application of RSM to optimize bioactive compound extraction processes such as conventional solvent extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, and ultrasound-assisted extraction. Finally, the challenges associated with the use of RSM and the efforts made to improve RSM in the extraction process are also highlighted. Overall, this review informs many aspects of RSM that are occasionally ignored or insufficiently discussed with regard to the optimization of bioactive compound extraction processes, and it summarizes significant applications where RSM proved suitable. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The chemical profiling and assessment of antioxidative, antidiabetic and antineurodegenerative potential of Kombucha fermented Camellia sinensis, Coffea arabica and Ganoderma lucidum extracts

The scientific interest in the medicinal properties of Kombucha beverages, a carbonated drink with live microorganisms, has increased recently. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the chemical profile and to examine the antioxidant, antidiabetic and antineurodegenerative potential of unfermented and also Kombucha fermented Camellia sinensis (green tea), Coffea arabica (coffee), and Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) extracts. The extracts were prepared as follows: the first (unfermented) set contained 1 L of water, 50 g of sucrose and 20 g of dried and ground green tea, coffee, or Reishi basidiocarp, while the second (fermented) set contained all of the aforementioned ingredients individually inoculated with Kombucha and fermented for 21 days. The chemical analysis was conducted using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The antioxidant activity was assessed by DPPH, total reducing power (TRP), and β-carotene bleaching assays. The inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity was used to estimate the antidiabetic potential, while the level of inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and tyrosinase (TYR) was used to evaluate the antineurodegenerative activity. The results suggested that the fermented extracts of green tea, coffee, and Reishi exert significant antioxidant effects, although they were lower compared to the unfermented extracts. The unfermented green tea extract exhibited the highest DPPH-scavenging activity (87.46%) and the highest preservation of β-carotene (92.41%), while the fermented coffee extract showed the highest TRP (120.14 mg AAE per g) at 10 mg mL^-1. Although the extracts did not inhibit the activity of α-amylase, they were quite effective at inhibiting α-glucosidase, especially the unfermented Reishi extract, inhibiting 95.16% (at a concentration of 10 mg mL^-1) of α-glucosidase activity, which was slightly higher than the positive control at the same concentration. The most effective AChE inhibitor was unfermented green tea extract (68.51%), while the fermented coffee extract inhibited 34.66% of TYR activity at 10 mg mL^-1. Altogether, these results are in accordance with the differences found in the extracts' chemical composition. Finally, this is the first report that highlights the differences in the chemical profile between the unfermented and Kombucha fermented green tea, coffee and Reishi extracts, while it also reveals, for the first time, the antineurodegenerative potential of Kombucha fermented Reishi extract. The examined extracts represent potent functional foods, while their more detailed mechanisms of action are expected to be revealed in future research.

Label compliance for ingredient verification: regulations, approaches, and trends for testing botanical products marketed for "immune health" in the United States

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the botanical product market saw a consumer interest increase in immune health supplements. While data are currently insufficient to support public health guidance for using foods and dietary supplements to prevent or treat COVID-19 and other immune disorders, consumer surveys indicate that immune support is the second-most cited reason for supplement use in the United States. Meanwhile, consumers showed increased attention to dietary supplement ingredient labels, especially concerning authenticity and ingredient claims. Top-selling botanical ingredients such as elderberry, turmeric, and functional mushrooms have been increasingly marketed toward consumers to promote immune health, but these popular products succumb to adulteration with inaccurate labeling due to the intentional or unintentional addition of lower grade ingredients, non-target plants, and synthetic compounds, partially due to pandemic-related supply chain issues. This review highlights the regulatory requirements and recommendations for analytical approaches, including chromatography, spectroscopy, and DNA approaches for ingredient claim verification. Demonstrating elderberry, turmeric, and functional mushrooms as examples, this review aims to provide industrial professionals and scientists an overview of current United States regulations, testing approaches, and trends for label compliance verification to ensure the safety of botanical products marketed for "immune health."

Extraction of a Triterpene Solution and Evaluation of the Hypolipidemic Efficacy of the Pleurotus tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing Sclerotium

The total triterpenes in edible mushrooms have high medicinal value, and the sclerotium has various biological activities, such as the regulation of blood pressure and blood glucose. In this study, the total triterpenes of the Pleurotus tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing Sclerotium (PTRSS) were extracted, and their hypolipidemic effects were also investigated. The infrared spectra showed that the total triterpenes were consistent with the characteristic structures of the total triterpenes before and after purification. The binding abilities of total triterpenes to sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate, and sodium cholate were investigated, and all of them had a good binding ability to cholate. In vivo experiments showed that zebrafish tolerated the total triterpenes from the mushroom nuclei at a maximum concentration of 500 µg/mL. A correlation analysis showed that the total triterpenes from the mushroom nuclei reduced the lipid accumulation in zebrafish induced by a high-fat diet, and the lipid-lowering effect showed a correlation with dose.

Anticancer and Antioxidant Activities in Ganoderma lucidum Wild Mushrooms in Poland, as Well as Their Phenolic and Triterpenoid Compounds

The goal of this study was to the assess anti-cancer and antioxidant properties of the Ganoderma lucidum fruiting body, and to identify bioactive compounds found in their extracts. Significant antiproliferative activity was observed against MCF-7, MCF-7/DX, LOVO, LOVO/DX, MDA-MB 231, SW 620, and NHDF cell lines. With IC₅₀ values of 25.38 µg/mL and 47.90 µg/mL, respectively, the extract was most effective against MDA-MB 231 and SW 620 cell lines. The bioactive compounds were identified using an ACQUITY UPLC-PDA-MS system. The extracts contained 13 triterpenoids and 28 polyphenols from the flavonols, phenolic acids, flavones, flavan-3-ols, and stilbenes families. Ganoderic acid derivative was found to be the most abundant triterpenoid (162.4 mg/g DW), followed by ganoderic acid B (145.6 mg/g DW). Resveratrol was the most abundant phenolic in the extract (5155.7 mg/100 g DM). The findings could explain why G. lucidum extracts are used in folk medicine.

Mechanism of enhanced production of triterpenoids in algal-fungal consortium

Chlorella pyrenoidosa-Ganoderma lucidum symbiotic systems were constructed. The mechanism of enhanced production of triterpenoids in algal-fungal consortium by comparing the contents of triterpenoids in individual fungal systems and algal-fungal consortium systems was investigated. The production of triterpenoids in C. pyrenoidosa-G. lucidum consortium increased significantly (P < 0.05). The categories and relative abundances of metabolites in the individual systems and algal-fungal systems were measured and analyzed by metabonomic tests. There were 57 significant different metabolites (VIP > 1 and P < 0.05) including 12 downregulated metabolites and 45 upregulated metabolites were obtained. The significant enriched metabolic pathways (VIP > 1 and P < 0.05) of citrate cycle (TCA cycle), tyrosine metabolism, glycolysis, and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis in algal-fungal consortium were obtained. The relative abundances of important precursors of triterpenoids including mevalonic acid, lanosterol, and hydroquinone were 1.4 times, 1.7 times, and 2 times, respectively, in algal-fungal consortium than that in the individual fungal systems. The presence of C. pyrenoidosa in algal-fungal consortium promoted the biosynthesis of triterpenoids in G. lucidum.

Antioxidant, antibacterial, antitumor, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and nevro-protective activity of Ganoderma lucidum: An overview

Ganoderma lucidum is a very medicinal mushroom that has been utilized in Oriental medicine for many years. It has a wide range of pharmacological and therapeutic properties, and has been used for many years as a health promoter. It contains various biologically active compounds that improve the immune system and have antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties. Active compounds include triterpenoids and polysaccharides, as well as proteins, lipids, phenolics, sterols, etc. In the following review, we summarize briefly their biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antitumor, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory activity. Although Ganoderma has a number of medicinal effects that have been confirmed by the in vitro and in vivo studies summarised in this review, there are some limitations. Clinical trials face mainly a lack of pure constituents. Accurate identification of the compounds obtained is also problematic. In addition, most of the included studies were small, and there were concerns about the methodological quality of each study. Studies have shown that Ganoderma has valuable potential for the prevention and treatment of cancer. In any case, G. lucidum cannot be used as first-line therapy for cancer.

Screening of bioactive ingredients of Tsantan Sumtang in ameliorating H9c2 cells injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tsantan Sumtang (TS), a traditional Tibetan medicine, has been used in the clinic for the treatment of myocardial ischemia (MI) for ages, however, the bioactive ingredients that are responsible for improving MI remain unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study investigated the chemical components of TS and their medicinal efficacies at cell levels, in order to expound the bioactive ingredients in TS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, a response-surface methodology was employed to determine the optimum ethanol reflux extraction process of polyphenols in TS (PTS) due to their close correlation with MI improvement. Second, a serum pharmacochemistry technique was used to analyze the compounds of PTS absorbed into the blood of rats. Third, hypoxia-, H₂O₂-, and adriamycin (ADM)-induced H9c2 cell injury models were used to investigate the cardioprotective effects of these compounds in vitro. Fourth, protective effects of isovitexin, quercitrin, and isoeugenol on mitochondrial function were further tested.

RESULTS

The optimum extraction conditions for obtaining PTS were an ethanol concentration of 78.22%, an extraction time of 67.4 min, and a material-liquid ratio of 1:72.60 mL/g. Serum pharmacochemistry analysis detected 21 compounds, of which 11 compounds were always present in the blood within 5 h. Cytotoxicity and the protective effect of 11 compounds in hypoxia-, H₂O₂-, and ADM-induced H9c2 cell injury models shown that isovitexin, quercitrin, and isoeugenol had almost no cytotoxicity, and they could elevate the survival rate in injured H9c2 cells. Furthermore, isovitexin, quercitrin, and isoeugenol could decrease mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) releasion, inhibite mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening, ameliorate the change of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) to exert mitochondrial protection effect.

CONCLUSION

Isovitexin, quercitrin, and isoeugenol exhibited cardioprotective effect at cell levles, these three compounds might be the bioactive ingredients in TS. These findings elucidate the pharmacodynamic substances and mechanisms of TS, guiding its clinical use.

Metabolic stimulation-elicited transcriptional responses and biosynthesis of acylated triterpenoids precursors in the medicinal plant Helicteres angustifolia

BACKGROUND

Helicteres angustifolia has long been used in Chinese traditional medicine. It has multiple pharmacological benefits, including anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anti-tumor effects. Its main active chemicals include betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, helicteric acid, helicterilic acid, and other triterpenoid saponins. It is worth noting that some acylated triterpenoids, such as helicteric acid and helicterilic acid, are characteristic components of Helicteres and are relatively rare among other plants. However, reliance on natural plants as the only sources of these is not enough to meet the market requirement. Therefore, the engineering of its metabolic pathway is of high research value for enhancing the production of secondary metabolites. Unfortunately, there are few studies on the biosynthetic pathways of triterpenoids in H. angustifolia, hindering its further investigation.

RESULTS

Here, the RNAs of different groups treated by metabolic stimulation were sequenced with an Illumina high-throughput sequencing platform, resulting in 121 gigabases of data. A total of 424,824 unigenes were obtained after the trimming and assembly of the raw data, and 22,430 unigenes were determined to be differentially expressed. In addition, three oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs) and four Cytochrome P450 (CYP450s) were screened, of which one OSC (HaOSC1) and one CYP450 (HaCYPi3) achieved functional verification, suggesting that they could catalyze the production of lupeol and oleanolic acid, respectively.

CONCLUSION

In general, the transcriptomic data of H. angustifolia was first reported and analyzed to study functional genes. Three OSCs, four CYP450s and three acyltransferases were screened out as candidate genes to perform further functional verification, which demonstrated that HaOSC1 and HaCYPi3 encode for lupeol synthase and β-amyrin oxidase, which produce corresponding products of lupeol and oleanolic acid, respectively. Their successful identification revealed pivotal steps in the biosynthesis of acylated triterpenoids precursors, which laid a foundation for further study on acylated triterpenoids. Overall, these results shed light on the regulation of acylated triterpenoids biosynthesis.

Evaluation of Nutritional Ingredients, Biologically Active Materials, and Pharmacological Activities of Stropharia rugosoannulata Grown under the Bamboo Forest and in the Greenhouse

Evaluations of the nutritional ingredients, biologically active materials, and pharmacological activities (antibacterial and antioxidant) of two types of Stropharia rugosoannulata, grown under the bamboo forest and in the greenhouse, respectively, were carried out in this study. The nutritional ingredient tests included moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, total carbohydrates, total sugar, mineral elements, vitamins, and amino acids. The biologically active material assays included total flavonoids, total polysaccharides, total triterpenoids, and reducing sugars. In addition, a broth microdilution susceptibility test was performed to evaluate antibacterial activity. The antioxidant activity was measured by ABTS+ radical scavenging, ferric-reducing power, and β-carotene bleaching assays. Results showed that two types of S. rugosoannulata were rich in protein, carbohydrate, fiber, mineral, B-group vitamins, polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and reducing sugars, with low content of fat and low Na/K ratio. Besides, they were effective in antibacterial and antioxidant activities, while S. Rugosoannulata grown under the bamboo forest was better than the greenhouse one in some respects such as higher content of protein, calcium, selenium, nicotinic acid, folic acid, polysaccharides and triterpenoids, and stronger antibacterial and antioxidant activities. They were appropriate for functional food and nutritional supplements, especially bamboo forest.

Bioactivity-Guided Single-Step Isolation of Stachyspinoside from Sideritis congesta by Centrifugal Partition Chromatography

Sideritis congesta is a plant native to Mediterranean countries. Infusions of this plant are used to treat various diseases. The anti-inflammatory potential of Sideritis species is widely known. However, the anti-inflammatory potential of an aqueous extract of S. congesta has not been investigated yet. In this study, the phytochemical composition and anti-inflammatory potential of different fractions of an aqueous extract from S. congesta using bioactivity guided fractionation via centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) were determined. A CPC single-step isolation of a flavonoid stachyspinoside 1 from S. congesta is reported. In addition, a CPC fractionation protocol of the crude aqueous extract was developed. Three aqueous fractions (I, II, and III) of S. congesta were obtained, and their anti-inflammatory potential was evaluated with respect to their ability to inhibit the activity of COX-2 and NF-κB in vitro. Fraction I showed the highest COX-2 inhibition activity (92.3% inhibition at 0.1%). Fraction III showed the highest NF-κB inhibition activity (99.9% at 0.1%) among the CPC produced fractions. The structures of 3 compounds of fraction III could be identified and were validated by HPLC-PDA, HRMS, and NMR spectroscopy. Finally, the phenol, saponin, and flavonoid contents were quantified in the most potent CPC fractions (I and III).

Activity-Guided Characterization of COX-2 Inhibitory Compounds in Waltheria indica L. Extracts

Inflammation is the body's response to infection or tissue injury in order to restore and maintain homeostasis. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2) derived from arachidonic acid (AA), via up-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), is a key mediator of inflammation and can also be induced by several other factors including stress, chromosomal aberration, or environmental factors. Targeting prostaglandin production by inhibiting COX-2 is hence relevant for the successful resolution of inflammation. Waltheria indica L. is a traditional medicinal plant whose extracts have demonstrated COX-2 inhibitory properties. However, the compounds responsible for the activity remained unknown. For the preparation of extracts with effective anti-inflammatory properties, characterization of these substances is vital. In this work, we aimed to address this issue by characterizing the substances responsible for the COX-2 inhibitory activity in the extracts and generating prediction models to quantify the COX-2 inhibitory activity without biological testing. For this purpose, an extract was separated into fractions by means of centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC). The inhibitory potential of the fractions and extracts against the COX-2 enzyme was determined using a fluorometric COX-2 inhibition assay. The characterizations of compounds in the fractions with the highest COX-2 inhibitory activity were conducted by high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). It was found that these fractions contain alpha-linolenic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid, identified and reported for the first time in Waltheria indica leaf extracts. After analyzing their contents in different Waltheria indica extracts, it could be demonstrated that these fatty acids are responsible for up to 41% of the COX-2 inhibition observed with Waltheria indica extract. Additional quantification of secondary metabolites in the extract fractions revealed that substances from the group of steroidal saponins and triterpenoid saponins also contribute to the COX-2 inhibitory activity. Based on the content of compounds contributing to COX-2 inhibition, two mathematical models were successfully developed, both of which had a root mean square error (RMSE) = 1.6% COX-2 inhibitory activity, demonstrating a high correspondence between predicted versus observed values. The results of the predictive models further suggested that the compounds contribute to COX-2 inhibition in the order linoleic acid > alpha linolenic acid > steroidal saponins > triterpenoid saponins. The characterization of substances contributing to COX-2 inhibition in this study enables a more targeted development of extraction processes to obtain Waltheria indica extracts with superior anti-inflammatory properties.

Response surface methodology (RSM) to evaluate both the extraction of triterpenes and sterols from jackfruit seed with supercritical CO2 and the biological activity of the extracts

Jackfruit seeds are an underestimate residue having important biological activity such as anti-inflammatory, cytotoxicity and antimicrobial effects. However few researches have been done for this material using alternative extraction technologies, so this study aimed to evaluate the extraction of triterpenes and sterols from jackfruit seed by applying high- and low-pressure techniques. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the best conditions of pressure, temperature and CO2 flow rate for extraction with supercritical CO2. The yield and profile of these compounds were compared with the low pressure technique, which was considered as a reference. In vitro biological tests of anti-inflammatory activity and cytotoxicity in L929 and RAW 264.7 cells were also performed. The best extraction conditions in SFE for sterols were 40 °C/20 MPa/4 mL min-1 (0.832 ± 0.007 mgSR g-1 sample) and 40 °C/20 MPa/3 mL min-1 (0.800 ± 0.009 mgSR g-1 sample), for triterpenes were 50 °C/12 MPa/4 mL min-1 (1.501 ± 0.004 mgTT g-1 sample) and 45 °C/9.3 MPa/3.5 mL min-1 (1.485 ± 0.004 mgTT g-1 sample). No cytotoxic activity was detected in L929 cells in the extracts obtained from ethanol up to concentration of 100 μg mL-1 of extract. The Pearson's coefficient indicated that the reduction in cell viability was related to the concentration of triterpenes. Anti-inflammatory assays showed that some extracts could inhibit the inflammatory action induced in RAW 264.7 cells at concentration of 30 μg mL-1 of extract. Our results justify the further exploration of these characteristics to obtain natural products for the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Identification of plant metabolite classes from Waltheria Indica L. extracts regulating inflammatory immune responses via COX-2 inhibition

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Waltheria Indica L. is traditionally used in Africa, South America and Hawaii to treat pain, anemia, diarrhea, epilepsy and inflammatory related diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to identify extraction parameters to maximize tiliroside yield and to quantitative secondary metabolite composition of Waltheria Indica under various extraction conditions. The extracts were tested for COX-2 inhibition and their activity correlated with the type and quantity of the secondary metabolites. Insight was gained about how extraction parameters influence the extract composition and thus the COX-2 enzymatic inhibitory activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Powdered leaves of Waltheria Indica were extracted using water, methanol, ethyl acetate and ethanol at different temperatures. Tiliroside was identified by HPLC-HRMS n and quantified using a tiliroside standard. The compound groups of the secondary metabolites were quantified by spectrometric methods. Inhibitory potential of different Waltheria extracts against the COX-2 enzyme was determined using a fluorometric COX-2 inhibition assay.

RESULTS

The molecule, tiliroside, exhibited a COX-2 inhibition of 10.4% starting at a concentration of 15 μM and increased in a dose dependent manner up to 51.2% at 150 μM. The ethanolic extract at 30 °C and the ethyl acetate extract at 90 °C inhibited COX-2 with 37.7% and 38.9%, while the methanolic and aqueous extract showed a lower inhibition of 21.9% and 9.2% respectively. The results concerning phenol, alkaloid and tiliroside concentration in the extracts showed no dependence on COX-2 inhibition. The extracts demonstrated a direct correlation of COX-2 inhibitory activity with their triterpenoid-/steroidal-saponin concentration. COX-2 inhibition increased linearly with the concentration of the saponins.

CONCLUSION

The data suggest that Waltheria Indica extracts inhibit the key inflammatory enzyme, COX-2, as a function of triterpenoid- and steroidal-saponin concentration and support the known efficacy of extracted Waltheria Indica leaves as a traditional treatment against inflammation related diseases.

High-Pressure Supercritical CO2 Extracts of Ganoderma lucidum Fruiting Body and Their Anti-hepatoma Effect Associated With the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK Signaling Pathway

As a noted medicinal mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been reported to have a number of pharmacological effects such as anti-tumor and liver protection. Compared with the common ethanol reflux method, supercritical CO₂ extraction has obvious advantages in obtaining antitumor extracts from G. lucidum fruiting body such as short extraction time, low temperature and no solvent residue. However, Using high-pressure supercritical CO₂ without entrainer to obtain the antitumor extracts from G. lucidum and studying their anti-hepatoma effect have not been reported. In this study, high-pressure supercritical CO₂ extracts obtained under 65, 85, and 105 MPa pressure named as G65, G85, G105 respectively and ethanol reflux extract (GLE) were used to investigate their anti-hepatoma activity and the underlying molecular mechanism. The total triterpenoid content of G85 was significantly higher than that of G65 and GLE, but did not differ significantly from that of G105 by UV and high-performance liquid chromatography. GLE, G65, and G85 could inhibit cell proliferation, arrest cell cycle in G2/M phase, and induce apoptosis in two liver cancer cell lines (QGY7703 and SK-Hep1), of which G85 had the strongest effect. The results showed that the potency of their cytotoxicity of the high-pressure supercritical CO₂ extracts on human hepatoma carcinoma cells in vitro was consistent with their total triterpenoid content. G85 exhibited significant anti-hepatoma effect with low toxicity In vivo. Further mechanistic investigation revealed that the anti-tumor effect of these extracts was associated with their inhibition of Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that the high-pressure supercritical CO₂ extraction of G. lucidum fruiting body can be used to obtain a triterpenoid-rich anti-tumor agent, which may have potential clinical significance for the treatment of human hepatoma.

Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant and Enzyme Inhibition Activities in Correlation with Mycochemical Profile of Selected Indigenous Ganoderma spp. from Balkan Region (Serbia)

The aim of this research work was to study the bioactivity potentials (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and enzyme inhibitory) of ethanol (EtOH), water (H₂ O) and chloroform (CHCl₃ ) extracts of G. applanatum, G. lucidum, G. pfeifferi and G. resinaceum as well as their mycochemical profile: the total content of phenolics (TP) and sugars (TS) and LC/MS/MS detection of phenolics. LC/MS/MS profile showed that p-hydroxybenzoic and protocatechuic acids were mostly found. The highest ABTS and DPPH activities were detected in polar G. applanatum extracts (159.84±0.59 mg TE/g d.w., IC₅₀ =0.85±0.30 μg/mL, respectively), while G. resinaceum CHCl₃ extract was the most potent in NO assay (IC₅₀ =41.21±0.18-81.89±0.81 μg/mL). The highest TP and TS were generally determined in G. applanatum EtOH extracts. Enzyme inhibitory effects were determined in H₂ O extracts. Generally, CHCl₃ extracts showed the most powerful anti-inflammatory potential. These results suggest that analyzed species are a promising source of bioactive compounds and may be considered as candidates for new food supplements or drug formulations.

Optimization of extraction conditions of Angelica archangelica extract and activity evaluation in experimental fibromyalgia

The plant Angelica archangelica, owing to its magnificent therapeutic effectiveness in folklore medicine system, has been regarded as an "angel plant." The current investigation was aimed to optimize extraction conditions of A. archangelica roots and to investigate in vivo role of optimized extract in fibromyalgia. Plant material (dried roots) was subjected to methanol extraction at variable temperature (40 to 60 °C) and time (12 to 36 hr) conditions as per two-factorial design strategy, and responses in terms of antioxidant activity were determined. The optimized extraction conditions were found to be temperature of 60 °C and time of 36 hr. HPLC fingerprinting indicated the presence of coumarins in extract. To induce fibromyalgia, the mice were administered reserpine at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg. Mice were orally treated with 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg extract, and magnitude of fibromyalgia was quantified. In comparison to reserpine group, the extract treatment attenuated pain as shown by significant increase in paw withdrawal threshold against mechanical stimuli (P < 0.05), improved motor ability indicated by increase in fall-off time in inclined plane test (P < 0.05), improved locomotion indicated by increased square crossings in open field test (P < 0.05), and improved cognition as shown by significant reduction in time to reach platform in Morris water maze test and passive avoidance task test (P < 0.05). Extract treatment significantly halted reserpine-induced rise in serum cytokine level (P < 0.05) and brain oxidative stress (P < 0.05). Angelica archangelica extract exerted its beneficial effects in fibromyalgia possibly through the attenuation of oxidative stress-mediated inflammatory cascade. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Leads from natural products have become an integral part of drug designing processes and have high acceptability due to their better tolerance. The optimization of extraction conditions of plant yields better results and could reduce the processing time, thus increasing its industrial value.

Transcriptome dynamics and metabolite analysis revealed the candidate genes and regulatory mechanism of ganoderic acid biosynthesis during liquid superficial-static culture of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderic acid (GA), an important secondary metabolite of Ganoderma lucidum, exhibited many significant pharmacological activities. In this study, the biosynthetic mechanism of GAs was investigated by comparing metabolites and transcriptome dynamics during liquid superficial‐static culture (LSSC) and submerged culture (SC). LSSC was a better method to produce GA because thirteen GAs were identified from mycelia by UPLC‐QTOF‐MS, and the content of all GAs was higher in LSSC than in SC. Ergosterol was accumulated during the SC process in G. lucidum. Transcriptome dynamics analysis revealed CYP5150L8 was the key gene regulating lanosterol flux into GA biosynthesis. Other sixteen CYP450 genes were significantly higher expressed during the culture time in LSSC and could be potential candidate genes associated with the biosynthesis of different GAs. In addition, six of the ten expressed genes in ergosterol biosynthetic pathway shown upregulated at some time points in SC. These results not only provide a fundamental information of the key genes in ergosterol and GA biosynthetic pathway, but also provide directions for future elucidating the regulatory mechanisms of GAs in G. lucidum and enabling us to promote the development and utilization of LSSC at the industrial level.

The Role of Bioactive Compounds and other Metabolites from Mushrooms against Skin Disorders- A Systematic Review Assessing their Cosmeceutical and Nutricosmetic Outcomes

Bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms have been shown to present promising potential as cosmeceutical or nutricosmetic ingredients. Scientific data reviewed herein showed that extracts prepared from medicinal and edible mushrooms and their individual metabolites presented antiinflammatory, antioxidant, photoprotective, antimicrobial, anti-tyrosinase, anti-elastase, and anticollagenase activities. These metabolites can be utilised as ingredients to suppress the severity of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, offer photoprotection to the skin, and correct Hyperpigmentation. However, studies regarding the molecular mechanism behind the mentioned bioactivities are still lacking. Challenges associated with the use of mushroom extracts and their associated metabolites as cosmeceutical and nutricosmetic ingredients include several steps from the fruiting bodies to the final product: extraction optimization, estimation of the efficacy and safety claims, the use of micro and nanocarriers to allow for controlled release and the pros and cons associated with the use of extracts vs individual compounds. This systematic review highlights that mushrooms contain diverse biomolecules that can be sustainably used in the development of nutricosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations. Reports regarding stability, compatibility, and safety assessment, but also toxicological studies are still needed to be considered. Furthermore, some of the constraints and limitations hindering the development of this type of ingredients still require long-term studies to achieve major breakthroughs.

Simultaneous Optimization of the Ultrasonic Extraction Method and Determination of the Antioxidant Activities of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A and Anhydrosafflor Yellow B from Safflower Using a Response Surface Methodology

An evaluation of the ultrasonic extraction process and the antioxidant activities of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) and anhydrosafflor yellow B (AHSYB) from safflower are presented herein. Using response surface methodology (RSM), based on a four-factor-three-level Box–Behnken design (BBD), the extraction parameters, namely, temperature, extraction time, solvent-to-material ratio, and extraction power, were optimized for maximizing the yields of HSYA and AHSYB. The maximum yield was obtained at a temperature of 66 °C with an extraction time of 36 min, solvent-to-material ratio of 16 mL/g, and the extraction power of 150 W, which was adjusted according to the actual conditions. The HSYA and AHSYB contents were determined using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The yield and the comprehensive evaluation value of HSYA and AHSYB were calculated. The antioxidant activities of the extracts were determined using a ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) kit and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity. The results suggested that the safflower extracts possessed obvious ferric reducing and DPPH radical scavenging activities. The antioxidant activity increased with increasing concentration. The results suggested that optimizing the conditions of ultrasonic extraction using RSM can significantly increase the yields of HSYA and AHSYB from safflower. The safflower extracts showed better antioxidant activity. This study can encourage future research on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases.

Optimization of ergosterol extraction from Pleurotus mushrooms using response surface methodology

In this study, heat-assisted extraction (HAE) was used to optimise the extraction of ergosterol from Pleurotus ostreatus (PO) and Pleurotus eryngii (PE) using response surface methodology (RSM).

Production of triterpenoid compounds from Ganoderma lucidum spore powder using ultrasound-assisted extraction

When ingested as a dietary supplement, Ganoderma lucidum spore powders (GLSP) provide various health benefits such as enhanced immunity, liver protection and anti-cancer effects. In this study, triterpenoid extraction from GLSP was achieved using an ultrasound-assisted process which was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was also compared to the most conventional chemical extraction method. For UAE, optimum extraction conditions were found to be ethanol concentration = 95% v/v; solvent to solid ratio = 50:1 mL/g; ultrasound time = 5.4 min; ultrasound power = 564.7 w, and ultrasound probe distance = 8.2 cm. At optimal UAE conditions, no significant differences were found between experimental (0.97 ± 0.04 %) and predicted values (99%); which indicates appreciable correlation at the 97% confidence interval. The findings show the application of Box-Behnken design (BBD) to predict and optimize triterpenoid yield for UAE of triterpenoid from GLSP. Furthermore, glucose consumption was 2.68 times that of control samples when tested with insulin-resistant HepG2 cell, showing potential use in type 2 diabetes. In addition, triterpenoid extracts show good biocompatibility and inhibition of antioxidant activity.

Skin lightening effect of natural extracts coming from Senegal botanical biodiversity

BACKGROUND

Skin depigmentation is increasingly oriented toward plant extracts because of harmfulness of depigmenting active ingredients used in cosmetics and dermatology. Reconstructed human pigmented epidermis (RHPE) is the closest in vitro model to human skin and offers the possibility to test the global depigmenting effect of a plant extract. These co-cultures of keratinocytes and melanocytes are the most advanced and newest models for testing depigmentation, and until now very few studies have been done with these cultures. We investigated the cytotoxicity and the inhibitory effect on tyrosinase and melanogenesis of four extracts from Combretum micranthum (G. Don) leaves, Anacardium occidentale (L.) fruits, Moringa oleifera (Lam.) seeds, and Adansonia digitata (L.) seeds.

METHODS

The vegetal extracts were obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction and the vegetal oils by maceration. Anti-tyrosinase properties of two aqueous extracts were evaluated. Then, the cytotoxicity and depigmenting effects of these plant extracts were tested in vitro with RHPE model delivered by SkinEthic^® .

RESULTS

Antityrosinase activities were found to be 84.58% and 31.02% for C. micranthum and A. occidentale, respectively. All extracts, except A. occidentale, showed to be nontoxic. C. micranthum, M. oleifera, A. digitata, and mixture of M. oleifera and A. digitata extracts have shown, for the first time, an in vitro depigmenting activity equivalent or even more important than kojic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

These natural extracts coming from Senegal botanical biodiversity could be used in cosmetic and dermatology as alternative agents to achieve skin depigmentation. Further study should be focused on the mechanism of action of these plant extracts.

High Oxygen Treatments Enhance the Contents of Phenolic Compound and Ganoderic Acid, and the Antioxidant and DNA Damage Protective Activities of Ganoderma lingzhi Fruiting Body

Ganoderma lingzhi is a famous medicinal mushroom used as Chinese medicine or functional food and has been accepted across the globe. It is important to enhance the contents of bioactive compounds, which in turn improves the quality and biological activity of G. lingzhi fruiting body. In this work, freshly harvested G. lingzhi fruiting bodies were treated continuously with air or with 60 and 80% oxygen for 6 days. Samples were collected and determined initially and at 1 day interval during treatment. A high total ganoderic acid content of 29.44 g kg^–1 was obtained in samples treated with 60% oxygen at day 3. Quantitative reverse transcriptase (qRT)-PCR and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that the expression levels of hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase, squalene synthase, and oxidosqualene cyclase genes were substantially increased, resulting in the increase of ganoderic acids A, B, and C2 and ganoderenic acid B. The scavenging activities with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical, hydroxyl radical, and superoxide radical and the DNA damage protective activity were also enhanced by high oxygen treatment. The results of this work provided a potential method to enhance the active metabolite synthesis in the fruiting body of G. lingzhi.

Simultaneous Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction for Flavonoids and Antioxidant Activity of Angelica keiskei Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

Angelica keiskei Koidzumi (A. keiskei), as a Japanese edible herbal plant, enjoys a variety of biological activities due to the presence of numerous active compounds, especially flavonoids. This study aims for the optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) for flavonoids in A. keiskei and their antioxidant activity by using the response surface methodology (RSM). Single-factor experiments and a four-factor three-level Box-Behnken design (BBD) were performed to explore the effects of the following parameters on flavonoid extraction and antioxidant activity evaluation: ultrasonic temperature (X1), ultrasonic time (X2), ethanol concentration (X3) and liquid-solid ratio (X4). The optimum conditions of the combination of total flavonoid content (TFC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity (DPPH-RSC) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were as follows: X1 = 80 °C, X2 = 4 min, X3 = 78%, X4 = 35 mL/g, respectively. The experimental results provide a theoretical basis for the extensive utilization of A. keiskei and flavonoids extraction from A. keiskei as a potential source of antioxidants.

Rubus ulmifolius Schott as a Novel Source of Food Colorant: Extraction Optimization of Coloring Pigments and Incorporation in a Bakery Product

(1) Background: Color has been considered to be the flashiest attribute of foodstuffs and researchers have shown a great interest in the extraction of pigmented compounds from vegetal products, with the purpose to provide alternative counterparts to the food industry; (2) Methods: This study aimed to explore Rubus ulmifolius Schott fruits as a potential source of anthocyanins, optimizing the extraction method, evaluating the bioactivity and incorporating the rich extract into a bakery food product; (3) Results: After the extraction optimization, results showed R. ulmifolius fruits to be a great source of anthocyanins, obtaining an amount of 33.58 mg AT/g E, with an extraction yield of 62.08%. The rich anthocyanin extract showed antitumor and antimicrobial potential in some tumor cell lines and strains, respectively, as well as the absence of toxicity; (4) Conclusions: The extract when incorporated in a bakery product showed a good coloring capacity, maintaining the nutritional value, revealing its use to be a great approach for replacing artificial colorants.

Plant phenolics as functional food ingredients

Phenolic compounds have attracted much attention in recent times as their dietary intake has been associated with the prevention of some chronic and degenerative diseases that constitute major causes of death and incapacity in developed countries, such as cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes, some types of cancers or neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Nowadays it is considered that these compounds contribute, at least in part, for the protective effects of fruit and vegetable-rich diets, so that the study of their role in human nutrition has become a central issue in food research. This chapter reviews the current knowledge on the phenolic compounds as food components, namely their occurrence in the diet, bioavailability and metabolism, biological activities and mechanisms of action. Besides, the approaches for their extraction from plant matrices and technological improvements regarding their preparation, stability and bioavailability in order to be used as functional food ingredients are also reviewed, as well as their legal situation regarding the possibility of making "health claims" based on their presence in food and beverages.

Development of a natural preservative obtained from male chestnut flowers: optimization of a heat-assisted extraction technique

The aim of this work was to optimize the conditions for the extraction of phenolic compounds (PC) from male chestnut flowers using heat-assisted extraction in developing extracts rich in PC for potential industrial application as a natural ingredient. The study conditions of time (t), temperature (T), solvent (S, water-ethanol mixtures) and solid-to-liquid ratio (S/L) were optimized. The responses used were obtained from the quantification of the fourteen major individual PC identified by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS (seven hydrolysable tannins and seven flavonoids). The recovery of hydrolysable tannins was higher than that of flavonoids, with trigalloyl-HHDP-glucoside being the major one. The conditions that maximized the PC content were t = 20.0 ± 37.7 min, T = 25.0 ± 5.7 °C, S = 0.0 ± 8.7% ethanol and S/L = 82.8 g L-1, producing an extract with 86.5 mg PC g-1 of extract. The results highlight the potential of valorising chestnut flower agro-residues as a productive source of PC for the development of bio-based ingredients for food/pharmaceutical/cosmeceutical industrial applications able to compete with synthetic compounds.

Ultrasound as a Rapid and Low-Cost Extraction Procedure to Obtain Anthocyanin-Based Colorants from Prunus spinosa L. Fruit Epicarp: Comparative Study with Conventional Heat-Based Extraction

An ultrasound rapid and low-cost procedure for anthocyanin-based colorants from Prunus spinosa L. fruit epicarp was developed, and the advantages were compared with conventional heat-based extraction. To obtain the conditions that maximize anthocyanins' extraction, a response surface methodology was applied using the variables of time, temperature, and ethanol content, in the case of heat extraction, whereas for ultrasound assisted extraction, temperature was replaced by ultrasound power. Two anthocyanin compounds were identified by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS-namely, cyanidin 3-rutinoside and peonidin 3-rutinoside. The responses used were the extraction yield and the content of the identified anthocyanins. Ultrasound extraction was the most effective method at 5.00 ± 0.15 min, 400.00 ± 32.00 W, and 47.98% ± 2.88% of ethanol obtaining 68.60% ± 2.06% of extracted residue, with an anthocyanin content of 18.17 mg/g (extract-basis) and 11.76 mg/g (epicarp-basis). Overall, a viable green process was achieved that could be used to support pilot-scale studies for industrial production of anthocyanin-based colorants from P. spinosa fruit epicarp.