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Shalders TC, Champion C, Coleman MA, Butcherine P, Broadhurst MK, Mead B, Benkendorff K. Impacts of seasonal temperatures, ocean warming and marine heatwaves on the nutritional quality of eastern school prawns (Metapenaeus macleayi). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 876:162778. [PMID: 36906039 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ocean warming and marine heatwaves significantly alter environmental conditions in marine and estuarine environments. Despite their potential global importance for nutrient security and human health, it is not well understood how thermal impacts could alter the nutritional quality of harvested marine resources. We tested whether short-term experimental exposure to seasonal temperatures, projected ocean-warming temperatures, and marine heatwaves affected the nutritional quality of the eastern school prawn (Metapenaeus macleayi). In addition, we tested whether nutritional quality was affected by the duration of exposure to warm temperatures. We show the nutritional quality of M. macleayi is likely to be resilient to short- (28 d), but not longer-term (56 d) exposure to warming temperatures. The proximate, fatty acid and metabolite compositions of M. macleayi were unchanged after 28 d exposure to simulated ocean warming and marine heatwaves. The ocean-warming scenario did, however, show potential for elevated sulphur, iron and silver levels after 28 d. Decreasing saturation of fatty acids in M. macleayi after 28 d exposure to cooler temperatures indicates homeoviscous adaptation to seasonal changes. We found that 11 % of measured response variables were significantly different between 28 and 56 d when exposed to the same treatment, indicating the duration of exposure time and time of sampling are critical when measuring this species' nutritional response. Further, we found that future acute warming events could reduce harvestable biomass, despite survivors retaining their nutritional quality. Developing a combined knowledge of the variability in seafood nutrient content with shifts in the availability of harvested seafood is crucial for understanding seafood-derived nutrient security in a changing climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanika C Shalders
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia; NSW Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Curtis Champion
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia; NSW Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Melinda A Coleman
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia; NSW Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Peter Butcherine
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Matt K Broadhurst
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia; NSW Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Bryan Mead
- Analytical Research Laboratory, Southern Cross Analytical and Research Services, Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kirsten Benkendorff
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
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Khan B, Burgess RM, Cantwell MG. Occurrence and Bioaccumulation Patterns of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Marine Environment. ACS ES&T WATER 2023; 3:1243-1259. [PMID: 37261084 PMCID: PMC10228145 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic compounds used in commercial applications, household products, and industrial processes. The concern around the environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of this vast contaminant class continues to rise. We conducted a review of the scientific literature to compare patterns of PFAS bioaccumulation in marine organisms and identify compounds of potential concern. PFAS occurrence data in seawater, sediments, and several marine taxa was analyzed from studies published between the years 2000 and 2020. Taxonomic and tissue-specific differences indicated elevated levels in protein-rich tissues and in air-breathing organisms compared to those that respire in water. Long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids, particularly perfluoroundecanoic acid, were detected at high concentrations across several taxa and across temporal studies indicating their persistence and bioaccumulative potential. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid was elevated in various tissue types across taxa. Precursors and replacement PFAS were detected in several marine organisms. Identification of these trends across habitats and taxa can be applied towards biomonitoring efforts, determination of high-risk taxa, and criteria development. This review also highlights challenges related to PFAS biomonitoring including (i) effects of environmental and biological variables, (ii) evaluation of protein binding sites and affinities, and (iii) biotransformation of precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bushra Khan
- ORISE Research Participant at the US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD-CEMM, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Robert M. Burgess
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD-CEMM, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Mark G. Cantwell
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD-CEMM, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
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Rashid F, Dubinkina V, Ahmad S, Maslov S, Irudayaraj JMK. Gut Microbiome-Host Metabolome Homeostasis upon Exposure to PFOS and GenX in Male Mice. TOXICS 2023; 11:281. [PMID: 36977046 PMCID: PMC10051855 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11030281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Alterations of the normal gut microbiota can cause various human health concerns. Environmental chemicals are one of the drivers of such disturbances. The aim of our study was to examine the effects of exposure to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-specifically, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy) propanoic acid (GenX)-on the microbiome of the small intestine and colon, as well as on liver metabolism. Male CD-1 mice were exposed to PFOS and GenX in different concentrations and compared to controls. GenX and PFOS were found to have different effects on the bacterial community in both the small intestine and colon based on 16S rRNA profiles. High GenX doses predominantly led to increases in the abundance of Clostridium sensu stricto, Alistipes, and Ruminococcus, while PFOS generally altered Lactobacillus, Limosilactobacillus, Parabacteroides, Staphylococcus, and Ligilactobacillus. These treatments were associated with alterations in several important microbial metabolic pathways in both the small intestine and colon. Untargeted LC-MS/MS metabolomic analysis of the liver, small intestine, and colon yielded a set of compounds significantly altered by PFOS and GenX. In the liver, these metabolites were associated with the important host metabolic pathways implicated in the synthesis of lipids, steroidogenesis, and in the metabolism of amino acids, nitrogen, and bile acids. Collectively, our results suggest that PFOS and GenX exposure can cause major perturbations in the gastrointestinal tract, aggravating microbiome toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faizan Rashid
- Biomedical Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Veronika Dubinkina
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Saeed Ahmad
- Biomedical Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Sergei Maslov
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Joseph Maria Kumar Irudayaraj
- Biomedical Research Center, Mills Breast Cancer Institute, Carle Foundation Hospital, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Sinclair GM, Di Giannantonio M, Jones OAH, Long SM. Is substrate choice an overlooked variable in ecotoxicology experiments? ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:344. [PMID: 36715783 PMCID: PMC9886613 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-10935-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
It is crucial to understand the effects caused by experimental parameters such as temperature, light, and food type on lab and field-based ecotoxicology experiments, as these variables, and combinations thereof, can affect results. The type of substrate used in exposure experiments, however, is generally assumed to have no effect. This may not always be correct. The metabolic changes in the freshwater crustacean, Austrochiltonia subtenuis exposed to copper, using three common substrates, gauze; toilet paper; and cellulose were investigated. Substrate alone did not affect survival, but each substrate elicited a different metabolic response and adult and juvenile amphipods had different substrate preferences. Several classes of metabolites were shown to change in response to different substrates and toxicant. These included disaccharides, monosaccharides, fatty acids, and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. The results illustrate that metabolomic responses can differ in response to experimental factors that were previously thought not to be significant. In fact, our data indicate that substrate should be viewed as an experimental factor as important to control for as more well-known confounders such as temperature or food, thus challenging the current paradigm. Assuming substrate type has no effect on the experiment could potentially lead to errors in contaminant toxicity assessments. We propose that ideal good practise would be that all experimental factors should be evaluated for their potential influence on metabolomic profiles prior to contaminant response experiments being undertaken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia M Sinclair
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora West Campus, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.
| | - Michela Di Giannantonio
- National Research Council (CNR-IAS), Institute for the study of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in Marine Environment, Genoa, Italy
- Aquatic Environmental Stress (AQUEST) Research Group School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Oliver A H Jones
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora West Campus, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Sara M Long
- Aquatic Environmental Stress (AQUEST) Research Group School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
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Labine LM, Oliveira Pereira EA, Kleywegt S, Jobst KJ, Simpson AJ, Simpson MJ. Sublethal Exposure of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances of Varying Chain Length and Polar Functionality Results in Distinct Metabolic Responses in Daphnia magna. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023; 42:242-256. [PMID: 36345965 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of persistent organic pollutants used in industrial applications because of their physicochemical properties, which results in their ubiquitous presence across environmental matrices. To date, legacy PFAS have been well studied; however, the concentration of alternative PFAS may exceed the concentration of legacy pollutants, and more information is needed regarding the sublethal toxicity at the molecular level of aquatic model organisms, such as Daphnia magna. Perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) are four widely detected PFAS alternatives of varying chain length and polar functionality that are quantified in aquatic environments. The present study examines the metabolic perturbations of PFAS with varying chemistries to D. magna using targeted mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Daphnia were acutely exposed to sublethal concentrations of PFBA, PFHxA, PFHxS, and PFNA before the polar metabolite profile was extracted from single organisms. Multivariate analysis demonstrated significant separation between the sublethal concentrations of PFHxA, PFHxS, and PFNA relative to the controls; in sum, longer chain lengths demonstrated greater overall perturbations to the extracted metabolic profiles. Univariate statistics revealed significant perturbations in the concentrations of several amino acids, nucleotides/nucleosides, and neurotransmitters with exposure to PFAS. These metabolic perturbations are consistent with disruptions in energy metabolism (pantothenate and coenzyme A metabolism, histidine metabolism) and protein synthesis (aminoacyl-transfer RNA biosynthesis and amino acid metabolism), which were identified through biochemical pathway analysis. These results provide evidence that although PFAS chemistry (chain length and polar functional group) invokes unique metabolic responses, there is also an underlying toxic mode of action that is common with select PFAS exposure. Overall, the present study highlights the capabilities of environmental metabolomics to elucidate the molecular-level perturbations of pollutants within the same chemical class to model aquatic organisms, which can be used to prioritize risk assessment of substituted PFAS alternatives. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:242-256. © 2022 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Labine
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Environmental NMR Centre and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Erico A Oliveira Pereira
- Environmental NMR Centre and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sonya Kleywegt
- Technical Assessment and Standards Development Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Karl J Jobst
- Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - André J Simpson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Environmental NMR Centre and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Myrna J Simpson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Environmental NMR Centre and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Exposure to Environmentally Relevant Levels of PFAS Causes Metabolic Changes in the Freshwater Amphipod Austrochiltonia subtenuis. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12111135. [DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of concern to environmental regulators due to their widespread occurrence, persistence and reported toxicity. However, little data exist on the effects of PFAS at environmentally relevant concentrations. The development of molecular markers for PFAS exposure would therefore be useful to better understand the environmental risks of these compounds. In this study, we assessed if such markers could be developed using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry-based metabolomics. We exposed the freshwater amphipod Austrochiltonia subtenuis to a range of environmentally relevant concentrations of perfluoro-octane sulfonic acid (PFOS), hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (GenX) and perfluorohexanesulphonic acid (PFHxS) for 7 days at five concentrations. A metabolic response was detected in all concentrations and treatments even though the survival rates only differed significantly at the highest exposure levels. The metabolic response differed between compounds but all three PFAS induced changes in the levels of amino acids, fatty acids, and cholesterol, in line with the literature. PFOS was found to bioaccumulate. Both GenX and PFHxS were eliminated from the amphipods, but PFHxS was eliminated at a slower rate than GenX. This information improves our understanding of the sublethal effects of PFAS as well as their environmental fate and behaviour.
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Beale DJ, Sinclair GM, Shah R, Paten AM, Kumar A, Long SM, Vardy S, Jones OAH. A review of omics-based PFAS exposure studies reveals common biochemical response pathways. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 845:157255. [PMID: 35817100 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are a diverse group of man-made chemicals with a range of industrial applications and which are widespread in the environment. They are structurally diverse but comprise a common chemical feature of at least one (though usually more) perfluorocarbon moiety (-CnF2n-) attached to a functional group such as a carboxylic or sulphonic acid. The strength of the Carbon-Fluorine bond means the compounds do not break down easily and can thus bioaccumulate. PFAS are of high concern to regulators and the public due to their potential toxicity and high persistence. At high exposure levels, PFAS have been implicated in a range of harmful effects on human and environmental health, particularly problems in/with development, cholesterol and endocrine disruption, immune system function, and oncogenesis. However, most environmental toxicology studies use far higher levels of PFAS than are generally found in the environment. Additionally, since the type of exposure, the PFAS used, and the organisms tested all vary between studies, so do the results. Traditional ecotoxicology studies may thus not identify PFAS effects at environmentally relevant exposures. Here we conduct a review of omics-based PFAS exposure studies using laboratory ecotoxicological methodologies and environmentally relevant exposure levels and show that common biochemical response pathways are identified in multiple studies. A major pathway identified was the pentose phosphate shunt pathway. Such molecular markers of sublethal PFAS exposure will greatly benefit accurate and effective risk assessments to ensure that new PFAS regulations can consider the full effects of PFAS exposure on environmental and human health receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Beale
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia.
| | - Georgia M Sinclair
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Rohan Shah
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia; Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
| | - Amy M Paten
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Black Mountain, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Anupama Kumar
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Sara M Long
- Aquatic Environmental Stress Research Group (AQUEST), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Suzanne Vardy
- Water Quality and Investigation, Science and Technology Division, Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Government, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Oliver A H Jones
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
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Beale DJ, Nguyen TV, Shah RM, Bissett A, Nahar A, Smith M, Gonzalez-Astudillo V, Braun C, Baddiley B, Vardy S. Host–Gut Microbiome Metabolic Interactions in PFAS-Impacted Freshwater Turtles (Emydura macquarii macquarii). Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12080747. [PMID: 36005619 PMCID: PMC9415956 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12080747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a growing concern for humans, wildlife, and more broadly, ecosystem health. Previously, we characterised the microbial and biochemical impact of elevated PFAS on the gut microbiome of freshwater turtles (Emydura macquarii macquarii) within a contaminated catchment in Queensland, Australia. However, the understanding of PFAS impacts on this species and other aquatic organisms is still very limited, especially at the host–gut microbiome molecular interaction level. To this end, the present study aimed to apply these leading-edge omics technologies within an integrated framework that provides biological insight into the host turtle–turtle gut microbiome interactions of PFAS-impacted wild-caught freshwater turtles. For this purpose, faecal samples from PFAS-impacted turtles (n = 5) and suitable PFAS-free reference turtles (n = 5) were collected and analysed. Data from 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and metabolomic profiling of the turtle faeces were integrated using MetOrigin to assign host, microbiome, and co-metabolism activities. Significant variation in microbial composition was observed between the two turtle groups. The PFAS-impacted turtles showed a higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and a lower relative abundance of Bacteroidota than the reference turtles. The faecal metabolome showed several metabolites and pathways significantly affected by PFAS exposure. Turtles exposed to PFAS displayed altered amino acid and butanoate metabolisms, as well as altered purine and pyrimidine metabolism. It is predicted from this study that PFAS-impacted both the metabolism of the host turtle and its gut microbiota which in turn has the potential to influence the host’s physiology and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Beale
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-73-833-5774
| | - Thao V. Nguyen
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Rohan M. Shah
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Andrew Bissett
- Oceans and Atmosphere, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Battery Point, TAS 7004, Australia
| | - Akhikun Nahar
- Land and Water, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Research and Innovation Park, Black Mountain, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Matthew Smith
- NCMI, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Battery Point, TAS 7004, Australia
| | | | - Christoph Braun
- Water Quality and Investigation, Science and Technology Division, Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Government, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Brenda Baddiley
- Water Quality and Investigation, Science and Technology Division, Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Government, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Suzanne Vardy
- Water Quality and Investigation, Science and Technology Division, Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Government, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
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