Ginsenoside Rg5/Rk1 ameliorated sleep via regulating the GABAergic/serotoninergic signaling pathway in a rodent model

Flavonoids from mulberry leaves exhibit sleep-improving effects via regulating GABA and 5-HT receptors

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mulberry leaf (Folium Mori) is a dried leaf of the dicotyledonous mulberry tree and is a homologous food and medicine. Treating insomnia with it is a common practice in traditional Chinese medicine. But still, its potential sleep-improving mechanism remains to be elucidated.

AIM OF REVIEW

Potential bioactive components and mechanisms of the sleep-improving effect of purified flavone from mulberry leaves (MLF) were explored through in vivo experiments, network pharmacology analysis, and molecular experimental validation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mice model was established by pentobarbital sodium induction to evaluate the sleep-improving effect of MLF. The MLF's chemical composition was identified through a liquid chromatograph quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (Q-TOF LC/MS) to elucidate its sleep-improving active ingredient. At last, the underlying mechanism of MLF's sleep-improving effect was elucidated through neurotransmitter detection (ELISA), network pharmacology analysis, and molecular experimental validation (quantitative real-time PCR and western blotting).

RESULTS

MLF could dramatically reduce sleep latency by 35%, prolong sleep duration by 123%, and increase the sleep rate of mice through increasing γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and serotonin (5-HT) release in serum, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. Q-TOF LC/MS identified 17 flavonoid components in MLF. Network pharmacological analysis suggested that the key sleep-improving active ingredients in MLF might be quercetin, kaempferol, morin, and delphinidin. The key path for MLF to improve sleep might be the tryptophan metabolism and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, and the key targets might be gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit alpha2 Gene (GABRA2) and serotonin 1A (5-HT1A) receptors.

CONCLUSIONS

MLF has shown significant sleep-improving effects in mice and may take effect through regulating the GABA and 5-HT receptors.

Sleep-improving effect and the potential mechanism of Morus alba L. on mice

As insufficient sleep has become a widespread concern in modern society, potential sleep-improving effect of mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaf ethanol extract (MLE) and the related mechanism were investigated in the present study. According to the results, MLE could significantly shorten sleep latency by 33 %, extend sleep duration by 56 % and increase sleep ratio of mice through increasing 5-HT and GABA release in serum, hypothalamus and hippocampus. Metabonomic analysis showed that phenylalanine metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism might be the potential pathways of MLE to improve sleep. Network pharmacological and LC-MS analysis suggested that the key sleep-improving active ingredients in MLE might be luteolin, kaempferol, naringenin, morin, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol. Further molecular docking and qRT-PCR results demonstrated that the key targets for MLE to improve sleep might be MAOA, GABRA1 and GABRA2. In conclusion, MLE showed outstanding sleep-improving effect and great potential for the application as novel sleep-improving functional food.

Recent progress in the preparation of bioactive peptides using simulated gastrointestinal digestion processes

Bioactive peptides (BAPs) represent a unique class of peptides known for their extensive physiological functions and their role in enhancing human health. In recent decades, owing to their notable biological attributes such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities, BAPs have received considerable attention. Simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGD) is a technique designed to mimic physiological conditions by adjusting factors such as digestive enzymes and their concentrations, pH levels, digestion duration, and salt content. Initially established for analyzing the gastrointestinal processing of foods or their constituents, SGD has recently become a preferred method for generating BAPs. The BAPs produced via SGD often exhibit superior biological activity and stability compared with those of BAPs prepared via other methods. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the recent advancements in BAP production from foods via SGD, addressing the challenges of the method and outlining prospective directions for further investigation.

Periostracum Cicadae Extract and N-Acetyldopamine Regulate the Sleep-Related Neurotransmitters in PCPA-Induced Insomnia Rats

Insomnia is the second most prevalent mental illness worldwide. Periostracum cicadae (PC), as an animal traditional Chinese medicine with rich pharmacological effects, has been documented as a treatment for children's night cries, and later extended to treat insomnia. This study aimed to investigate the effects of PC extract and N-acetyldopamine compounds in ameliorating insomnia. The UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS analysis determined that PC extract mainly contained N-acetyldopamine components. Previously, we also isolated some acetyldopamine polymers from PC extract, among which acetyldopamine dimer A (NADA) was present in high content. Molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulations demonstrated that NADA could form stable complexes with 5-HT1A, BDNF, and D2R proteins, respectively. The effects of PC extract and NADA on insomnia were evaluated in the PCPA-induced insomnia model. The results indicated that PC extract and NADA could effectively ameliorate hypothalamic pathology of insomnia rats, increase the levels of 5-HT, GABA, and BDNF, and decrease the levels of DA, DOPAC, and HVA. Meanwhile, the PC extract and NADA also could significantly affect the expression of 5-HT1A, BDNF, and DARPP-32 proteins. This study proved that PC extract and acetyldopamine dimer A could effectively improve PCPA-induced insomnia in rats. It is speculated that the main pharmacological substances of PC were acetyldopamine components.

Combined non-targeted and targeted metabolomics reveals the mechanism of delaying aging of Ginseng fibrous root

Background: The fibrous root of ginseng (GFR) is the dried thin branch root or whisker root of Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey). It is known for its properties such as tonifying qi, producing body fluid, and quenching thirst. Clinically, it is used to treat conditions such as cough, hemoptysis, thirst, stomach deficiency, and vomiting. While GFR and Ginseng share similar metabolites, they differ in their metabolites ratios and efficacy. Furthermore, the specific role of GFR in protecting the body remains unclear. Methods: We employed ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry to examine alterations in brain neurotransmitters and elucidate the impact of GFR on the central nervous system. Additionally, we analyzed the serum and brain metabolic profiles of rats using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry to discern the effect and underlying mechanism of GFR in delaying aging in naturally aged rats. Results: The findings of the serum biochemical indicators indicate that the intervention of GFR can enhance cardiovascular, oxidative stress, and energy metabolism related indicators in naturally aging rats. Research on brain neurotransmitters suggests that GFR can augment physiological functions such as learning and memory, while also inhibiting central nervous system excitation to a certain degree by maintaining the equilibrium of central neurotransmitters in aged individuals. Twenty-four abnormal metabolites in serum and seventeen abnormal metabolites in brain could be used as potential biomarkers and were involved in multiple metabolic pathways. Among them, in the brain metabolic pathways, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, histidine metabolism, and tyrosine metabolism were closely related to central neurotransmitters. Butanoate metabolism improves energy supply for life activities in the aging body. Cysteine and methionine metabolism contributes to the production of glutathione and taurine and played an antioxidant role. In serum, the regulation of glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway and proline metabolism demonstrated the antioxidant capacity of GFR decoction. Conclution: In summary, GFR plays a role in delaying aging by regulating central neurotransmitters, cardiovascular function, oxidative stress, energy metabolism, and other aspects of the aging body, which lays a foundation for the application of GFR.

Methanol-involved heterogeneous transformation of ginsenoside Rb1 to rare ginsenosides using heteropolyacids embedded in mesoporous silica with HPLC-MS investigation

Background

The biological activity and pharmacological effects of rare ginsenosides have been proven to be superior to those of the major ginsenosides, but they are rarely found in ginseng.

Methods

Ginsenoside Rb1 was chemically transformed with the involvement of methanol molecules by a synthesized heterogeneous catalyst 12-HPW@MeSi, which was obtained by the immobilization of 12-phosphotungstic acid on a mesoporous silica framework. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry was used to identify the transformation products.

Results

A total of 18 transformation products were obtained and identified. Methanol was found to be involved in the formation of 8 products formed by the addition of methanol molecules to the C-24 (25), C-20 (21) or C-20 (22) double bonds of the aglycone. The transformation pathways of ginsenoside Rb1 involved deglycosylation, addition, elimination, cycloaddition, and epimerization reactions. These pathways could be elucidated in terms of the stability of the generated carbenium ion. In addition, 12-HPW@MeSi was able to maintain a 60.5% conversion rate of Rb1 after 5 cycles.

Conclusion

Tandem and high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis allowed rapid and accurate identification of the transformation products through the characteristic fragment ions and neutral loss. Rare ginsenosides with methoxyl groups grafted at the C-25 and C-20 positions were obtained for the first time by chemical transformation using the composite catalyst 12-HPW@MeSi, which also enabled cyclic heterogeneous transformation and facile centrifugal separation of ginsenosides. This work provides an efficient and recyclable strategy for the preparation of rare ginsenosides with the involvement of organic molecules.

Genome-wide identification and integrated analysis of the FAR1/FHY3 gene family and genes expression analysis under methyl jasmonate treatment in Panax ginseng C. A. Mey

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.) is an important and valuable medicinal plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine, and its metabolite ginsenoside is the primary active ingredient. The FAR1/FHY3 gene family members play critical roles in plant growth and development as well as participate in a variety of physiological processes, including plant development and signaling of hormones. Studies have indicated that methyl jasmonate treatment of ginseng adventitious roots resulted in a significant increase in the content of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides. Therefore, it is highly significant to screen the FAR1/FHY3 gene family members in ginseng and preliminarily investigate their expression patterns in response to methyl jasmonic acid signaling. In this study, we screened and identified the FAR1/FHY3 family genes in the ginseng transcriptome databases. And then, we analyzed their gene structure and phylogeny, chromosomal localization and expression patterns, and promoter cis-acting elements, and made GO functional annotations on the members of this family. After that, we treated the ginseng adventitious roots with 200 mM methyl jasmonate and investigated the trend of the expression of four genes containing the largest number of methyl jasmonate cis-acting elements at different treatment times. All four genes were able to respond to methyl jasmonate, the most significant change was in the PgFAR40 gene. This study provides data support for subsequent studies of this family member in ginseng and provides experimental reference for subsequent validation of the function of this family member under methyl jasmonic acid signaling.

Identification of sedative-hypnotic compounds shared by five medicinal Polyporales mushrooms using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS-based untargeted metabolomics

BACKGROUND

Five Polyporales mushrooms, namely Amauroderma rugosum, Ganoderma lucidum, G. resinaceum, G. sinense and Trametes versicolor, are commonly used in China for managing insomnia. However, their active components for this application are not fully understood, restricting their universal recognition.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aimed to identify sedative-hypnotic compounds shared by these five Polyporales mushrooms.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS-based untargeted metabolomics, including OPLS-DA (orthogonal projection of potential structure discriminant analysis) and OPLS (orthogonal projections to latent structures) analysis together with mouse assays, were used to identify the main sedative-hypnotic compounds shared by the five Polyporales mushrooms. A pentobarbital sodium-induced sleeping model was used to investigate the sedative-hypnotic effects of the five mushrooms and their sedative-hypnotic compounds.

RESULTS

Ninety-two shared compounds in the five mushrooms were identified. Mouse assays showed that these mushrooms exerted sedative-hypnotic effects, with different potencies. Six triterpenes [four ganoderic acids (B, C1, F and H) and two ganoderenic acids (A and D)] were found to be the main sedative-hypnotic compounds shared by the five mushrooms.

CONCLUSION

We for the first time found that these six triterpenes contribute to the sedative-hypnotic ability of the five mushrooms. Our novel findings provide pharmacological and chemical justifications for the use of the five medicinal mushrooms in managing insomnia.

Shen Yuan extract exerts a hypnotic effect via the tryptophan/5-hydroxytryptamine/melatonin pathway in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sleep plays a critical role in several physiologic processes, and sleep disorders increase the risk of depression, dementia, stroke, cancer, and other diseases. Stress is one of the main causes of sleep disorders. Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma and Polygalae Radix have been reported to have effects of calming the mind and intensifying intelligence in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions composed of Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma and Polygalae Radix (Shen Yuan, SY) are commonly used to treat insomnia, depression, and other psychiatric disorders in clinical practice. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of the SY extract's effect on sleep are still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the hypnotic effect of the SY extract in normal mice and mice with chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced sleep disorders and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The SY extract (0.5 and 1.0 g/kg) was intragastrically administered to normal mice for 1, 14, and 28 days and to CRS-treated mice for 28 days. The open field test (OFT) and pentobarbital sodium-induced sleep test (PST) were used to evaluate the hypnotic effect of the SY extract. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were utilized to detect the levels of neurotransmitters and hormones. Molecular changes at the mRNA and protein levels were determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis to identify the mechanisms by which SY improves sleep disorders.

RESULTS

The SY extract decreased sleep latency and increased sleep duration in normal mice. Similarly, the sleep duration of mice subjected to CRS was increased by administering SY. The SY extract increased the levels of tryptophan (Trp) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and the expression of tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) in the cortex of normal mice. The SY extract increased the Trp level, transcription and expression of estrogen receptor beta and TPH2 in the cortex in mice with sleep disorders by decreasing the serum corticosterone level, which promoted the synthesis of 5-HT. Additionally, the SY extract enhanced the expression of arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase, which increased the melatonin level and upregulated the expressions of melatonin receptor-2 (MT2) and Cryptochrome 1 (Cry1) in the hypothalamus of mice with sleep disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

The SY extract exerted a hypnotic effect via the Trp/5-HT/melatonin pathway, which augmented the synthesis of 5-HT and melatonin and further increased the expressions of MT2 and Cry1.

Comparison of the Protective Effects of Casein Hydrolysate Containing Tyr-Pro-Val-Glu-Pro-Phe and Casein on the Behaviors and Peripheral and Brain Functions in Mice with Chronic-Stress-Induced Anxiety and Insomnia

Chronic stress is a major inducer of anxiety and insomnia. Milk casein has been studied for its stress-relieving effects. We previously prepared a casein hydrolysate (CP) rich in the sleep-enhancing peptide YPVEPF, and this study aims to systemically investigate the different protective effects of CP and casein on dysfunction and anxiety/insomnia behavior and its underlying mechanisms in chronically stressed mice. Behavioral results showed that CP ameliorated stress-induced insomnia and anxiety more effectively than milk casein, and this difference in amelioration was highly correlated with an increase in GABA, 5-HT, GABAA, 5-HT1A receptors, and BDNF and a decrease in IL-6 and NMDA receptors in stressed mice. Furthermore, CP restored these dysfunctions in the brain and colon by activating the HPA response, modulating the ERK/CREB-BDNF-TrκB signaling pathway, and alleviating inflammation. The abundant YPVEPF (1.20 ± 0.04%) and Tyr-based/Trp-containing peptides of CP may be the key reasons for its different effects compared to casein. Thus, this work revealed the main active structures of CP and provided a novel dietary intervention strategy for the prevention and treatment of chronic-stress-induced dysfunction and anxiety/insomnia behaviors.

Brain plasticity and ginseng

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to modify its structure, accompanied by its functional changes. It is influenced by learning, experiences, and dietary factors, even in later life. Accumulated researches have indicated that ginseng may protect the brain and enhance its function in pathological conditions. There is a compelling need for a more comprehensive understanding of ginseng's role in the physiological condition because many individuals without specific diseases seek to improve their health by incorporating ginseng into their routines. This review aims to deepen our understanding of how ginseng affects brain plasticity of people undergoing normal aging process. We provided a summary of studies that reported the impact of ginseng on brain plasticity and related factors in human clinical studies. Furthermore, we explored researches focused on the molecular mechanisms underpinning the influence of ginseng on brain plasticity and factors contributing to brain plasticity. Evidences indicate that ginseng has the potential to enhance brain plasticity in the context of normal aging by mediating both central and peripheral systems, thereby expecting to improve age-related declines in brain function. Moreover, given modern western diet can damage neuroplasticity in the long term, ginseng can be a beneficial supplement for better brain health.

Ginsenoside Rk3 Regulates Tryptophan Metabolism along the Brain-Gut Axis by Targeting Tryptophan Hydroxylase and Remodeling the Intestinal Microenvironment to Alleviate Depressive-Like Behavior in Mice

Depression is a neuropsychiatric disease that significantly impacts the physical and mental health of >300 million people worldwide and places a major burden on society. Ginsenosides are the main active ingredient in ginseng and have been proven to have various pharmacological effects on the nervous system. Herein, we investigated the antidepressant effect of ginsenoside Rk3 and its underlying mechanism in a murine model of depression. Rk3 significantly improved depression-like behavior in mice, ameliorated the disturbance of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, and alleviated neuronal damage in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice. Additionally, Rk3 improved the abnormal metabolism of tryptophan in brain tissue by targeting tryptophan hydroxylase, thereby reducing neuronal apoptosis and synaptic structural damage in the mouse hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, Rk3 reshaped the composition of the gut microbiota of mice and regulated intestinal tryptophan metabolism, which alleviated intestinal barrier damage. Thus, this study provides valuable insights into the role of Rk3 in the tryptophan metabolic cycle along the brain-gut axis, suggesting that Rk3 may have the potential for treating depression.

Ginsenoside Rg5 as an anticancer drug: a comprehensive review on mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, and prospects for clinical advancement

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death in the world. Despite the considerable success of conventional treatment strategies, the incidence and mortality rates are still high, making developing new effective anticancer therapies an urgent priority. Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5) is a minor ginsenoside constituent obtained exclusively from ginseng species and is known for its broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. This article aimed to comprehensively review the anticancer properties of Rg5, focusing on action mechanisms, structure-activity relationship (SAR), and pharmacokinetics attributes. The in vitro and in vivo activities of Rg5 have been proven against several cancer types, such as breast, liver, lung, bone, and gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. The modulation of multiple signaling pathways critical for cancer growth and survival mediates these activities. Nevertheless, human clinical studies of Rg5 have not been addressed before, and there is still considerable ambiguity regarding its pharmacokinetics properties. In addition, a significant shortage in the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of Rg5 has been identified. Therefore, future efforts should focus on further optimization by performing extensive SAR studies to uncover the structural features essential for the potent anticancer activity of Rg5. Thus, this review highlights the value of Rg5 as a potential anticancer drug candidate and identifies the research areas requiring more investigation.

Potential Mechanisms of Casein Hexapeptide YPVEPF on Stress-Induced Anxiety and Insomnia Mice and Its Molecular Effects and Key Active Structure

The hexapeptide YPVEPF with strong sleep-enhancing effects could be detected in rat brain after a single oral administration as we previously proved. In this study, the mechanism and molecular effects of YPVEPF in the targeted stress-induced anxiety mice were first investigated, and its key active structure was further explored. The results showed that YPVEPF could significantly prolong sleep duration and improve the anxiety indexes, including prolonging the time spent in the open arms and in the center. Meanwhile, YPVEPF showed strong sleep-enhancing effects by significantly increasing the level of the GABA/Glu ratio, 5-HT, and dopamine in brain and serum and regulating the anabolism of multiple targets, but the effects could be blocked by bicuculline and WAY100135. Moreover, the molecular simulation results showed that YPVEPF could stably bind to the vital GABAA and 5-HT1A receptors due to the vital structure of Tyr-Pro-Xaa-Xaa-Pro-, and the electrostatic and van der Waals energy played dominant roles in stabilizing the conformation. Therefore, YPVEPF displayed sleep-enhancing and anxiolytic effects by regulating the GABA-Glu metabolic pathway and serotoninergic system depending on distinctive self-folding structures with Tyr and two Pro repeats.

The efficacy and safety of Chinese herbal medicine for mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials

Objective: Effective and safe treatments for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are limited. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is commonly used in China to manage MCI. However, its efficacy and safety remain uncertain. This review aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of CHM for MCI. Methods: Nine databases were searched from their inceptions to January 2023. Randomized, placebo-controlled trials of oral CHM for MCI were included. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool 2.0, and the certainty of evidence was evaluated via the GRADE approach. Results: Thirteen studies, involving 1,043 participants, were analyzed. Most of the studies (10 out of 13) were associated with "some concerns" regarding the overall risk of bias. Meta-analyses results indicated that CHM significantly improved cognitive function compared to placebo in terms of Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) (MD: 1.90 [1.22, 2.58], I2 = 87%, 11 studies, 823 participants) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (MD: 2.88 [1.69, 4.06], I2 = 81%, 3 studies, 241 participants). The certainty of evidence for MMSE was assessed as "moderate", while it was "low" for MoCA. One study did not report adverse events (AEs), one study reported no statistical difference between the groups in terms of AEs, and 11 studies provided detailed numbers of AE cases where gastrointestinal symptoms were the most commonly reported AEs. Two studies reported no SAEs among participants and one study found no significant difference in SAEs proportions between groups. The meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in AEs between the two groups (RR: 1.31 [0.92, 1.87), I2 = 0%, 11 studies, 839 participants). The cognitive-enhancing function of commonly used herbs (Panax ginseng C.A.Mey., Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser, and Polygala tenuifolia Willd.) may be attributed to mechanisms including antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, anti-neurotoxic, anti-cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory actions. Conclusion: Chinese herbal medicine holds potential as an effective intervention to improve cognitive function in MCI patients, supported by meta-analyses evidence of low to moderate certainty. Although current data suggests CHM is generally safe, caution is advised due to the lack of AE reporting or detailed information in some instances. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=400292, identifier [CRD42023400292].

Ginsenoside Rg5 inhibits lipid accumulation and hepatocyte apoptosis via the Notch1 signaling pathway in NASH mice

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a prevalent chronic liver disease that lacks an FDA-approved treatment medicine. Despite the known antitumor and hypoglycemic properties of Ginsenoside Rg5, its effects and underlying mechanisms in the context of NASH remain largely unexplored.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate the effect of Rg5 on NASH mice induced by a high-fat diet and CCl4.

STUDY DESIGN

In vivo experiments, a mouse NASH model was established by a HFHC diet plus intraperitoneal injection of low-dose CCl4. In vitro experiments, a cellular steatosis model was established using free fatty acids (FFA) induced HepG2 cells. In addition, a fibrogenesis model was established using HSC-LX2 cells.

METHODS

The effects of Ginsenoside Rg5 on lipid accumulation and oxidative damage were analyzed by ELISA kit, H&E staining, Oil Red O staining, flow cytometry and Western blot. The effects of Ginsenoside Rg5 on liver fibrosis were analyzed by Masson staining, Sirus Red staining, immunohistochemistry and Western blot. The effect of Ginsenoside Rg5 on Notch1 signaling pathway in liver was studied by protein Oil Red staining, protein immunoblotting and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

In terms of lipid accumulation, Rg5 has the ability to regulate key proteins related to lipogenesis, thereby inhibiting hepatic lipid accumulation and oxidative stress. Additionally, Rg5 can reduce the occurrence of hepatocyte apoptosis by regulating the p53 protein. Moreover, after Rg5 intervention, the presence of fibrotic proteins (α-SMA, Collagen 1, TGF-β) in the liver is significantly suppressed, thus inhibiting liver fibrosis. Lastly, Rg5 leads to a decrease in the expression levels of Notch1 and its ligand Jagged-1 in the liver.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the regulatory effects of Rg5 on the Notch1 signaling pathway play a crucial role in modulating hepatic lipid metabolism and preventing hepatocyte apoptosis, thereby impeding the progression of NASH. These findings highlight the potential of Rg5 as a promising natural product for interventions targeting NASH.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) hydrosol based on serotonergic synapse for insomnia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) has been widely used as a traditional remedy for insomnia, depression and anxiety in China and Western countries. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that rosemary has important applications in neurological disorders. However, the mechanism of action of rosemary hydrosol in the treatment of insomnia is not known.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Insomnia is closely linked to anxiety and depression, and its pathogenesis is related to biology, psychology, and sociology. Rosemary is a natural plant that has been used to treat insomnia and depression and has good biological activity, but its material basis and mechanism for the treatment of insomnia are not clear. Here, we report on the role of aqueous extracts of rosemary in the treatment of insomnia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was based on network pharmacology, using a combination of RNA-sequencing, "quantity-effect" weighting coefficients, and pharmacodynamic experiments. DL-4-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) was intraperitoneally injected into SD rats to replicate the insomnia model with a blank, model, diazepam, and rosemary hydrosol low-, medium-, and high-dose groups were set up for the experiment. The key pathways in the treatment of insomnia with rosemary hydrosol were analyzed by molecular docking, open field assay, ELISA, western-Blot, Rt-PCR, and immunohistochemical assay.

RESULTS

Rosemary hydrosol was analyzed by GC-MS to identify 19 components. 1579 differential genes were obtained by RNA-Seq analysis, 533 targets for rosemary hydrosol and 2705 targets for insomnia, and 29 key targets were obtained by intersection. The KEGG results were ranked by "quantity-effect" weighting coefficients, resulting in serotonergic synapse was the key pathway for the treatment of insomnia with rosemary hydrosol. Molecular docking results showed that 1,7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1] heptan-2-one, 3-methyl-4-isopropylphenol, caryophyllene, and citronellol of rosemary hydrosol acted synergistically to achieve a therapeutic effect on insomnia. Caryophyllene acts on the HTR1A target by upregulating 5-HT1AR, leading to increased 5-HT release, and upregulation of ADCY5, cAMP, PKA and GABAA at serotonergic synapses; citronellol upregulated ADCY5 and 1,7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1] heptan-2-one, and 3-methyl-4-isopropylphenol up-regulated GABAA to improve insomnia symptoms. In open-field experiments, ELISA kits (5-HT, GABA, and DA), Western-blotting, Rt-PCR and immunohistochemical assay experiments, insomnia rats in the low-, medium- and high-dose groups of rosemary hydrosol showed different degrees of improvement compared with the model group.

CONCLUSIONS

It was shown that rosemary hydrosol may exert its therapeutic effects on insomnia through serotonergic synapses by combining RNA-Seq, "quantity-effect" weighting coefficients network pharmacology and pharmacodynamic experiments. We have provided a preliminary theoretical study for the development of rosemary hydrosol additive into a beverage for the treatment of insomnia, but it needs to be studied in depth. This study was conducted in rats and the results have limitations and may not apply to humans.

Herbal medicines for insomnia through regulating 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors: a systematic review

Insomnia is a common sleep disorder without effective therapy and can affect a person's life. The mechanism of the disease is not completely understood. Hence, there is a need to understand the targets related to insomnia, in order to develop innovative therapies and new compounds. Recently, increasing interest has been focused on complementary and alternative medicines for treating or preventing insomnia. Research into their molecular components has revealed that their sedative and sleep-promoting properties rely on the interactions with various neurotransmitter systems in the brain. In this review, the role of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in insomnia development is summarized, while a systematic analysis of studies is conducted to assess the mechanisms of herbal medicines on different 5-HT receptors subtypes, in order to provide reference for subsequent research.

Impairment of GABA inhibition in insomnia disorders: Evidence from the peripheral blood system

AIM

To explore the change characteristics and related factors of various indexes of GABAergic system in peripheral blood of patients with insomnia disorder.

METHODS

In this study, a total of 30 patients who met the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for insomnia disorder and 30 normal controls were included. All subjects had a structured clinical interview with the Brief International Neuropsychiatric Disorder Interview, and PSQI was used to evaluate the sleep status of the subjects. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect serum γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and RT-PCR was used to detect GABA_A receptor α1 and α2 subunit mRNA. All data were statistically analyzed using SPSS 23.0.

RESULTS

Compared with the normal control group, the mRNA levels of GABA_A receptor α1 and α2 subunits in the insomnia disorder group were significantly lower, but there was no significant difference in the serum GABA levels between the two groups. And in the insomnia disorder group, there was no significant correlation between the GABA levels and the mRNA expression levels of α1 and α2 subunits of GABA_A receptors. Although no significant correlation was found between PSQI and serum levels of these two subunit mRNAs, its component factors sleep quality and sleep time were negatively correlated with GABA_A receptor α1 subunit mRNA levels, and daytime function was inversely correlated with GABA_A receptor α2 subunit mRNA levels.

CONCLUSION

The inhibitory function of serum GABA in patients with insomnia may be impaired, and the decreased expression levels of GABA_A receptor α1 and α2 subunit mRNA may become a reliable indicator of insomnia disorder.

Effects of the Radix Ginseng and Semen Ziziphi Spinosae drug pair on the GLU/GABA-GLN metabolic cycle and the intestinal microflora of insomniac rats based on the brain-gut axis

Introduction: To explore the mechanism of action of appling Radix Ginseng and Semen Ziziphi Spinosae Drug pair (R-S) in the treatment of insomnia by investigating the effect of R-S on GLU/GABA-GLN metabolic cycle and intestinal microflora of rats with insomnia. Methods: Rats were intraperitoneally injected with 4-chloro-DL-phenylalanine (PCPA) to make sleep deprivation (SD) models. The rats were divided into 6 groups, with 8 rats in each group. The general status of the rats was observed and the pentobarbital sodium sleep synergy experiment was performed. The contents of GABA, GLU, GLN, GAD65, and GS in hippocampus of rats were determined by ELISA. The expressions of GABAARα1mRNA, mGluR5mRNA, NR1mRNA and GluR1mRNA in rats' hippocampal tissue were determined by Realtime PCR. 16SrRNA gene sequencing was used to analyze the intestinal microflora of insomnia rats. Results: In PCPA-induced insomnia rats, the state of insomnia was relieved, the sleep rate was improved, the duration of sleep latency was shortened and the sleep duration was prolonged in each dose group of R-S (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) compared with the model group. The contents of GABA, GLN, GAD65 and GS were increased (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) while GLU content was decreased (p < 0.01) in both medium and high dose groups, especially in the high dose group. The expression of GABAARα1mRNA was increased (p < 0.01), and the expressions of mGluR5mRNA, NR1mRNA and GluR1mRNA were decreased (p < 0.01) in hippocampal tissue of rats in R-S groups, especially in the high dose group. At the same time, the various dose groups of R-S could improve the species diversity, microflora abundance of insomnia rats and regulate the KEGG metabolic pathway related to sleep. Discussion: R-S can improve the sleep of PCPA-induced insomnia rats by regulating GLU/GABA-GLN metabolic cycle and intestinal microflora, which provides experimental basis for appling R-S in the treatment of insomnia.

Amelioration effect of water extract from Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 solid-state fermentation fungal substance with high-yield ergothioneine on anxiety-like insomnia mice

Herein, a solid-state fermentation (SSF) system of Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 with high-yield ergothioneine (EGT) was established, and the amelioration effect of the water extract from its fungal substance on anxiety-like insomnia mice was studied. The content of EGT in the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance increased to 1.146 ± 0.066 mg g^-1 DW in the optimization tests. Besides EGT, the common functional components of the water extract from the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance (GSW) were determined, including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, phenols, proteins and amino acids. The animal experiments showed that GSW could alleviate the anxiety-like behavior, improve the antioxidant capacity and protect the organ structure of the anxiety-like insomnia mice. With an increase in the dose of GSW given to the anxiety-like insomnia mice, their serum 5-HT and GABA levels increased, HPA axis hormone levels significantly decreased, BDNF level notably increased, and the response level of the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway was significantly enhanced, indicating that GSW may improve neuroendocrine regulation and neuroprotection in anxiety-like insomnia mice. A 30-times dose of GSW had no acute toxicity in the normal mice. Therefore, the SSF fungal substance of G. resinaceum FQ23 is a potential dietary source for improving sleep. It can be used as a solid drink to help people who are poor sleepers and as a substitute for tea or coffee to help people who are like to drink tea or coffee and cannot sleep.

A comprehensive study on the relieving effect of Lilium brownii on the intestinal flora and metabolic disorder in p-chlorphenylalanine induced insomnia rats

CONTEXT

The bulb of Lilium brownii F. E. Brown (Liliaceae) (LB) is a common Chinese medicine to relieve insomnia.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the molecular mechanism of LB relieving insomnia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Insomnia model was induced by intraperitoneally injection p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) in Wistar rats. Rats were divided into three groups: Control, PCPA (400 mg/kg, i.p. 2 days), LB (598.64 mg/kg, oral 7 days). The levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), melatonin (MT), and the expression of GABA_A, 5-HT1A and MT receptors, as well as pathological changes in hypothalamus, were evaluated. 16S rDNA sequencing and UPLC-MS/MS were used to reveal the change of the intestinal flora and metabolic profile.

RESULTS

The adverse changes in the abundance and diversity of intestinal flora and faecal metabolic phenotype altered by PCPA in rats were reversed after LB treatment, accompanied by the up-regulated levels of 5-HT as 8.14 ng/mL, MT as 16.16 pg/mL, 5-HT1A R and GABA_A R, down-regulated level of NE as 0.47 ng/mL, and the improvement of pathological phenomena of cells in the hypothalamus. And the arachidonic acid metabolism and tryptophan metabolism pathway most significantly altered by PCPA were markedly regulated by LB. Besides, it was also found that LB reduced the levels of kynurenic acid related to psychiatric disorders and trimethylamine-N-oxide associated with cardiovascular disease.

CONCLUSION

The mechanism of LB relieving insomnia involves regulating flora and metabolites to resemble the control group. As a medicinal and edible herb, LB could be considered for development as a health-care food to relieve increasing insomniacs in the future.

Stability, Bioavailability, and Structure-Activity Relationship of Casein-Derived Peptide YPVEPF with a Sleep-Enhancing Effect

YPVEPF (Tyr-Pro-Val-Glu-Pro-Phe) is an outstanding sleep-enhancing peptide derived from casein. This study aimed to evaluate the bioavailability of YPVEPF in vitro and in vivo and to explore its structure-activity relationship through a sleep test and cheminformatics. Our results showed that YPVEPF was unstable against gastrointestinal enzymes and almost totally degraded to YPVEP in vitro. However, the pharmaco-kinetics results in vivo showed that the C_max of YPVEPF was 10.38 ± 4.01 ng/mL at 5 min, and YPVEPF could be detected in the stomach, intestine, and brain at 12.89 ± 0.55, 10.26 ± 0.23, and 2.47 ± 0.55 ng/g, respectively. The main metabolites including YPVEP, YP, PVEPF, and PVEP were identified. We first explored whether the fragment YPVEP also had a strong sleep-enhancing effect, and the sleep-enhancing effects of PVEPF and PVEP (lacking a Tyr residue) significantly decreased compared with those of YPVEPF and YPVEP. Moreover, molecular docking and quantum calculations revealed that the N-terminus Tyr played a dominant role in YPVEPF and YPVEP. They had distinctive self-folding structures and varying electron-withdrawing properties of the groups at the N terminus, allowing different binding modes and electron/proton transfer.

Bidirectional effects and mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The bidirectional property of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) was recorded in the classic work Medicine Origin (Yi Xue Qi Yuan) as early as the Jin and Yuan dynasties of ancient China. Since then, this imperative theory has been applied to guide the clinical application of TCMs. Studies have been performed to investigate this phenomenon only over the last three decades. A limited number of reviews on the bidirectional role of TCMs have been published, and almost all current studies are published in the Chinese language.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review is to provide the first comprehensive evidence regarding the bidirectional effects and the underlying mechanisms of TCMs and their active compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information relevant to opposing pharmacological activities or opposing properties exerted by TCM prescriptions, herbal medicines, and their active compound, as well as their mechanisms was summarized by searching Chinese and English databases, including the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wan Fang Data, Chinese Scientific Journal Database (VIP), Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library.

RESULTS

Although the bidirectional regulation of TCMs has been applied in the clinic since ancient times in China, only limited reviews have been published in Chinese. The existing data showed that bidirectional effects can be found in TCM prescriptions, herbal medicines, and pure active compounds. Additionally, the bidirectional role of TCMs was primarily reported in the modulation of immune function, blood circulation and hemostasis, gastrointestinal motility, the central nervous system and blood pressure. This may because the therapeutic outcomes of these disorders are more obvious than those of other complicated diseases. Intriguingly, some herbal medicines have multiple bidirectional activities; for instance, Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer showed bidirectional regulation of immune function and the central nervous system; Astragalus membranaceus can bidirectionally regulate blood pressure and immune function; and Rheum officinale Baill exerts bidirectional effects on blood circulation and hemostasis, gastrointestinal motility and immune function. The mechanisms underlying the bidirectional effects of TCMs are largely attributed to the complexity of herbal constituents, dosage differences, the processing of herbal medicine, and compatibility of medicines, the physiological conditions of patients and adaptogenic effects.

CONCLUSION

Uncovering the bidirectional effects and mechanisms of TCMs is of great importance for both scientific research and clinical applications. This review may help to facilitate the recognition of the bidirectional role of TCMs, to explain some seemingly-opposite phenomena in the pharmacological study of herbal medicines and to provide guidance for TCM practitioners.

Neuroprotective Natural Products’ Regulatory Effects on Depression via Gut–Brain Axis Targeting Tryptophan

L-tryptophan (Trp) contributes to regulating bilateral communication of the gut–brain axis. It undergoes three major metabolic pathways, which lead to formation of kynurenine, serotonin (5-HT), and indole derivatives (under the control of the microbiota). Metabolites from the principal Trp pathway, kynurenic acid and quinolinic acid, exhibit neuroprotective activity, while picolinic acid exhibits antioxidant activity, and 5-HT modulates appetite, sleep cycle, and pain. Abnormality in Trp plays crucial roles in diseases, including depression, colitis, ulcer, and gut microbiota-related dysfunctions. To address these diseases, the use of natural products could be a favorable alternative because they are a rich source of compounds that can modulate the activity of Trp and combat various diseases through modulating different signaling pathways, including the gut microbiota, kynurenine pathway, and serotonin pathway. Alterations in the signaling cascade pathways via different phytochemicals may help us explore the deep relationships of the gut–brain axis to study neuroprotection. This review highlights the roles of natural products and their metabolites targeting Trp in different diseases. Additionally, the role of Trp metabolites in the regulation of neuroprotective and gastroprotective activities is discussed. This study compiles the literature on novel, potent neuroprotective agents and their action mechanisms in the gut–brain axis and proposes prospective future studies to identify more pharmaceuticals based on signaling pathways targeting Trp.

Ginsenoside Rk1 regulates glutamine metabolism in hepatocellular carcinoma through inhibition of the ERK/c-Myc pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent and deadly cancers in the world. Recently, suppression of glutamine metabolism has become one of the hottest therapy targets for cancer treatment. There is a growing amount of research that indicates that ginsenosides possess good anti-tumor activity. However, the effect of ginsenoside Rk1 on glutamine metabolism in HCC is unclear. In this study, Rk1 was demonstrated to be effective at inhibiting the proliferation of HCC through the induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Especially, Rk1 was shown for the first time to inhibit glutamine metabolism in HCC. Rk1 downregulates GLS1 expression, and consequently decreases the GSH production, stimulating ROS accumulation to induce apoptosis. In addition, transcriptomic results showed that the ERK/c-Myc signaling pathway was enriched in HepG2. Rk1 exerts an inhibitory effect on glutamine metabolism in HCC by regulating the ERK/c-Myc signaling pathway, and inducing apoptosis in vitro and in vivo with less toxicity. Therefore, ginsenoside Rk1 could be a promising candidate for the clinical treatment of HCC.

Mechanisms Underlying the Action of Ziziphi Spinosae Semen in the Treatment of Insomnia: A Study Involving Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanisms and related bioactive components of ZSS for the treatment of insomnia. Method: The insomnia model of rat induced by PCPA was established. After oral administration of ZSS extract, the general morphological observation, pentobarbital sodium-induced sleep test and histopathological evaluation were carried out. Network pharmacology, assisted by UHPLC-Q-Exactive-MS/MS analysis, was developed to identify the targets of ZSS in the treatment of insomnia, as well as the corresponding signaling pathways. In addition, we validated the identified targets and pathways by RT-qPCR and immunohistochemical analysis. Results: The pentobarbital sodium-induced sleep test, determination of 5-HT and GABA levles in hypothalamic tissues and HE staining showed that ZSS extract was an effective treatment for insomnia. Network pharmacology analysis identified a total of 19 candidate bioactive ingredients in ZSS extract, along with 433 potentially related targets. Next, we performed protein-protein interaction (PPI), MCODE clustering analysis, GO functional enrichment analysis, KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, and ingredient-target-pathway (I-T-P) sub-networks analysis. These methods allowed us to investigate the synergistic therapeutic effects of crucial pathways, including the serotonergic and GABAergic synapse pathways. Our analyses revealed that palmitic acid, coclaurine, jujuboside A, N-nornuciferine, caaverine, magnoflorine, jujuboside B, and betulinic acid, all played key roles in the regulation of these crucial pathways. Finally, we used the PCPA-induced insomnia in rats to validate the data generated by network pharmacology; these in vivo experiments clearly showed that pathways associated with the serotonergic and GABAergic system were activated in the rats model. Furthermore, ZSS treatment significantly suppressed high levels of HTR1A, GABRA1, and GABRG2 expression in the hypothalamus and reduced the expression levels of HTR2A. Conclusion: Based on the combination of comprehensive network pharmacology and in vivo experiments, we successfully identified the potential pharmacological mechanisms underlying the action of ZSS in the treatment of insomnia. The results provide a theoretical basis for further development and utilization of ZSS, and also provide support for the development of innovative drugs for the treatment of insomnia.

Soporific effect of modified Suanzaoren Decoction on mice models of insomnia by regulating Orexin-A and HPA axis homeostasis

AIM

Modified Suanzaoren Decoction (MSZRD) is obtained by improving Suanzaoren Decoction (SZRT), a traditional Chinese herbal prescription that has been used to treat insomnia for more than thousands of years. Our previous study showed that MSZRD can improve the gastrointestinal discomfort related insomnia by regulating Orexin-A. This study is the first study to evaluate the effects and possible mechanisms of MSZRD in mice with insomnia caused by p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) combined with multifactor random stimulation.

METHODS

After 14 days of multifactor stimulation to ICR mice, a PCPA suspension (30 mg/mL) was injected intraperitoneally for two consecutive days to establish an insomnia model. Three different doses of MSZRD (3.6, 7.2, and 14.4 g/kg/day) were given to ICR mice for 24 days. The food intake and back temperature were measured, and behavioral tests and pentobarbital sodium-induced sleep tests were conducted. The levels of Orexin-A, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and adrenocortical hormones (CORT) in the serum and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE) in hypothalamus were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. The levels of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamic acid (Glu) were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The expression of 5HT1A receptor (5-HTRIA) and orexin receptor 2 antibody (OX2R) was measured by Western blot (WB) and immunohistochemical staining (ICH). Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and Nissl staining were used to assess the histological changes in hypothalamus tissue.

RESULTS

Of note, MSZRD can shorten the sleep latency of insomnia mice (P < 0.05, 0.01), prolonged the sleep duration of mice (P < 0.05, 0.01), and improve the circadian rhythm disorder relative to placebo-treated animals. Furthermore, MSZRD effectively increased the content of 5-HT and 5-HTR1A protein in the hypothalamus of insomnia mice (P < 0.05, 0.01), while downregulated the content of DA and NE (P < 0.05, 0.01). Importantly, serum GABA concentration was increased by treatment with MSZRD (P < 0.05), as reflected by a decreased Glu/GABA ratio (P < 0.05). Moreover, MSZRD decreased the levels of CORT, ACTH, and CRH related hormones in HPA axis (P < 0.05, 0.01). At the same time, MSZRD significantly downregulated the serum Orexin-A content in insomnia mice (P < 0.05), as well as hypothalamic OX2R expression (P < 0.05). In addition, MSZRD also improved the histopathological changes in hypothalamus in insomnia mice.

CONCLUSION

MSZRD has sleep-improvement effect in mice model of insomnia. The mechanism may be that regulating the expression of Orexin-A affects the homeostasis of HPA axis and the release of related neurotransmitters in mice with insomnia.

Identification and Screening of Potential Bioactive Peptides with Sleep-Enhancing Effects in Bovine Milk Casein Hydrolysate

Casein tryptic hydrolysate (CTH) has been proven to possess stress-relieving and sleep-enhancing effects, but only one decapeptide YLGYLEQLLR (α-CZP) in CTH was reported to exhibit affinity for the benzodiazepine site of a GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR). This study aimed to compare the sleep-enhancing effects between CTH and α-CZP and to explore novel sleep-enhancing peptides. Our results showed that CTH significantly prolonged sleep duration in mice, which was almost 2-fold longer than that of α-CZP. The α-CZP in CTH was degraded more slowly than the synthetic α-CZP; meanwhile, CTH could release other potential sleep-enhancing peptides during gastrointestinal digestion. Additionally, two peptides YPVEPF and YFYPEL with strong sleep-enhancing activity were explored by virtual screening. Especially, YPVEPF could significantly prolong the sleep duration from 559.00 ± 272.24 to 2501.63 ± 1021.21 s and increase the sleep rate from 58.33 to 83.33% in mice. Moreover, YPVEPF and YFYPEL could bind with the Ser-205 and Phe-77 residues of GABA_AR via hydrogen bonds and lipid contacts. They were largely released after digestion with 11.19 ± 0.15 and 1.78 ± 0.01 g/kg, respectively.

Hepatoprotective effects of ginsenoside Rk3 in acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice by activation of autophagy

Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced acute liver injury (AIALI) is one of the most common causes of acute liver failure. Owing to the limitations of N-acetylcysteine (NAC), which is the only antidote currently used in clinical practice for APAP, there is a need to develop new therapies that can provide extensive protection against AIALI. Ginsenoside Rk3 is a rare ginsenoside extracted from Panax notoginseng and a previous study has reported its excellent hepatoprotective function. In this study, we explored the therapeutic potential of ginsenoside Rk3 in APAP-induced acute liver injury. We found that ginsenoside Rk3 could reduce APAP-induced hepatotoxicity by reducing serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activity and pathological damage to the liver. Moreover, ginsenoside Rk3 could inhibit APAP-induced liver inflammation and oxidative stress by inhibiting the production of oxidative molecules, increasing the production of antioxidant molecules, and reducing the infiltration of inflammatory cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that the therapeutic effect of ginsenoside Rk3 was mainly dependent on the continuous activation of autophagy. Chloroquine, an autophagy inhibitor, was found to inhibit these protective effects. Therefore, ginsenoside Rk3 shows potential as a novel hepatoprotective agent to prevent drug-induced liver injury.

Pharmacological activities of ginsenoside Rg5 (Review)

Ginseng, a perennial plant belonging to genus Panax, has been widely used in traditional herbal medicine in East Asia and North America. Ginsenosides are the most important pharmacological component of ginseng. Variabilities in attached positions, inner and outer residues and types of sugar moieties may be associated with the specific pharmacological activities of each ginsenoside. Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5) is a minor ginsenoside synthesized during ginseng steaming treatment that exhibits superior pharmaceutical activity compared with major ginsenosides. With high safety and various biological functions, Rg5 may act as a potential therapeutic candidate for diverse diseases. To date, there have been no systematic studies on the activity of Rg5. Therefore, in this review, all available literature was reviewed and discussed to facilitate further research on Rg5.

Herbal Remedies and Their Possible Effect on the GABAergic System and Sleep

Sleep is an essential component of physical and emotional well-being, and lack, or disruption, of sleep due to insomnia is a highly prevalent problem. The interest in complementary and alternative medicines for treating or preventing insomnia has increased recently. Centuries-old herbal treatments, popular for their safety and effectiveness, include valerian, passionflower, lemon balm, lavender, and Californian poppy. These herbal medicines have been shown to reduce sleep latency and increase subjective and objective measures of sleep quality. Research into their molecular components revealed that their sedative and sleep-promoting properties rely on interactions with various neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays a major role in controlling different vigilance states. GABA receptors are the targets of many pharmacological treatments for insomnia, such as benzodiazepines. Here, we perform a systematic analysis of studies assessing the mechanisms of action of various herbal medicines on different subtypes of GABA receptors in the context of sleep control. Currently available evidence suggests that herbal extracts may exert some of their hypnotic and anxiolytic activity through interacting with GABA receptors and modulating GABAergic signaling in the brain, but their mechanism of action in the treatment of insomnia is not completely understood.