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Zhang T, Dong X, Gao X, Yang Y, Song W, Song J, Bi H, Guo Y, Song J. Applications of Metals and Metal Compounds in Improving the Sensitivity of Microfluidic Biosensors - A Review. Chemistry 2024; 30:e202400578. [PMID: 38801721 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202400578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The enhancement of detection sensitivity in microfluidic sensors has been a continuously explored field. Initially, many strategies for sensitivity improvement involved introducing enzyme cascade reactions, but enzyme-based reactions posed challenges in terms of cost, stability, and storage. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore enzyme-free cascade amplification methods, which are crucial for expanding the application range and improving detection stability. Metal or metal compound nanomaterials have gained great attention in the exploitation of microfluidic sensors due to their ease of preparation, storage, and lower cost. The unique physical properties of metallic nanomaterials, including surface plasmon resonance, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, metal-enhanced fluorescence, and surface-enhanced infrared absorption, contribute significantly to enhancing detection capabilities. The metal-based catalytic nanomaterials, exemplified by Fe3O4 nanoparticles and metal-organic frameworks, are considered viable alternatives to biological enzymes due to their excellent performance. Herein, we provide a detailed overview of the applications of metals and metal compounds in improving the sensitivity of microfluidic biosensors. This review not only highlights the current developments but also critically analyzes the challenges encountered in this field. Furthermore, it outlines potential directions for future research, contributing to the ongoing development of microfluidic biosensors with improved detection sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiyi Zhang
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan, 250200, China
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, School of Bioengineering, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, 250353, China
| | - Xuezhen Dong
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan, 250200, China
| | - Xing Gao
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan, 250200, China
| | - Yujing Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, School of Bioengineering, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, 250353, China
| | - Weidu Song
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, School of Bioengineering, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, 250353, China
| | - Jike Song
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250353, China
| | - Hongsheng Bi
- Affiliated Eye Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Yurong Guo
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan, 250200, China
| | - Jibin Song
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Chemistry, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 10010, P. R. China
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John-Herpin A, Tittl A, Kühner L, Richter F, Huang SH, Shvets G, Oh SH, Altug H. Metasurface-Enhanced Infrared Spectroscopy: An Abundance of Materials and Functionalities. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2110163. [PMID: 35638248 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202110163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Infrared spectroscopy provides unique information on the composition and dynamics of biochemical systems by resolving the characteristic absorption fingerprints of their constituent molecules. Based on this inherent chemical specificity and the capability for label-free, noninvasive, and real-time detection, infrared spectroscopy approaches have unlocked a plethora of breakthrough applications for fields ranging from environmental monitoring and defense to chemical analysis and medical diagnostics. Nanophotonics has played a crucial role for pushing the sensitivity limits of traditional far-field spectroscopy by using resonant nanostructures to focus the incident light into nanoscale hot-spots of the electromagnetic field, greatly enhancing light-matter interaction. Metasurfaces composed of regular arrangements of such resonators further increase the design space for tailoring this nanoscale light control both spectrally and spatially, which has established them as an invaluable toolkit for surface-enhanced spectroscopy. Starting from the fundamental concepts of metasurface-enhanced infrared spectroscopy, a broad palette of resonator geometries, materials, and arrangements for realizing highly sensitive metadevices is showcased, with a special focus on emerging systems such as phononic and 2D van der Waals materials, and integration with waveguides for lab-on-a-chip devices. Furthermore, advanced sensor functionalities of metasurface-based infrared spectroscopy, including multiresonance, tunability, dielectrophoresis, live cell sensing, and machine-learning-aided analysis are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelian John-Herpin
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Tittl
- Chair in Hybrid Nanosystems, Nanoinstitute Munich, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Lucca Kühner
- Chair in Hybrid Nanosystems, Nanoinstitute Munich, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Felix Richter
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Steven H Huang
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Gennady Shvets
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Sang-Hyun Oh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Hatice Altug
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
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Negm A, Howlader MMR, Belyakov I, Bakr M, Ali S, Irannejad M, Yavuz M. Materials Perspectives of Integrated Plasmonic Biosensors. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:7289. [PMID: 36295354 PMCID: PMC9611134 DOI: 10.3390/ma15207289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
With the growing need for portable, compact, low-cost, and efficient biosensors, plasmonic materials hold the promise to meet this need owing to their label-free sensitivity and deep light-matter interaction that can go beyond the diffraction limit of light. In this review, we shed light on the main physical aspects of plasmonic interactions, highlight mainstream and future plasmonic materials including their merits and shortcomings, describe the backbone substrates for building plasmonic biosensors, and conclude with a brief discussion of the factors affecting plasmonic biosensing mechanisms. To do so, we first observe that 2D materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides play a major role in enhancing the sensitivity of nanoparticle-based plasmonic biosensors. Then, we identify that titanium nitride is a promising candidate for integrated applications with performance comparable to that of gold. Our study highlights the emerging role of polymer substrates in the design of future wearable and point-of-care devices. Finally, we summarize some technical and economic challenges that should be addressed for the mass adoption of plasmonic biosensors. We believe this review will be a guide in advancing the implementation of plasmonics-based integrated biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman Negm
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Matiar M. R. Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Ilya Belyakov
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Mohamed Bakr
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Shirook Ali
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Technology, Sheridan College, Brampton, ON L6Y 5H9, Canada
| | | | - Mustafa Yavuz
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Alcántara-Quintana LE, López-Mendoza CM, Rodríguez-Aguilar M, Medellín-Castillo N, Mizaikoff B, Flores-Ramírez R, Galván-Romero VS, Díaz de León-Martínez L. One-Drop Serum Screening Test for Anal Cancer in Men via Infrared Attenuated Total Reflection Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2022; 94:15250-15260. [PMID: 36197692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Rare cancers are a challenge for clinical practice, the treatment experience at major centers to which rare cancers are referred is limited and are the most difficult to diagnose. Research to identify causes or develop prevention and early detection strategies is extremely challenging. Anal cancer is an example of a rare cancer, with the human papillomavirus (HPV) infection being the most important risk factor associated. In the early stages, anal cancer does not exhibit evident symptoms. This disease is diagnosed by means of anoscopy, which diagnoses some cases of early cancer; nevertheless, sensitivity of this test ranges between 47 and 89%. Therefore, the development of new, effective, and evidence-based screening methodologies for the early detection of rare cancers is of great relevance. In this study, the potential of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy has been explored as a sensitive, nondestructive, and inexpensive analytical method for developing disease screening platforms in serum. Spectral differences were found in the regions of 1700-1100 and 1700-1400 cm-1 between the control group and the anal cancer group related to the presence of proteins and nucleic acids. The chemometric analysis presented differences in the spectral fingerprints for both spectral regions with a high sensitivity ranging from 95.2 to 99.9% and a specificity ranging from 99.2 to 100%. This is the first step that we report for a methodology that is fast, nondestructive, and easy to perform, and the high sensitivity and specificity of the method are the basis for extensive research studies to implement these technologies in the clinical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz Eugenia Alcántara-Quintana
- Unidad de Innovación en Diagnóstico Celular y Molecular, Coordinación para la Innovación y la Aplicación de la Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis, Potosí Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2a sección, 78120San Luis Potosí, México
| | - Carlos Miguel López-Mendoza
- Unidad de Innovación en Diagnóstico Celular y Molecular, Coordinación para la Innovación y la Aplicación de la Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis, Potosí Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2a sección, 78120San Luis Potosí, México
| | - Maribel Rodríguez-Aguilar
- Departamento de Farmacia, División de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Quintana Roo, Quintana Roo, Mexico Av. Erick Paolo Martínez S/N, Magisterial, 17 de Octubre, 77039Chetumal, Q.R., México
| | - Nahum Medellín-Castillo
- Centro de Investigación y Estudios de Posgrado, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Dr. Manuel Nava No. 8 Colonia Zona Universitaria Poniente, San Luis Potosí, SLP78290, México
| | - Boris Mizaikoff
- Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081Ulm, Germany.,Hahn-Schickard, Sedanstrasse 14, 89077Ulm, Germany
| | - Rogelio Flores-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigación Aplicada en Ambiente y Salud (CIAAS), Avenida Sierra Leona No. 550, 78210Colonia Lomas Segunda Sección, San Luis Potosí, SLP, México.,CONACYT Research Fellow, Coordinación para la Innovación y Aplicación de la Ciencia y la Tecnología (CIACYT), Avenida Sierra Leona No. 550, 78210Colonia Lomas Segunda Sección, San Luis Potosí, SLP, México
| | - Vanessa Sarahí Galván-Romero
- Unidad de Innovación en Diagnóstico Celular y Molecular, Coordinación para la Innovación y la Aplicación de la Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis, Potosí Av. Sierra Leona 550, Lomas 2a sección, 78120San Luis Potosí, México
| | - Lorena Díaz de León-Martínez
- LABINNOVA Inc., Research Center for Early Diseases Screening, Susana Gómez Palafox, No. 5505, Colonia Paseos del Sol, 45079Zapopan, Jalisco, México
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Fitzgerald S, O'Shea DF. Continuous Flow Bioconjugations of NIR‐AZA Fluorophores via Strained Alkyne Cycloadditions with Intra‐Chip Fluorogenic Monitoring**. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202104111. [PMID: 34979050 PMCID: PMC9305252 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202104111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The importance of bioconjugation reactions continues to grow for cell specific targeting and dual therapeutic plus diagnostic medical applications. This necessitates the development of new bioconjugation chemistries, in‐flow synthetic and analytical methods. With this goal, continuous flow bioconjugations were readily achieved with short residence times for strained alkyne substituted carbohydrate and therapeutic peptide biomolecules in reaction with azide and tetrazine substituted fluorophores. The strained alkyne substrates included substituted 2‐amino‐2‐deoxy‐α‐D‐glucopyranose, and the linear and cyclic peptide sequences QIRQQPRDPPTETLELEVSPDPAS‐OH and c(RGDfK) respectively. The catalyst and reagent‐free inverse electron demand tetrazine cycloadditions proved more favourable than the azide 1,3‐dipolar cycloadditions. Reaction completion was achieved with residence times of 5 min at 40 °C for tetrazine versus 10 min at 80 °C for azide cycloadditions. The use of a fluorogenic tetrazine fluorophore, in a glass channelled reactor chip, allowed for intra‐chip reaction monitoring by recording fluorescence intensities at various positions throughout the chip. As the Diels‐Alder reactions proceeded through the chip, the fluorescence intensity increased accordingly in real‐time. The application of continuous flow fluorogenic bioconjugations could offer an efficient translational access to theranostic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Donal F. O'Shea
- Chemistry Department, RCSI 123 St. Stephen's Green Dublin 2 Ireland
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John-Herpin A, Kavungal D, von Mücke L, Altug H. Infrared Metasurface Augmented by Deep Learning for Monitoring Dynamics between All Major Classes of Biomolecules. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2006054. [PMID: 33615570 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202006054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Insights into the fascinating molecular world of biological processes are crucial for understanding diseases, developing diagnostics, and effective therapeutics. These processes are complex as they involve interactions between four major classes of biomolecules, i.e., proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, which makes it important to be able to discriminate between all these different biomolecular species. In this work, a deep learning-augmented, chemically-specific nanoplasmonic technique that enables such a feat in a label-free manner to not disrupt native processes is presented. The method uses a highly sensitive multiresonant plasmonic metasurface in a microfluidic device, which enhances infrared absorption across a broadband mid-IR spectrum and in water, despite its strongly overlapping absorption bands. The real-time format of the optofluidic method enables the collection of a vast amount of spectrotemporal data, which allows the construction of a deep neural network to discriminate accurately between all major classes of biomolecules. The capabilities of the new method are demonstrated by monitoring of a multistep bioassay containing sucrose- and nucleotides-loaded liposomes interacting with a small, lipid membrane-perforating peptide. It is envisioned that the presented technology will impact the fields of biology, bioanalytics, and pharmacology from fundamental research and disease diagnostics to drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelian John-Herpin
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Deepthy Kavungal
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Lea von Mücke
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Hatice Altug
- Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
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Microfluidics in Biotechnology: Quo Vadis. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 179:355-380. [PMID: 33495924 DOI: 10.1007/10_2020_162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The emerging technique of microfluidics offers new approaches for precisely controlling fluidic conditions on a small scale, while simultaneously facilitating data collection in both high-throughput and quantitative manners. As such, the so-called lab-on-a-chip (LOC) systems have the potential to revolutionize the field of biotechnology. But what needs to happen in order to truly integrate them into routine biotechnological applications? In this chapter, some of the most promising applications of microfluidic technology within the field of biotechnology are surveyed, and a few strategies for overcoming current challenges posed by microfluidic LOC systems are examined. In addition, we also discuss the intensifying trend (across all biotechnology fields) of using point-of-use applications which is being facilitated by new technological achievements.
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Le THH, Matsushita T, Ohta R, Shimoda Y, Matsui H, Kitamori T. Fabrication of Infrared-Compatible Nanofluidic Devices for Plasmon-Enhanced Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11121062. [PMID: 33266007 PMCID: PMC7760999 DOI: 10.3390/mi11121062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Nanofluidic devices have offered us fascinating analytical platforms for chemical and bioanalysis by exploiting unique properties of liquids and molecules confined in nanospaces. The increasing interests in nanofluidic analytical devices have triggered the development of new robust and sensitive detection techniques, especially label-free ones. IR absorption spectroscopy is one of the most powerful biochemical analysis methods for identification and quantitative measurement of chemical species in the label-free and non-invasive fashion. However, the low sensitivity and the difficulties in fabrication of IR-compatible nanofluidic devices are major obstacles that restrict the applications of IR spectroscopy in nanofluidics. Here, we realized the bonding of CaF2 and SiO2 at room temperature and demonstrated an IR-compatible nanofluidic device that allowed the IR spectroscopy in a wide range of mid-IR regime. We also performed the integration of metal-insulator-metal perfect absorber metamaterials into nanofluidic devices for plasmon-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy with ultrahigh sensitivity. This study also shows a proof-of-concept of the multi-band absorber by combining different types of nanostructures. The results indicate the potential of implementing metamaterials in tracking several characteristic molecular vibrational modes simultaneously, making it possible to identify molecular species in mixture or complex biological entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thu Hac Huong Le
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan;
- Correspondence:
| | - Takumi Matsushita
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan;
| | - Ryoichi Ohta
- Collaborative Research Organization for Micro and Nano Multifunctional Devices (NMfD), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan; (R.O.); (T.K.)
| | - Yuta Shimoda
- Department of Bioengineering/Electrical Engineering and Information systems, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan; (Y.S.); (H.M.)
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Matsui
- Department of Bioengineering/Electrical Engineering and Information systems, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan; (Y.S.); (H.M.)
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
| | - Takehiko Kitamori
- Collaborative Research Organization for Micro and Nano Multifunctional Devices (NMfD), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan; (R.O.); (T.K.)
- Institute of Nanoengineering and Microsystems iNEMS, Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
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Le THH, Shimizu H, Morikawa K. Advances in Label-Free Detections for Nanofluidic Analytical Devices. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11100885. [PMID: 32977690 PMCID: PMC7598655 DOI: 10.3390/mi11100885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nanofluidics, a discipline of science and engineering of fluids confined to structures at the 1-1000 nm scale, has experienced significant growth over the past decade. Nanofluidics have offered fascinating platforms for chemical and biological analyses by exploiting the unique characteristics of liquids and molecules confined in nanospaces; however, the difficulty to detect molecules in extremely small spaces hampers the practical applications of nanofluidic devices. Laser-induced fluorescence microscopy with single-molecule sensitivity has been so far a major detection method in nanofluidics, but issues arising from labeling and photobleaching limit its application. Recently, numerous label-free detection methods have been developed to identify and determine the number of molecules, as well as provide chemical, conformational, and kinetic information of molecules. This review focuses on label-free detection techniques designed for nanofluidics; these techniques are divided into two groups: optical and electrical/electrochemical detection methods. In this review, we discuss on the developed nanofluidic device architectures, elucidate the mechanisms by which the utilization of nanofluidics in manipulating molecules and controlling light-matter interactions enhances the capabilities of biological and chemical analyses, and highlight new research directions in the field of detections in nanofluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thu Hac Huong Le
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Correspondence: (T.H.H.L.); (H.S.); (K.M.)
| | - Hisashi Shimizu
- Collaborative Research Organization for Micro and Nano Multifunctional Devices (NMfD), The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Correspondence: (T.H.H.L.); (H.S.); (K.M.)
| | - Kyojiro Morikawa
- Collaborative Research Organization for Micro and Nano Multifunctional Devices (NMfD), The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Correspondence: (T.H.H.L.); (H.S.); (K.M.)
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