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Marques C, Maroni P, Maurizi L, Jordan O, Borchard G. Understanding protein-nanoparticle interactions leading to protein corona formation: In vitro - in vivo correlation study. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 256:128339. [PMID: 38000573 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) in contact with biological fluids form a biomolecular corona through interactions with proteins, lipids, and sugars, acquiring new physicochemical properties. This work explores the interaction between selected proteins (hemoglobin and fetuin-A) that may alter NP circulation time and NPs of different surface charges (neutral, positive, and negative). The interaction with key proteins albumin and transferrin, the two of the most abundant proteins in plasma was also studied. Binding affinity was investigated using quartz crystal microbalance and fluorescence quenching, while circular dichroism assessed potential conformational changes. The data obtained from in vitro experiments were compared to in vivo protein corona data. The results indicate that electrostatic interactions primarily drive protein-NP interactions, and higher binding affinity does not necessarily translate into more significant structural changes. In vitro and single protein-NP studies provide valuable insights that can be correlated with in vivo observations, opening exciting possibilities for future protein corona studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cintia Marques
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; Section of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Plinio Maroni
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, Faculty of Sciences, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, Geneva 4 1211, Switzerland
| | - Lionel Maurizi
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne (ICB), UMR 6303 CNRS-Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, BP 47870, CEDEX, Dijon, France
| | - Olivier Jordan
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; Section of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gerrit Borchard
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; Section of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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Bashiri G, Padilla MS, Swingle KL, Shepherd SJ, Mitchell MJ, Wang K. Nanoparticle protein corona: from structure and function to therapeutic targeting. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:1432-1466. [PMID: 36655824 PMCID: PMC10013352 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00799a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticle (NP)-based therapeutics have ushered in a new era in translational medicine. However, despite the clinical success of NP technology, it is not well-understood how NPs fundamentally change in biological environments. When introduced into physiological fluids, NPs are coated by proteins, forming a protein corona (PC). The PC has the potential to endow NPs with a new identity and alter their bioactivity, stability, and destination. Additionally, the conformation of proteins is sensitive to their physical and chemical surroundings. Therefore, biological factors and protein-NP-interactions can induce changes in the conformation and orientation of proteins in vivo. Since the function of a protein is closely connected to its folded structure, slight differences in the surrounding environment as well as the surface characteristics of the NP materials may cause proteins to lose or gain a function. As a result, this can alter the downstream functionality of the NPs. This review introduces the main biological factors affecting the conformation of proteins associated with the PC. Then, four types of NPs with extensive utility in biomedical applications are described in greater detail, focusing on the conformation and orientation of adsorbed proteins. This is followed by a discussion on the instances in which the conformation of adsorbed proteins can be leveraged for therapeutic purposes, such as controlling protein conformation in assembled matrices in tissue, as well as controlling the PC conformation for modulating immune responses. The review concludes with a perspective on the remaining challenges and unexplored areas at the interface of PC and NP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghazal Bashiri
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.
| | - Marshall S Padilla
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kelsey L Swingle
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sarah J Shepherd
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Michael J Mitchell
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Cardiovascular Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Karin Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA.
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Panico S, Capolla S, Bozzer S, Toffoli G, Dal Bo M, Macor P. Biological Features of Nanoparticles: Protein Corona Formation and Interaction with the Immune System. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122605. [PMID: 36559099 PMCID: PMC9781747 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are versatile candidates for nanomedical applications due to their unique physicochemical properties. However, their clinical applicability is hindered by their undesirable recognition by the immune system and the consequent immunotoxicity, as well as their rapid clearance in vivo. After injection, NPs are usually covered with layers of proteins, called protein coronas (PCs), which alter their identity, biodistribution, half-life, and efficacy. Therefore, the characterization of the PC is for in predicting the fate of NPs in vivo. The aim of this review was to summarize the state of the art regarding the intrinsic factors closely related to the NP structure, and extrinsic factors that govern PC formation in vitro. In addition, well-known opsonins, including complement, immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, and dysopsonins, such as histidine-rich glycoprotein, apolipoproteins, and albumin, are described in relation to their role in NP detection by immune cells. Particular emphasis is placed on their role in mediating the interaction of NPs with innate and adaptive immune cells. Finally, strategies to reduce PC formation are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Panico
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Sara Capolla
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO), Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 33081 Aviano, Italy
| | - Sara Bozzer
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO), Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 33081 Aviano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Toffoli
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO), Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 33081 Aviano, Italy
| | - Michele Dal Bo
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO), Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 33081 Aviano, Italy
| | - Paolo Macor
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0405588683
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Vargas-Lara F, Starr FW, Douglas JF. Solution properties of spherical gold nanoparticles with grafted DNA chains from simulation and theory. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:4144-4161. [PMID: 36285224 PMCID: PMC9514572 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00377e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
There has been a rapidly growing interest in the use of functionalized Au nanoparticles (NPs) as platforms in multiple applications in medicine and manufacturing. The sensing and targeting characteristics of these NPs, and the realization of precisely organized structures in manufacturing applications using such NPs, depend on the control of their surface functionalization. NP functionalization typically takes the form of polymer grafted layers, and a detailed knowledge of the chemical and structural properties of these layers is required to molecularly engineer the particle characteristics for specific applications. However, the prediction and experimental determination of these properties to enable the rational engineering of these particles is a persistent problem in the development of this class of materials. To address this situation, molecular dynamic simulations were performed based on a previously established coarse-grained single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) model to determine basic solution properties of model ssDNA-grafted NP-layers under a wide range of conditions. In particular, we emphasize the calculation of the hydrodynamic radius for ssDNA-grafted Au NPs as a function of structural parameters such as ssDNA length, NP core size, and surface coverage. We also numerically estimate the radius of gyration and the intrinsic viscosity of these NPs, which in combination with hydrodynamic radius estimates, provide valuable information about the fluctuating structure of the grafted polymer layers. We may then understand the origin of the commonly reported variation in effective NP "size" by different measurement methods, and then exploit this information in connection to material design and characterization in connection with the ever-growing number of applications utilizing polymer-grafted NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Vargas-Lara
- Departments of Physics & Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, Wesleyan University Middletown CT 06459 USA
| | - Francis W Starr
- Departments of Physics & Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, Wesleyan University Middletown CT 06459 USA
| | - Jack F Douglas
- Materials Science & Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg Maryland 20899 USA
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Degasperi A, Labied L, Farre C, Moreau E, Martini M, Chaix C, Hagège A. Probing the protein corona of gold/silica nanoparticles by Taylor dispersion analysis-ICP-MS. Talanta 2022; 243:123386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Engineered Nanoparticle-Protein Interactions Influence Protein Structural Integrity and Biological Significance. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12071214. [PMID: 35407332 PMCID: PMC9002493 DOI: 10.3390/nano12071214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) are artificially synthesized particles with unique physicochemical properties. ENPs are being extensively used in several consumer items, elevating the probability of ENP exposure to biological systems. ENPs interact with various biomolecules like lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, where proteins are most susceptible. The ENP-protein interactions are mostly studied for corona formation and its effect on the bio-reactivity of ENPs, however, an in-depth understanding of subsequent interactive effects on proteins, such as alterations in their structure, conformation, free energy, and folding is still required. The present review focuses on ENP-protein interactions and the subsequent effects on protein structure and function followed by the therapeutic potential of ENPs for protein misfolding diseases.
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Azziz A, Safar W, Xiang Y, Edely M, Lamy de la Chapelle M. Sensing performances of commercial SERS substrates. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Bolaños K, Sánchez-Navarro M, Giralt E, Acosta G, Albericio F, Kogan MJ, Araya E. NIR and glutathione trigger the surface release of methotrexate linked by Diels-Alder adducts to anisotropic gold nanoparticles. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 131:112512. [PMID: 34857291 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The administration and controlled release of drugs over time remains one of the greatest challenges of science today. In the nanomaterials field, anisotropic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with plasmon bands centered at the near-infrared region (NIR), such as gold nanorods (AuNRs) and gold nanoprisms (AuNPrs), under laser irradiation, locally increase the temperature, allowing the release of drugs. In this sense, temporally controlled drug delivery could be promoted by external stimuli using thermo-reversible chemical reactions, such as Diels-Alder cycloadditions from a diene and a dienophile fragment (compound a). In this study, an antitumor drug (methotrexate, MTX) was linked to plasmonic AuNPs by a Diels-Alder adduct (compound c), which after NIR suffers a retro-Diels-Alder reaction, producing release of the drug (compound b). We obtained two nanosystems based on AuNRs and AuNPrs. Both nanoconstructs were coated with BSA-r8 (Bovine Serum Albumin functionalized with Arg8, all-D octa arginine) in order to increase the colloidal stability and promote internalization of the nanosystems on HeLa and SK-BR-3 cells. In addition, the presence of BSA allows protecting the cargo from being released on the extracellular environment and promotes the photothermal release of the drug in the presence of glutathione (GSH). The nanosystems' drug release profile was evaluated after NIR irradiation in the presence and absence of glutathione (GSH), showing a considerable increase of drug release when NIR light and glutathione were combined. This work broadens the range of possibilities of using two complementary strategies for the controlled release of an antitumor drug from AuNRs and AuNPrs: the photothermal cleavage of a thermolabile adduct controlled by an external stimulus (laser irradiation), complemented with the use of the intracellular metabolite GSH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Bolaños
- Advanced Center of Chronic Diseases, Santiago, Chile; Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Departamento de Química Farmacológica y Toxicológica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Macarena Sánchez-Navarro
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine-Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ernest Giralt
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine-Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gerardo Acosta
- Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER-BBN, Networking Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, Spain
| | - Fernando Albericio
- Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER-BBN, Networking Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, Spain; School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Marcelo J Kogan
- Advanced Center of Chronic Diseases, Santiago, Chile; Departamento de Química Farmacológica y Toxicológica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Eyleen Araya
- Departamento de Ciencias Quimicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
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Antipin IS, Alfimov MV, Arslanov VV, Burilov VA, Vatsadze SZ, Voloshin YZ, Volcho KP, Gorbatchuk VV, Gorbunova YG, Gromov SP, Dudkin SV, Zaitsev SY, Zakharova LY, Ziganshin MA, Zolotukhina AV, Kalinina MA, Karakhanov EA, Kashapov RR, Koifman OI, Konovalov AI, Korenev VS, Maksimov AL, Mamardashvili NZ, Mamardashvili GM, Martynov AG, Mustafina AR, Nugmanov RI, Ovsyannikov AS, Padnya PL, Potapov AS, Selektor SL, Sokolov MN, Solovieva SE, Stoikov II, Stuzhin PA, Suslov EV, Ushakov EN, Fedin VP, Fedorenko SV, Fedorova OA, Fedorov YV, Chvalun SN, Tsivadze AY, Shtykov SN, Shurpik DN, Shcherbina MA, Yakimova LS. Functional supramolecular systems: design and applications. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr5011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Xu J, Liu Y, Li F, Deng L, Dong C, Ren J. In Situ Assay of Proteins Incorporated with Unnatural Amino Acids in Single Living Cells by Differenced Resonance Light Scattering Correlation Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2021; 93:9329-9336. [PMID: 34171193 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Site-specific incorporation of unnatural amino acids (UAAs) into target proteins (UAA-proteins) provides the unprecedented opportunities to study cell biology and biomedicine. However, it is a big challenge to in situ quantitatively determine the expression level of UAA-proteins due to serious interferences from autofluorescence, background scattering, and different viscosity in living cells. Here, we proposed a novel single nanoparticle spectroscopy method, differenced resonance light scattering correlation spectroscopy (D-RLSCS), to measure the UAA-proteins in single living cells. The D-RLSCS principle is based on the simultaneous measurement of the resonance scattering light fluctuation of a single gold nanoparticle (GNP) in two detection channels irradiated by two coaxial laser beams and then autocorrelation analysis on the differenced fluctuation signals between two channels. D-RLSCS can avoid the interferences from intracellular background scattering and provide the concentration and rotational and translational diffusion information of GNPs in solution or in living cells. Furthermore, we proposed a parameter, the ratiometric diffusion time and found that this parameter is proportional to the square of particle size. The theoretical and experimental results demonstrated that the ratiometric diffusion time was not influenced by the intracellular viscosity. This method was successfully applied for in situ quantification of the UAA-protein within single living cells based on the increase in the ratiometric diffusion time of nanoprobes bound with proteins. Using UAA-EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) as a model, we observed the significant difference in the UAA-protein concentrations at different positions in single living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinchun Xu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Yaoqi Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Fucai Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Liyun Deng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Chaoqing Dong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Jicun Ren
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Centre for Transformative Molecules, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240 China
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Pancaro A, Szymonik M, Georgiou PG, Baker AN, Walker M, Adriaensens P, Hendrix J, Gibson MI, Nelissen I. The polymeric glyco-linker controls the signal outputs for plasmonic gold nanorod biosensors due to biocorona formation. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:10837-10848. [PMID: 34114594 PMCID: PMC8223873 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr01548f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Gold nanorods (GNRs) are a promising platform for nanoplasmonic biosensing. The localised surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peak of GNRs is located in the near-infrared optical window and is sensitive to local binding events, enabling label-free detection of biomarkers in complex biological fluids. A key challenge in the development of such sensors is achieving target affinity and selectivity, while both minimizing non-specific binding and maintaining colloidal stability. Herein, we reveal how GNRs decorated with galactosamine-terminated polymer ligands display significantly different binding responses in buffer compared to serum, due to biocorona formation, and how biocorona displacement due to lectin binding plays a key role in their optical responses. GNRs were coated with either poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide) (PHPMA) or poly(N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide) (PHEA) prepared via reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerisation and end-functionalised with galactosamine (Gal) as the lectin-targeting unit. In buffer Gal-PHEA-coated GNRs aggregated upon soybean agglutinin (SBA) addition, whereas Gal-PHPMA-coated GNRs exhibited a red-shift of the LSPR spectrum without aggregation. In contrast, when incubated in serum Gal-PHPMA-coated nanorods showed no binding response, while Gal-PHEA GNRs exhibited a dose-dependent blue-shift of the LSPR peak, which is the opposite direction (red-shift) to what was observed in buffer. This differential behaviour was attributed to biocorona formation onto both polymer-coated GNRs, shown by differential centrifugal sedimentation and nanoparticle tracking analysis. Upon addition of SBA to the Gal-PHEA coated nanorods, signal was generated due to displacement of weakly-bound biocorona components by lectin binding. However, in the case of Gal-PHPMA which had a thicker corona, attributed to lower polymer grafting densities, addition of SBA did not lead to biocorona displacement and there was no signal output. These results show that plasmonic optical responses in complex biological media can be significantly affected by biocorona formation, and that biocorona formation itself does not prevent sensing so long as its exact nature (e.g. 'hard versus soft') is tuned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Pancaro
- Health Unit, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Boeretang 200, Mol, BE-2400, Belgium. and Dynamic Bioimaging Lab, Advanced Optical Microscopy Centre and Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Agoralaan C, Diepenbeek, BE-3590, Belgium
| | - Michal Szymonik
- Health Unit, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Boeretang 200, Mol, BE-2400, Belgium.
| | - Panagiotis G Georgiou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Alexander N Baker
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Marc Walker
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Peter Adriaensens
- Applied and Analytical Chemistry, Institute for Materials Research, Hasselt University, Agoralaan D, Diepenbeek, BE-3590, Belgium
| | - Jelle Hendrix
- Dynamic Bioimaging Lab, Advanced Optical Microscopy Centre and Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Agoralaan C, Diepenbeek, BE-3590, Belgium
| | - Matthew I Gibson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK. and Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Inge Nelissen
- Health Unit, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Boeretang 200, Mol, BE-2400, Belgium.
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Khan M, Boumati S, Arib C, Thierno Diallo A, Djaker N, Doan BT, Spadavecchia J. Doxorubicin (DOX) Gadolinium-Gold-Complex: A New Way to Tune Hybrid Nanorods as Theranostic Agent. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:2219-2236. [PMID: 33762822 PMCID: PMC7982711 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s295809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In this paper, we have designed and formulated, a novel synthesis of doxorubicin (DOX) loaded bimetallic gold nanorods in which gold salt (HAuCl4) is chelated with anthracycline (DOX), diacid polyethylene-glycol (PEG-COOH) and gadolinium salt (GdCl3 * 6 H2O) to form DOX IN-Gd-AuNRs compared with DOX ON-Gd-AuNRs in which the drug was grafted onto the bimetallic pegylated nanoparticle surface by electrostatic adsorption. MATERIAL AND METHOD The physical and chemical evaluation was performed by spectroscopic analytical techniques (Raman spectroscopy, UV-Visible and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)). Magnetic features at 7T were also measured. Photothermal abilities were assessed. Cytotoxicity studies on MIA PaCa-2, human pancreatic carcinoma and TIB-75 hepatocytes cell lines were carried out to evaluate their biocompatibility and showed a 320 fold higher efficiency for DOX after encapsulation. RESULTS Exhaustive physicochemical characterization studies were conducted showing a mid size of 20 to 40 nm diameters obtained with low polydispersity, efficient synthesis using seed mediated synthesis with chelation reaction with high scale-up, long duration stability, specific doxorubicin release with acidic pH, strong photothermal abilities at 808 nm in the NIR transparency window, strong magnetic r1 relaxivities for positive MRI, well adapted for image guided therapy and therapeutical purpose in biological tissues. CONCLUSION In this paper, we have developed a novel theranostic nanoparticle composed of gadolinium complexes to gold ions, with a PEG biopolymer matrix conjugated with antitumoral doxorubicin, providing multifunctional therapeutic features. Particularly, these nano conjugates enhanced the cytotoxicity toward tumoral MIAPaCa-2 cells by a factor of 320 compared to doxorubicin alone. Moreover, MRI T1 features at 7T enables interesting positive contrast for bioimaging and their adapted size for potential passive targeting to tumors by Enhanced Permeability Retention. Given these encouraging antitumoral and imaging properties, this bimetallic theranostic nanomaterial system represents a veritable promise as a therapeutic entity in the field of medicinal applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Memona Khan
- CNRS, UMR 7244, CSPBAT, Laboratoire de Chimie, Structures et Propriétés de Biomatériaux et d’Agents Thérapeutiques, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, 93000, France
| | - Sarah Boumati
- CNRS UMR 8060, iCLeHS, Synthèse, Electrochimie, Imagerie et Systèmes Analytiques Pour le Diagnostic SEISAD, Chimie ParisTech, Université PSL, Paris, 75231, France
| | - Celia Arib
- CNRS, UMR 7244, CSPBAT, Laboratoire de Chimie, Structures et Propriétés de Biomatériaux et d’Agents Thérapeutiques, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, 93000, France
| | - Amadou Thierno Diallo
- CNRS, UMR 7244, CSPBAT, Laboratoire de Chimie, Structures et Propriétés de Biomatériaux et d’Agents Thérapeutiques, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, 93000, France
| | - Nadia Djaker
- CNRS, UMR 7244, CSPBAT, Laboratoire de Chimie, Structures et Propriétés de Biomatériaux et d’Agents Thérapeutiques, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, 93000, France
| | - Bich-thuy Doan
- CNRS UMR 8060, iCLeHS, Synthèse, Electrochimie, Imagerie et Systèmes Analytiques Pour le Diagnostic SEISAD, Chimie ParisTech, Université PSL, Paris, 75231, France
| | - Jolanda Spadavecchia
- CNRS, UMR 7244, CSPBAT, Laboratoire de Chimie, Structures et Propriétés de Biomatériaux et d’Agents Thérapeutiques, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, 93000, France
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13
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Wang X, Gong J, Tan W, Hu T, Rong R, Gui Z, Nie K, Xu X. Adsorption of proteins on oral Zn 2+ doped iron oxide nanoparticles in mouse stomach and in vitro: triggering nanoparticle aggregation. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:22754-22767. [PMID: 33174556 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr06315k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Oral route is one of the most important portals of nanoparticle entry to the body. However, in vivo protein corona formed in the gastrointestinal tract has not been studied owing to the difficulty for the recovery of nanoparticles from the in vivo environment. In this study, by using the magnetic property of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) and Zn2+ doped iron oxide nanoparticles (Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs), the nanoparticles were separated from the gastric fluid after oral administration in mice. The effects of Zn2+ doping and static magnetic field (SMF) treatment on the protein adsorption on the nanoparticles were investigated in vitro and in vivo. Zn2+ doping decreases the adsorption of pepsin on the nanoparticles in vitro and affects the composition of the protein corona in vivo and enhances protein adsorption-induced aggregation of the nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo. SMF treatment affects the composition of the protein corona of Fe3O4 NPs and Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs, and enhances the aggregation of Fe3O4 NPs and Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs in vivo. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that electrostatic attraction is the crucial force to drive adsorption of proteins on Fe3O4 NPs and Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs and protein adsorption-induced change in the surface charge of nanoparticles plays an important role in the pH-dependent aggregation of the nanoparticles. In addition, the work provides the evidence that the protein adsorption-induced aggregation of Fe3O4 NPs and Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs has no effect on their magnetic susceptibility. The results highlight that Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs may be used as a potential oral magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent in diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, P. R. China.
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14
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Park SJ. Protein-Nanoparticle Interaction: Corona Formation and Conformational Changes in Proteins on Nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:5783-5802. [PMID: 32821101 PMCID: PMC7418457 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s254808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are highly potent tools for the diagnosis of diseases and specific delivery of therapeutic agents. Their development and application are scientifically and industrially important. The engineering of NPs and the modulation of their in vivo behavior have been extensively studied, and significant achievements have been made in the past decades. However, in vivo applications of NPs are often limited by several difficulties, including inflammatory responses and cellular toxicity, unexpected distribution and clearance from the body, and insufficient delivery to a specific target. These unfavorable phenomena may largely be related to the in vivo protein-NP interaction, termed "protein corona." The layer of adsorbed proteins on the surface of NPs affects the biological behavior of NPs and changes their functionality, occasionally resulting in loss-of-function or gain-of-function. The formation of a protein corona is an intricate process involving complex kinetics and dynamics between the two interacting entities. Structural changes in corona proteins have been reported in many cases after their adsorption on the surfaces of NPs that strongly influence the functions of NPs. Thus, understanding of the conformational changes and unfolding process of proteins is very important to accelerate the biomedical applications of NPs. Here, we describe several protein corona characteristics and specifically focus on the conformational fluctuations in corona proteins induced by NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Jean Park
- College of Pharmacy and Gachon Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gachon University, Incheon21936, Korea
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15
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Madathiparambil Visalakshan R, González García LE, Benzigar MR, Ghazaryan A, Simon J, Mierczynska-Vasilev A, Michl TD, Vinu A, Mailänder V, Morsbach S, Landfester K, Vasilev K. The Influence of Nanoparticle Shape on Protein Corona Formation. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2000285. [PMID: 32406176 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202000285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles have become an important utility in many areas of medical treatment such as targeted drug and treatment delivery as well as imaging and diagnostics. These advances require a complete understanding of nanoparticles' fate once placed in the body. Upon exposure to blood, proteins adsorb onto the nanoparticles surface and form a protein corona, which determines the particles' biological fate. This study reports on the protein corona formation from blood serum and plasma on spherical and rod-shaped nanoparticles. These two types of mesoporous silica nanoparticles have identical chemistry, porosity, surface potential, and size in the y-dimension, one being a sphere and the other a rod shape. The results show a significantly larger amount of protein attaching from both plasma and serum on the rod-like particles compared to the spheres. Interrogation of the protein corona by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry reveals shape-dependent differences in the adsorption of immunoglobulins and albumin proteins from both plasma and serum. This study points to the need for taking nanoparticle shape into consideration because it can have a significant impact on the fate and therapeutic potential of nanoparticles when placed in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura E González García
- Future Industries Institute, School of Engineering, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Mercy R Benzigar
- Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Arthur Ghazaryan
- Physical Chemistry of Polymers, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, Mainz, 55128, Germany
| | - Johanna Simon
- Physical Chemistry of Polymers, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, Mainz, 55128, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Mierczynska-Vasilev
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, Waite Precinct, Hartley Grove cnr Paratoo Road, Urrbrae (Adelaide) SA 5064, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Thomas D Michl
- Future Industries Institute, School of Engineering, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Ajayan Vinu
- Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Volker Mailänder
- Physical Chemistry of Polymers, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, Mainz, 55128, Germany
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Langenbeckstr. 1, Mainz, 55131, Germany
| | - Svenja Morsbach
- Physical Chemistry of Polymers, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, Mainz, 55128, Germany
| | - Katharina Landfester
- Physical Chemistry of Polymers, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, Mainz, 55128, Germany
| | - Krasimir Vasilev
- Future Industries Institute, School of Engineering, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, SA, 5095, Australia
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16
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Clogston JD, Hackley VA, Prina-Mello A, Puri S, Sonzini S, Soo PL. Sizing up the Next Generation of Nanomedicines. Pharm Res 2019; 37:6. [PMID: 31828540 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-019-2736-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
During the past two decades the nanomedicine field has experienced significant progress. To date, over sixty nanoparticle (NP) formulations have been approved in the US and EU while many others are in clinical or preclinical development, indicating a concerted effort to translate promising bench research to commercially viable pharmaceutical products. The use of NPs as novel drug delivery systems, for example, can improve drug safety and efficacy profiles and enable access to intracellular domains of diseased cells, thus paving the way to previously intractable biological targets. However, the measurement of their physicochemical properties presents substantial challenges relative to conventional injectable formulations. In this perspective, we focus exclusively on particle size, a core property and critical quality attribute of nanomedicines. We present an overview of relevant state-of-the-art technologies for particle sizing, highlighting the main parameters that can influence the selection of techniques suitable for a specific size range or material. We consider the increasing need, and associated challenge, to measure size in physiologically relevant media. We detail the importance of standards, key to validate any measurement, and the need for suitable reference materials for processes used to characterize novel and complex NPs. This perspective highlights issues critical to achieve compliance with regulatory guidelines and to support research and manufacturing quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D Clogston
- Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory (NCL), Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, USA.
| | - Vincent A Hackley
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | - Patrick Lim Soo
- Pfizer Inc., Novel Delivery Technologies- PhRD, 68 Lowell Junction Road, Andover, Massachusetts, USA.
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17
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Hassan SA. Strong dependence of the nano-bio interactions on core morphology and layer composition of ultrasmall nanostructures. J Chem Phys 2019; 151:105102. [PMID: 31521088 PMCID: PMC6910586 DOI: 10.1063/1.5115192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The interactions between nanoparticles (NPs) and proteins, cells, and tissues, broadly known as nano-bio interactions, depend on the NP size and shape and on the characteristics of the NP coating layer, such as density, thickness, and chemical makeup. The dependence of nano-membrane interactions on the design parameters of ultrasmall nanostructures is studied by computer simulations. Considered here are spheres, plates, rings, rods, tubes, and helices made up of either bare magnetite or passivated gold, interacting with charged or zwitterionic membranes. The analysis reveals a strong dependence on shape, size, and layer composition of various quantities that characterize the nano-bio behavior, including binding modes and affinities. This sensitivity can be exploited to design nanostructures that bind preferentially to membranes or that stabilize or disrupt membrane structural integrity. The method used here is general and not limited to the ultrasmall regime, so it can be adopted to study other nano-bio interactions systematically. The implications for the distribution of NPs in cells and tissues (biodistribution) and for passive and active transmembrane transport are discussed, both important processes in biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio A. Hassan
- Center for Molecular Modeling, OIR/CIT, National Institutes of Health, U.S. DHHS, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0001, USA
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18
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Bolaños K, Kogan MJ, Araya E. Capping gold nanoparticles with albumin to improve their biomedical properties. Int J Nanomedicine 2019; 14:6387-6406. [PMID: 31496693 PMCID: PMC6691944 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s210992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology is an emerging field which has created great opportunities either through the creation of new materials or by improving the properties of existing ones. Nanoscale materials with a wide range of applications in areas ranging from engineering to biomedicine have been produced. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have emerged as a therapeutic agent, and are useful for imaging, drug delivery, and photodynamic and photothermal therapy. AuNPs have the advantage of ease of functionalization with therapeutic agents through covalent and ionic binding. Combining AuNPs and other materials can result in nanoplatforms, which can be useful for biomedical applications. Biomaterials such as biomolecules, polymers and proteins can improve the therapeutic properties of nanoparticles, such as their biocompatibility, biodistribution, stability and half-life. Serum albumin is a versatile, non-toxic, stable, and biodegradable protein, in which structural domains and functional groups allow the binding and capping of inorganic nanoparticles. AuNPs coated with albumin have improved properties such as greater compatibility, bioavailability, longer circulation times, lower toxicity, and selective bioaccumulation. In the current article, we review the features of albumin, as well as its interaction with AuNPs, focusing on its biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Bolaños
- Departamento de Ciencias Quimicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Departamento de Quimica Farmacologica y Toxicologica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Advanced Center of Chronic Diseases, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcelo J Kogan
- Departamento de Quimica Farmacologica y Toxicologica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Advanced Center of Chronic Diseases, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eyleen Araya
- Departamento de Ciencias Quimicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Departamento de Quimica Farmacologica y Toxicologica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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19
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Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy as a tool for the study of the intracellular dynamics and biological fate of protein corona. Biophys Chem 2019; 253:106218. [PMID: 31325709 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2019.106218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In biological fluids, nanoparticles (NPs) are in contact with proteins and other biomolecules. Proteins adsorb to NPs and form a coating called a protein corona (PC). The PC is known to greatly affect the interaction of NPs with biological systems. A comprehensive knowledge of the protein nanoparticle interaction is essential to understand the biological fate of NPs and for the design of NPs for biomedicine. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) are sensitive spectroscopy techniques that measure fluorescence intensity fluctuations of single molecules inside a femtoliter confocal volume. Both techniques are suitable for studying the formation of protein corona around NPs and for examining corona stability in situ in biological matrixes. In this review we provide a short description of FCS/FCCS and their application in PC studies, highlighting results from our work about the impact of surface chemistry of NPs on corona formation and NP intracellular fate.
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20
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To KT, Truong L, Edwards S, Tanguay RL, Reif DM. Multivariate modeling of engineered nanomaterial features associated with developmental toxicity. NANOIMPACT 2019; 16:10.1016/j.impact.2019.100185. [PMID: 32133425 PMCID: PMC7055685 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2019.100185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Despite the increasing prevalence of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in consumer products, their toxicity profiles remain to be elucidated. ENM physicochemical characteristics (PCC) are known to influence ENM behavior, however the mechanisms of these effects have not been quantified. Further confounding the question of how the PCC influence behavior is the inclusion of structural and molecular descriptors in modeling schema that minimize the effects of PCC on the toxicological endpoints. In this work, we analyze ENM physico-chemical measurements that have not previously been studied within a developmental toxicity framework using an embryonic zebrafish model. In testing a panel of diverse ENMs to build a consensus model, we found nonlinear relationships between any singular PCC and bioactivity. By using a machine learning (ML) method to characterize the information content of combinatorial PCC sets, we found that concentration, surface area, shape, and polydispersity can accurately capture the developmental toxicity profile of ENMs with consideration to whole-organism effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly T To
- Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Bioinformatics Graduate Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Lisa Truong
- Sinnhuber Aquatic Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Sabrina Edwards
- Sinnhuber Aquatic Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Robert L Tanguay
- Sinnhuber Aquatic Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - David M Reif
- Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Bioinformatics Graduate Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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