Mitochondrial signaling pathways and their role in cancer drug resistance

Mitochondria, traditionally known as cellular powerhouses, now emerge as critical signaling centers influencing cancer progression and drug resistance. The review highlights the role that apoptotic signaling, DNA mutations, mitochondrial dynamics and metabolism play in the development of resistance mechanisms and the advancement of cancer. Targeted approaches are discussed, with an emphasis on managing mitophagy, fusion, and fission of the mitochondria to make resistant cancer cells more susceptible to traditional treatments. Additionally, metabolic reprogramming can be used to effectively target metabolic enzymes such GLUT1, HKII, PDK, and PKM2 in order to avoid resistance mechanisms. Although there are potential possibilities for therapy, the complex structure of mitochondria and their subtle role in tumor development hamper clinical translation. Novel targeted medicines are put forth, providing fresh insights on combating drug resistance in cancer. The study also emphasizes the significance of glutamine metabolism, mitochondrial respiratory complexes, and apoptotic pathways as potential targets to improve treatment effectiveness against drug-resistant cancers. Combining complementary and nanoparticle-based techniques to target mitochondria has demonstrated encouraging results in the treatment of cancer, opening doors to reduce resistance and enable individualized treatment plans catered to the unique characteristics of each patient. Suggesting innovative approaches such as drug repositioning and mitochondrial drug delivery to enhance the efficacy of mitochondria-targeting therapies, presenting a pathway for advancements in cancer treatment. This thorough investigation is a major step forward in the treatment of cancer and has the potential to influence clinical practice and enhance patient outcomes.

Poly(phenylalanine) and poly(3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine): Promising biomedical materials for building stimuli-responsive nanocarriers

Cancer is a serious threat to human health because of its high annual mortality rate. It has attracted significant attention in healthcare, and identifying effective strategies for the treatment and relief of cancer pain requires urgency. Drug delivery systems (DDSs) offer the advantages of excellent efficacy, low cost, and low toxicity for targeting drugs to tumor sites. In recent decades, copolymer carriers based on poly(phenylalanine) (PPhe) and poly(3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine) (PDopa) have been extensively investigated owing to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and controllable stimulus responsiveness, which have resulted in DDSs with loading and targeted delivery capabilities. In this review, we introduce the synthesis of PPhe and PDopa, highlighting the latest proposed synthetic routes and comparing the differences in drug delivery between PPhe and PDopa. Subsequently, we summarize the various applications of PPhe and PDopa in nanoscale-targeted DDSs, providing a comprehensive analysis of the drug release behavior based on different stimulus-responsive carriers using these two materials. In the end, we discuss the challenges and prospects of polypeptide-based DDSs in the field of cancer therapy, aiming to promote their further development to meet the growing demands for treatment.

Revolutionizing cancer therapy using tetrahedral DNA nanostructures as intelligent drug delivery systems

DNA nanostructures have surfaced as intriguing entities with vast potential in biomedicine, notably in the drug delivery area. Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs) have received worldwide attention from among an array of different DNA nanostructures due to their extraordinary stability, great biocompatibility, and ease of functionalization. TDNs could be readily synthesized, making them attractive carriers for chemotherapeutic medicines, nucleic acid therapeutics, and imaging probes. Their varied uses encompass medication delivery, molecular diagnostics, biological imaging, and theranostics. This review extensively highlights the mechanisms of functional modification of TDNs and their applications in cancer therapy. Additionally, it discusses critical concerns and unanswered problems that require attention to increase the future application of TDNs in developing cancer treatment.

Subcellular targeting strategies for protein and peptide delivery

Cytosolic delivery of proteins and peptides provides opportunities for effective disease treatment, as they can specifically modulate intracellular processes. However, most of protein-based therapeutics only have extracellular targets and are cell-membrane impermeable due to relatively large size and hydrophilicity. The use of organelle-targeting strategy offers great potential to overcome extracellular and cell membrane barriers, and enables localization of protein and peptide therapeutics in the organelles. Although progresses have been made in the recent years, organelle-targeted protein and peptide delivery is still challenging and under exploration. We reviewed recent advances in subcellular targeted delivery of proteins/peptides with a focus on targeting mechanisms and strategies, and highlight recent examples of active and passive organelle-specific protein and peptide delivery systems. This emerging platform could open a new avenue to develop more effective protein and peptide therapeutics.

Gelatin-Encapsulated Tetrahedral DNA Nanostructure Enhances Cellular Internalization for Treating Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery strategies have emerged as a crucial avenue for comprehensive sensorineural hearing loss treatment. Nevertheless, developing therapy vectors crossing both biological and cellular barriers has encountered significant challenges deriving from various external factors. Herein, the rational integration of gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs) with tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs) to engineer a distinct drug-delivery nanosystem (designed as TDN@GNP) efficiently enhances the biological permeability and cellular internalization, further resolving the dilemma of noise-induced hearing loss via loading epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) with anti-lipid peroxidation property. Rationally engineering of TDN@GNP demonstrates dramatic alterations in the physicochemical key parameters of TDNs that are pivotal in cell-particle interactions and promote cellular uptake through multiple endocytic pathways. Furthermore, the EGCG-loaded nanosystem (TDN-EGCG@GNP) facilitates efficient inner ear drug delivery by superior permeability through the biological barrier (round window membrane), maintaining high drug concentration within the inner ear. The TDN-EGCG@GNP actively overcomes the cell membrane, exhibiting hearing protection from noise insults via reduced lipid peroxidation in outer hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons. This work exemplifies how integrating diverse vector functionalities can overcome biological and cellular barriers in the inner ear, offering promising applications for inner ear disorders.

Proximity-Enhanced Electrochemiluminescence Sensing Platform for Effective Capturing of Exosomes and Probing Internal MicroRNAs Involved in Cancer Cell Apoptosis

Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) play critical regulatory roles in many cellular processes, and so how to probe them has attracted increasing interest. Here we propose an aptamer-functionalized dimeric framework nucleic acid (FNA) nanoplatform for effective capture of exosomes and directly probing internal miRNAs with electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection, not requiring RNA extraction in conventional counterparts. A CD63 protein-binding aptamer is tethered to one of the FNA structures, allowing exosomes to be immobilized there and release internal miRNAs after lysis. The target miRNA induces the formation of a Y-shaped junction on another FNA structure in a close proximity state, which benefits the loading of covalently hemin-modified spherical nucleic acid enzymes for enhanced ECL readout in the luminol-H2O2 system. In this facile way, the ultrasensitive detection of exosomal miR-21 from cancer cells is accomplished and then used for cell apoptosis analysis, indicating that the oncogene miR-21 negatively participates in the regulation of the apoptotic process; namely, downregulating the miR-21 level is unbeneficial for cancer cell growth.

A Metal-Organic Framework-Incorporated Hydrogel for Delivery of Immunomodulatory Neobavaisoflavone to Promote Cartilage Regeneration in Osteoarthritis

The treatment of osteoarthritis (OA)-related cartilage defects is a great clinical challenge due to the complex pathogenesis of OA and poor self-repair ability of cartilage tissue. Combining local and long-term anti-inflammatory therapies to promote cartilage repair is an effective method to treat OA. In this study, a zinc-organic framework-incorporated extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimicking hydrogel platform was constructed for the inflammatory microenvironment-responsive delivery of neobavaisoflavone (NBIF) to promote cartilage regeneration in OA. The NBIF was encapsulated in situ in zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIF-8 MOFs). The NBIF@ZIF-8 MOFs were decorated with polydopamine and incorporated into a methacrylate gelatin/hyaluronic acid hybrid network to form the NBIF@ZIF-8/PHG hydrogel. The hydrogel featured excellent cell/tissue affinity, providing a favorable microenvironment for recruiting cells and cytokines to the defect sites. The hydrogel enabled the on-demand NBIF released in response to a weakly acidic microenvironment at the injured joint site to resolve inflammatory responses during the early stages of OA. Consequently, the cooperativity of the loaded NBIF and hydrogel synergistically modulated the immune response and assisted in cartilage defect repair. In summary, the NBIF@ZIF-8/PHG hydrogel delivery platform represents an effective treatment strategy for OA-related cartilage defects and may attract attentions for applications in other inflammatory diseases.

Nano Self-Assembly for Apoptosis Induction and Early Therapeutic Efficacy Monitoring

Real-time monitoring of early antitumor efficacy is one of the key issues in realizing high-efficiency and more precise tumor treatment. As a highly specific event in the early stage of apoptosis, the release of cytochrome c may act as a key biomarker for monitoring cell apoptosis. However, achieving real-time monitoring of the cytochrome c release in vivo remains a challenge. Herein, we report a novel integrated nanosystem named DFeK nanoparticle (DFeK NP) to achieve a favorable collaboration of inducing tumor cell apoptosis and monitoring early therapeutic efficacy, which combined the cytochrome c-activated DNA nanoprobe cApt-App with pro-apoptotic peptide [KLAKLAK]2 and ferrous ions. [KLAKLAK]2 can target the mitochondria to disrupt the mitochondrial membrane together with reactive oxygen species produced by ferrous ions via the Fenton reaction to promote mitochondrial damage. Then, cytochrome c is released from damaged mitochondria to trigger apoptosis, further activating the cApt-App probe from the fluorescence "off" state to the "on" state. The cytochrome c-specific "off-to-on" transition was successfully applied in fluorescence imaging of cytochrome c in vivo and thus achieved real-time early therapeutic efficacy monitoring. Collectively, this work presents a valuable integrated tool for tumor inhibition and therapeutic efficacy evaluation to realize more precise and more effective tumor treatment.

Molecularly or atomically precise nanostructures for bio-applications: how far have we come?

A huge variety of nanostructures are promising for biomedical applications, but only a few have been practically applied. Among the various reasons, the limited structural preciseness is a critical one, as it increases the difficulty in product quality control, accurate dosing, and ensuring the repeatability of material performance. Constructing nanoparticles with molecule-like preciseness is becoming a new research field. In this review, we focus on the artificial nanomaterials that can currently be molecularly or atomically precise, including DNA nanostructures, some metallic nanoclusters, dendrimer nanoparticles and carbon nanostructures, describing their syntheses, bio-applications and limitations, in view of up-to-date studies. A perspective on their potential for clinical translation is also given. This review is expected to provide a particular rationale for the future design of nanomedicines.

Subcellular Organelle-Targeted Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for the Treatment of Metastatic Breast Cancer

Background

Subcellular organelle targeted nano-formulations for cancer treatment are receiving increasing attention owing to their benefits of precise drug delivery, maximized therapeutic index, and reduced off-target side effects. The nucleus and mitochondria, as the main subcellular organelles, are the significant organelles responsible for maintaining cell operation and metabolism. They can be involved in many essential physiological and pathological processes such as cell proliferation, organism metabolism, intracellular transportation, and play a critical role in regulating cell biology. Meanwhile, breast cancer metastasis is one of the leading causes of death in breast cancer patients. With the development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials have been widely used in tumor therapy.

Methods

We designed a subcellular organelle targeted nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) to deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and gambogic acid (GA) to tumor tissues.

Results

Due to the surface of NLC being modified by subcellular organelle targeted peptide, the PTX and GA co-loaded NLC can accurately release PTX and GA in tumor cells. This property makes NLC able to easy to enter tumor site and target the specific subcellular organelle. The modified NLC can efficiently inhibit the growth of 4T1 primary tumor and lung metastasis, which may be related to the down-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and BCL-2 levels, up-regulation of E-cadherin level, and antagonized PTX-induced increase of C-C chemokine ligand 2 (CCL-2) levels by GA. Meanwhile, the synergistic anti-tumor effect of GA and PTX has also been verified in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Conclusion

The subcellular organelle targeted peptide modified PTX+GA multifunctional nano-drug delivery system has a good therapeutic effect on tumors, and this study provides significant insights into the role of different subcellular organelles in inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis and inspires researchers to develop highly effective cancer therapeutic strategies through subcellular organelle targeted drugs.

Insight into the effect of biomaterials on osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells: A review from a mitochondrial perspective

Bone damage may be triggered by a variety of factors, and the damaged area often requires a bone graft. Bone tissue engineering can serve as an alternative strategy for repairing large bone defects. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), the progenitor cells of connective tissue, have become an important tool for tissue engineering due to their ability to differentiate into a variety of cell types. The precise regulation of the growth and differentiation of the stem cells used for bone regeneration significantly affects the efficiency of this type of tissue engineering. During the process of osteogenic induction, the dynamics and function of localized mitochondria are altered. These changes may also alter the microenvironment of the therapeutic stem cells and result in mitochondria transfer. Mitochondrial regulation not only affects the induction/rate of differentiation, but also influences its direction, determining the final identity of the differentiated cell. To date, bone tissue engineering research has mainly focused on the influence of biomaterials on phenotype and nuclear genotype, with few studies investigating the role of mitochondria. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of researches into the role of mitochondria in MSCs differentiation and critical analysis regarding smart biomaterials that are able to "programme" mitochondria modulation was proposed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: : • This review proposed the precise regulation of the growth and differentiation of the stem cells used to seed bone regeneration. • This review addressed the dynamics and function of localized mitochondria during the process of osteogenic induction and the effect of mitochondria on the microenvironment of stem cells. • This review summarized biomaterials which affect the induction/rate of differentiation, but also influences its direction, determining the final identity of the differentiated cell through the regulation of mitochondria.

DNA tetrahedron-based CRISPR bioassay for treble-self-amplified and multiplex HPV-DNA detection with elemental tagging

Sensitive quantification of multiple analytes of interest is of great significance for clinical diagnosis. CRISPR Cas platforms offer a strategy for improving the specificity, sensitivity, and speed of nucleic acid-based diagnostics, while their multiplex analysis capability is still limited and challenging. Herein, we develop a novel DNA Tetrahedron (DTN)-supported biosensor based on the spatially separated CRISPR Cas self-amplification strategy and multiple-metal-nanoparticle tagging coupled with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) detection to improve the sensitivity and feasibility of the platform for multiplex detection of HPV-DNA (HPV-16, HPV-18 and HPV-52). Given target DNA induces robust trans-cleavage activity of the Cas12a/crRNA duplex, and the surrounding corresponding single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) linker are cleaved into short fragments that are unable to bond metal-nanoparticle probes (¹⁹⁷Au, ¹⁰⁷Ag, ¹⁹⁵Pt) onto DTN modified magnetic beads probe (MBs-DTN), resulting in obvious ICP-MS signal change. Of note, compared with ssDNA functionalized MBs, a higher Signal-to-Noise Ratio was obtained by using MBs-DTN in our system, further amplifying the signal by regulating probes on the surface of MBs. As expected, the HPV-DNA could be detected with detection limits as low as 218 fM and be multiplexed assayed at one test with high accuracy and specificity by this proposed strategy. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the HPV-DNA in cervical swab samples could be detected, showing high consistency with DNA sequencing results. We believe that this work provides a promising option in designing CRISPR based multiplex detection system for high sensitivity, good specificity, and clinical molecular diagnostics.

Subcellular localization of DNA nanodevices and their applications

The application of nanodevices based on DNA self-assembly in the field of cell biology has made significant progress in the past decade. In this study, the development of DNA nanotechnology is briefly reviewed. The subcellular localization of DNA nanodevices, and their new progress and applications in the fields of biological detection, subcellular and organ pathology, biological imaging, and other fields are reviewed. The future of subcellular localization and biological applications of DNA nanodevices is also discussed.

High-Affinity DNA Nanomatrix: A Platform Technology for Synergistic Drug Delivery and Photothermal Therapy

With the advent of nucleosome/nucleotide intercalating drugs, DNA-based nanocarriers have recently gained impetus. However, most of the newly proposed DNA nanosystems are rather complex, thereby having low scalability and translatability. In this study, we propose a simple DNA nanomatrix core encapsulated within a chitosan shell, which is expected to enhance the encapsulation efficiency of intercalating drugs. This has been demonstrated using proflavine hemisulfate (PfHS), a model intercalating agent that shows improved ROS generation, among other anticancerous properties. The release of the drug from the nanomatrix is triggered by providing a heat trigger using IR-792 perchlorate, a known NIR photothermal sensitizer.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of tetrahydroisoquinoline stilbene derivatives as potential antitumor candidates

Herein, a novel class of tetrahydroisoquinoline stilbene derivatives were synthesized, and their potential in vitro anticancer activities were evaluated. Most of the compounds displayed inhibitory activity against one or more representative human cancer cell lines (lung cancer A549 cells, breast cancer MCF-7 cells, and human colorectal carcinoma HT-29 cells), especially compound 16e, which exhibited outstanding cytotoxicity to A549 cells. The tubulin polymerization assay demonstrated that compound 16e displayed better inhibition than colchicine when tested at the same concentration. It was found that 16e arrested A549 cells in G2/M phase by downregulating the expression of cell division cycle 2 (Cdc2) and upregulating the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cyclin B1. Flow cytometry and Western blot analysis indicated that 16e caused apoptosis via the mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential, inducing ROS accumulation, promoting the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, and further increasing the protein level of cleaved caspase-3. This work may inspire new ideas for the further improvement of tubulin-related anticancer drugs and treatments.

Lipid and Peptide-Oligonucleotide Conjugates for Therapeutic Purposes: From Simple Hybrids to Complex Multifunctional Assemblies

Antisense and small interfering RNA (siRNA) oligonucleotides have been recognized as powerful therapeutic compounds for targeting mRNAs and inducing their degradation. However, a major obstacle is that unmodified oligonucleotides are not readily taken up into tissues and are susceptible to degradation by nucleases. For these reasons, the design and preparation of modified DNA/RNA derivatives with better stability and an ability to be produced at large scale with enhanced uptake properties is of vital importance to improve current limitations. In the present study, we review the conjugation of oligonucleotides with lipids and peptides in order to produce oligonucleotide conjugates for therapeutics aiming to develop novel compounds with favorable pharmacokinetics.

Enhanced photothermal-ferroptosis effects based on RBCm-coated PDA nanoparticles for effective cancer therapy

Ferroptosis, a type of programmed cell death induced by the iron-dependent lipid hydroperoxide pathway, has attracted widespread attention. However, Fenton response-dependent ferroptosis has many limitations, such as insufficient reaction conditions in the tumor micro-environment. Here, we propose an all-in-one phototherapy nanoplatform consisting of iron-polydopamine (Fe-PDA), a folic acid-modified red blood cell membrane (FA-RBCm), and epirubicin (EPI), namely, Fe-PDA-EPI@FA-RBCm NPs, to achieve enhanced photothermal-ferroptosis effects via overcoming the limitations of the Fenton-like reaction. The results showed that the synthesized biomimetic nanoparticles could decompose hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to generate hydroxyl radicals (˙OH), and further induce the non-apoptotic ferroptosis pathway. After irradiation with near-infrared (NIR) light, the uptake of Fe-PDA-EPI@FA-RBCm NPs by cells could be effectively promoted, and it presented impressive in vitro and in vivo photothermal properties. In vitro and in vivo results showed that laser irradiation could enhance ferroptosis by promoting the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxides, down-regulating the expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), and reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, the photothermal-promoted ferroptosis and apoptosis pathways (photothermal therapy and chemotherapy) exhibited outstanding synergistic antitumor efficacy in vitro and in vivo, with an in vivo tumor inhibition rate as high as 76.95%. In conclusion, the construction of tumor-targeted biomimetic nanocarriers utilizing the advantageous properties of RBCm has been investigated as a potential anticancer strategy.

Hypoxia-responsive Immunostimulatory Nanomedicines Synergize with Checkpoint Blockade Immunotherapy for Potentiating Cancer Immunotherapy

Inducing cell death while simultaneously enhancing antitumor immune responses is a promising therapeutic approach for multiple cancers. Celastrol (Cel) and 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38) have contrasting physicochemical properties, but strong synergy in immunogenic cell death induction and anticancer activity. Herein, a hypoxia-sensitive nanosystem (CS@TAP) was designed to demonstrate effective immunotherapy for colorectal cancer by systemic delivery of an immunostimulatory chemotherapy combination. Furthermore, the combination of CS@TAP with anti-PD-L1 mAb (αPD-L1) exhibited a significant therapeutic benefit of delaying tumor growth and increased local doses of immunogenic signaling and T-cell infiltration, ultimately extending survival. We conclude that CS@TAP is an effective inducer of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, this study provides an encouraging strategy to synergistically induce immunogenic cell death to enhance tumor cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) infiltration for anticancer immunotherapy.

Combination of polythyleneimine regulating autophagy prodrug and Mdr1 siRNA for tumor multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) has been restricting the efficacy of chemotherapy, which mainly include pump resistance and non-pump resistance. In order to fight overall MDR, a novel targeted gene/drug co-deliver nano system is developed, which can suppress the drug efflux pumps and modulate autophagy to overcoming both pump and non-pump resistance. Here, small interfere RNA (siRNA) is incorporated into polymer-drug conjugates (PEI-PTX, PP) which are composed of polyethyleneimine (PEI) and paclitaxel (PTX) via covalent bonds, and hyaluronic acid (HA) is coated on the surface of PP/siRNA to achieve long blood cycle and CD44-targeted delivery. The RNA interference to mdr1 gene is combined with autophagy inhibition by PP, which efficiently facilitate apoptosis of Taxol-resistant lung cancer cells (A549/T). Further study indicates that PEI in PP may play a significant role to block the autophagosome–lysosome fusion process by means of alkalizing lysosomes. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirm that the nanoassemblies can successfully deliver PTX and siRNA into tumor cells and significantly inhibited A549/T tumor growth. In summary, the polymeric nanoassemblies provide a potential strategy for combating both pump and non-pump resistance via the synergism of RNAi and autophagy modulation.

Advances in regenerative medicine applications of tetrahedral framework nucleic acid-based nanomaterials: an expert consensus recommendation

With the emergence of DNA nanotechnology in the 1980s, self-assembled DNA nanostructures have attracted considerable attention worldwide due to their inherent biocompatibility, unsurpassed programmability, and versatile functions. Especially promising nanostructures are tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs), first proposed by Turberfield with the use of a one-step annealing approach. Benefiting from their various merits, such as simple synthesis, high reproducibility, structural stability, cellular internalization, tissue permeability, and editable functionality, tFNAs have been widely applied in the biomedical field as three-dimensional DNA nanomaterials. Surprisingly, tFNAs exhibit positive effects on cellular biological behaviors and tissue regeneration, which may be used to treat inflammatory and degenerative diseases. According to their intended application and carrying capacity, tFNAs could carry functional nucleic acids or therapeutic molecules through extended sequences, sticky-end hybridization, intercalation, and encapsulation based on the Watson and Crick principle. Additionally, dynamic tFNAs also have potential applications in controlled and targeted therapies. This review summarized the latest progress in pure/modified/dynamic tFNAs and demonstrated their regenerative medicine applications. These applications include promoting the regeneration of the bone, cartilage, nerve, skin, vasculature, or muscle and treating diseases such as bone defects, neurological disorders, joint-related inflammatory diseases, periodontitis, and immune diseases.

Endogenous Stimuli-Responsive Autonomous Separation of Dual-Targeting DNA Guided Missile from Nanospacecraft for Intelligent Targeted Cancer Therapy

Most conventional chemotherapeutics indiscriminately kill both cancerous and healthy cells and cause toxic side effects, limiting the maximum tolerated dose and thereby compromising therapeutic efficacy. To address this challenge, here dual-targeting intelligent DNA guided missile (GM)-integrated nanospacecraft (NSC) (abbreviated as GM-NSC) is demonstrated for staged chemotherapeutic drug delivery exclusively into cancer cells and then mitochondria (not into healthy cells). GM-NSC is essentially a core/shell nanocomposite composed of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) surrounded by a high-density multilayer DNA crown that is self-assembled from DNA tetrahedral units (DNA Tetra) in a highly ordered manner. Each tetrahedral structural unit is equipped with three functional components: a cancer cell-targeting aptamer pointing toward the outside environment, a hidden mitochondria-targeting triphenylphosphonium (TPP), and an explosive bolt (E-bolt). GM-NSC can remain intact in fetal bovine serum solution over 12 h and has 53-fold improved systemic stability. Each GM-NSC accommodates 1250 anticancer doxorubicin (Dox), achieving a 48-63-fold improved drug payload capacity. When systemically administrated into a tumor-bearing xenograft murine model, Dox-loaded GM-NSC enters into tumor sites with 18-fold improved specificity followed by autonomous separation of GMs from the NSC core and specific mitochondrial accumulation due to the explosion of E-bolt upon stimuli of endogenous miRNAs. About 80% of Dox uptaken is transferred into mitochondria and induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. As a result, the growth of malignant tumor is almost 100% inhibited without detectable toxicity to healthy tissues. Due to the desirable systemic stability, good biocompatibility, high cargo loading capability, satisfactory in vivo biodistribution, and therapeutic efficacy without adverse effects, intelligible GM-NSC is expected to become an alternative drug delivery system for precision cancer therapy.

Functionalized-DNA nanostructures as potential targeted drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Seeman's pioneer idea has led to the foundation of DNA nanostructures, resulting in a remarkable advancement in DNA nanotechnology. Over the last few decades, remarkable advances in drug delivery techniques have resulted in the self-assembly of DNA for encapsulating candidate drug molecules. The nuclear targeting capability of DNA nanostructures is lies within their high spatial addressability and tremendous potential for active targeting. However, effective programming and assembling those DNA molecules remains a challenge, making the path to DNA nanostructures for real-world applications difficult. Because of their small size, most nanostructures are self-capable of infiltrating into the tumor cellular environment. Furthermore, to enable controlled and site-specific delivery of encapsulated drug molecules, DNA nanostructures are functionalized with special moieties that allow them to bind specific targets and release cargo only at targeted sites rather than non-specific sites, resulting in the prevention/limitation of cellular toxicity. In light of this, the current review seeks to shed light on the versatility of the DNA molecule as a targeting and encapsulating moiety for active drugs in order to achieve controlled and specific drug release with spatial and temporal precision. Furthermore, this review focused on the challenges associated with the construction of DNA nanostructures as well as the most recent advances in the functionalization of DNA nanostructures using various materials for controlled and targeted delivery of medications for cancer therapy.

Co-Delivery of Doxorubicin and Anti-PD-L1 Peptide in Lipid/PLGA Nanocomplexes for the Chemo-Immunotherapy of Cancer

The combined delivery of chemotherapeutics with checkpoint inhibitors of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway provides a new approach for cancer treatment. Small-molecule peptide inhibitors possess short production cycle, low immunogenicity, and fewer side effects; however, their potential in cancer therapy is hampered by the rapid biodegradation and a nanocarrier is needed for efficient drug delivery. Herein, anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and PD-L1 inhibitor peptide P-12 are co-loaded by a lipid polymer nanocomplex based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and DSPE-PEG. Octaarginine (R8)-conjugated DSPE-PEG renders the LPN efficient internalization by cancer cells. The optimal nanomedicine LPN-30-R8^2K@DP shows a diameter of 125 nm and a DOX and P-12 loading content of 5.0 and 6.2%, respectively. LPN-30-R8^2K@DP exhibits good physiological stability and enhanced cellular uptake by cancer cells. It successfully induces immunogenic cell death and PD-L1 blockade in CT26 cancer cells. The in vivo antitumor study further suggests that co-loaded nanomedicine efficiently suppresses CT26 tumor growth and elicits antitumor immune response. This study manifests that lipid polymer nanocomplexes are promising drug carriers for the efficient chemo-immunotherapy of cancer.

Mitochondrial adaptation in cancer drug resistance: prevalence, mechanisms, and management

Drug resistance represents a major obstacle in cancer management, and the mechanisms underlying stress adaptation of cancer cells in response to therapy-induced hostile environment are largely unknown. As the central organelle for cellular energy supply, mitochondria can rapidly undergo dynamic changes and integrate cellular signaling pathways to provide bioenergetic and biosynthetic flexibility for cancer cells, which contributes to multiple aspects of tumor characteristics, including drug resistance. Therefore, targeting mitochondria for cancer therapy and overcoming drug resistance has attracted increasing attention for various types of cancer. Multiple mitochondrial adaptation processes, including mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial metabolism, and mitochondrial apoptotic regulatory machinery, have been demonstrated to be potential targets. However, recent increasing insights into mitochondria have revealed the complexity of mitochondrial structure and functions, the elusive functions of mitochondria in tumor biology, and the targeting inaccessibility of mitochondria, which have posed challenges for the clinical application of mitochondrial-based cancer therapeutic strategies. Therefore, discovery of both novel mitochondria-targeting agents and innovative mitochondria-targeting approaches is urgently required. Here, we review the most recent literature to summarize the molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial stress adaptation and their intricate connection with cancer drug resistance. In addition, an overview of the emerging strategies to target mitochondria for effectively overcoming chemoresistance is highlighted, with an emphasis on drug repositioning and mitochondrial drug delivery approaches, which may accelerate the application of mitochondria-targeting compounds for cancer therapy.

Copper-based nanomaterials for cancer theranostics

Copper-based nanomaterials (Cu-based NMs) with favorable biocompatibility and unique properties have attracted the attention of many biomedical researchers. Cu-based NMs are one of the most widely studied materials in cancer treatment. In recent years, great progress has been made in the field of biomedicine, especially in the treatment and diagnosis of tumors. This review begins with the classification of Cu-based NMs and the recent synthetic strategies of Cu-based NMs. Then, according to the abundant and special properties of Cu-based NMs, their application in biomedicine is summarized in detail. For biomedical imaging, such as photoacoustic imaging, positron emission tomography imaging, and multimodal imaging based on Cu-based NMs are summarized, as well as strategies to improve the diagnostic effectiveness. Moreover, a series of unique structures and functions as well as the underlying property activity relationship of Cu-based NMs were shown to highlight their promising therapeutic performance. Cu-based NMs have been widely used in monotherapies, such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Moreover, the sophisticated design in composition, structure, and surface fabrication of Cu-based NMs can endow these NMs with more modalities in cancer diagnosis and therapy. To further improve the efficiency of cancer treatment, combined therapy based on Cu-based NMs was introduced in detail. Finally, the challenges, critical factors, and future prospects for the clinical translation of Cu-based NMs as multifunctional theranostic agents were also considered and discussed. The aim of this review is to provide a better understanding and key consideration for the rational design of this increasingly important new paradigm of Cu-based NMs as theranostic agents. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Application Perspectives of Nanomedicine in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is a disease that seriously threatens human health. Based on the improvement of traditional treatment methods and the development of new treatment modes, the pattern of cancer treatment is constantly being optimized. Nanomedicine plays an important role in these evolving tumor treatment modalities. In this article, we outline the applications of nanomedicine in three important tumor-related fields: chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy. According to the current common problems, such as poor targeting of first-line chemotherapy drugs, easy destruction of nucleic acid drugs, and common immune-related adverse events in immunotherapy, we discuss how nanomedicine can be combined with these treatment modalities, provide typical examples, and summarize the advantages brought by the application of nanomedicine.

Gold nanorods/tetrahedral DNA composites for chemo-photothermal therapy

Combination therapy is extensively developed for cancer treatment in recent years due to its high efficiency. Herein, we constructed a nanocomposite based on gold nanorods (GNRs) and drug-loaded tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDN) for chemo-photothermal combinational therapy. Anti-tumor drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded via the insertion within GC base pairs of TDN. The aptamer AS1411 was attached to the apex of TDN (ATDN) to target tumor cells. The DOX-loaded DNA tetrahedron (ATDN-DOX) was compressed by the GNRs coated with PEI (GNRs@ATDN-DOX) to realize the photothermal function and lysosome escape. GNRs under the illumination of 808 nm infrared laser showed high photothermal conversion and stability due to the protection of PEI layer. The drug-loading capacity of ATDN-DOX was as high as 314 DOX molecules in per ATDN. The positive charge of PEI in GNRs@ATDN-DOX nanocomposites was utilized to achieve excellent cell penetration and induce proton sponge effect for lysosomal escape. The nanocomposites presented HeLa and 4T1 cells targeting and resulted in efficient anticancer activity.

Design and application of DNA nanostructures for organelle-targeted delivery of anticancer drugs

INTRODUCTION

DNA nanostructures targeting organelles are of great significance for the early diagnosis and precise therapy of human cancers. This review is expected to promote the development of DNA nanostructure-based cancer treatment with organelle-level precision in the future.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we introduce the different principles for targeting organelles, summarize the progresses in the development of organelle-targeting DNA nanostructures, highlight their advantages and applications in disease treatment, and discuss current challenges and future prospects.

EXPERT OPINION

Accurate targeting is a basic problem for effective cancer treatment. However, current DNA nanostructures cannot meet the actual needs. Targeting specific organelles is expected to further improve the therapeutic effect and overcome tumor cell resistance, thereby holding great practical significance for tumor treatment in the clinic. With the deepening of the research on the molecular mechanism of disease development, especially on tumorigenesis and tumor progression, and increasing understanding of the behavior of biological materials in living cells, more versatile DNA nanostructures will be constructed to target subcellular organelles for drug delivery, essentially promoting the early diagnosis of cancers, classification, precise therapy and the estimation of prognosis in the future.

Multifunctional thermo-sensitive hydrogel for modulating the microenvironment in Osteoarthritis by polarizing macrophages and scavenging RONS

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease that can lead to disability. Blocking the complex malignant feedback loop system dominated by oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory factors is the key to treating OA. Here, we develop a multifunctional composite thermo-sensitive hydrogel (HPP@Cu gel), which is utilized by Poloxamer 407 (P407) and hyaluronic acid (HA) mixture as the gel matrix, then physically mixed with copper nanodots (Cu NDs) and platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Cu NDs is a novel nano-scavenger of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) with efficient free radical scavenging activity. HPP@Cu gel is injected into the articular cavity, where it form an in situ gel that slowly released Cu NDs, HA, and PRP, prolonging the duration of drug action. Our results indicate that HPP@Cu gel could efficiently remove RONS from inflammatory sites and promote repolarization of macrophages to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. The HPP@Cu gel therapy dramatically reduces cartilage degradation and inflammatory factor production in OA rats. This study provides a reliable reference for the application of injectable hydrogels in inflammatory diseases associated with oxidative stress.

Therapeutic Applications of Programmable DNA Nanostructures

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nanotechnology, a frontier in biomedical engineering, is an emerging field that has enabled the engineering of molecular-scale DNA materials with applications in biomedicine such as bioimaging, biodetection, and drug delivery over the past decades. The programmability of DNA nanostructures allows the precise engineering of DNA nanocarriers with controllable shapes, sizes, surface chemistries, and functions to deliver therapeutic and functional payloads to target cells with higher efficiency and enhanced specificity. Programmability and control over design also allow the creation of dynamic devices, such as DNA nanorobots, that can react to external stimuli and execute programmed tasks. This review focuses on the current findings and progress in the field, mainly on the employment of DNA nanostructures such as DNA origami nanorobots, DNA nanotubes, DNA tetrahedra, DNA boxes, and DNA nanoflowers in the biomedical field for therapeutic purposes. We will also discuss the fate of DNA nanostructures in living cells, the major obstacles to overcome, that is, the stability of DNA nanostructures in biomedical applications, and the opportunities for DNA nanostructure-based drug delivery in the future.

The management of diabetes mellitus by mangiferin: advances and prospects

Diabetes mellitus has become one of the most challenging public health problems today. There are still various deficiencies that remain in existing therapeutic drugs. With increasing prevalence and mortality rates, more effective therapeutic agents are required for treatment clinically. As a kind of polyphenol and as a natural product, mangiferin has numerous pharmacological and excellent effects. In this review, the underlying mechanisms of mangiferin on diabetes mellitus and complications will be summarized. Moreover, mangiferin belongs to the BSC IV class and the clinical application and development of mangiferin are limited due to its poor aqueous solubility and fat solubility as well as low bioavailability. Our review also elaborated on improving the solubility of mangiferin by changing the dosage form and introduced the existing results, which hope to provide useful reference for mangiferin for further treating diabetes. In conclusion, mangiferin might be a potential adjuvant therapy for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and complications in the future.

Loading of DOX into a tetrahedral DNA nanostructure: the corner does matter

With the rapid development of nanotechnology, various DNA nanostructures have been synthesized and widely used in drug delivery. However, the underlying mechanisms of drug molecule loading into the DNA nanostructure are still elusive. In this work, we systematically investigate the interactions of a tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN) with the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) by combining molecular docking and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. It is found that there are five possible binding modes in the single TDN-DOX interactions, namely the outside-corner mode, the inside-corner mode, the major-groove mode, the minor-groove mode, and the intercalation mode, where the van der Waals (VDW) interaction and the electrostatic (ELE) interaction dominate in the case of unionized DOX and ionized DOX, respectively. Moreover, with the increase of the DOX number, some of the interaction modes may disappear and the inside-corner mode is the most energy-favorable mode. The present study enhances the molecular understanding of the role of TDN as the drug carrier, which may provide a useful guideline for the future design of DNA nanostructures.

Nuclear Targeted Peptide Combined With Gambogic Acid for Synergistic Treatment of Breast Cancer

As a natural compound, gambogic acid (GA) emerged a shining multi-target antitumor activity in a variety of tumors. Whereas its poor solubility and non-specific effect to tumor blocked the clinical application of this drug. Herein, we reported a simple and effective strategy to construct liposome modified with nuclear targeted peptide CB5005N (VQRKRQKLMPC) via polyethylene glycol (PEG) linker to decrease the inherent limitations of GA and promote its anti-tumor activity. In this study, liposomes were prepared by thin film hydration method. The characterization of formulations contained particle size, Zeta potential, morphology and encapsulation efficiency. Further, in vitro cytotoxicity and uptake tests were investigated by 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 cells, and nuclear targeting capability was performed on MDA-MB-231 cells. In addition, the in vivo antitumor effect and biological distribution of formulations were tested in BALB/c female mice. The GA-loaded liposome modified by CB5005N showed small size, good uniformity, better targeting, higher anti-tumor efficiency, better tumor inhibition rate and lower toxicity to normal tissues than other groups. In vitro and in vivo research proved that CB5005N-GA-liposome exhibited excellent anti-tumor activity and significantly reduced toxicities. As a result, CB5005N-GA-liposome nano drug delivery system enhanced the tumor targeting and antitumor effects of GA, which provided a basis for its clinical application.

Targeting drug delivery and efficient lysosomal escape for chemo-photodynamic cancer therapy by a peptide/DNA nanocomplex

A peptide/DNA nanocomplex was developed for the targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics and photosensitizers to cancer cells for efficient combination therapy. The chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) and the photosensitizer 5,10,15,20-tetra-(1-methylpyridine-4-yl)-porphyrin (TMPyP4) were physically incorporated by an aptamer (AS1411)-modified tetrahedral DNA nanostructure, where the tetrahedral DNA and aptamer-induced G-quadruplex provide binding sites of DOX and TMPyP4. The co-loaded 3A-TDN/DT displayed a targeted uptake by HeLa cancer cells through the high affinity and specificity between AS1411 and nucleolin, a protein overexpressed on many types of cancer cells. A polycationic polymer, mPEG-PAsp(TECH), was synthesized to complex with the DNA nanostructure to efficiently escape from lysosomes via the proton sponge effect upon the enhanced internalization by tumor cells. Under the irradiation of 660 nm laser light, TMPyP4 induced an upregulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species, which combined with DOX to fulfill the efficient inhibition of HeLa cells. Our study demonstrated a biocompatible peptide/DNA composite nanoplatform for combinational cancer therapy via the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and efficient lysosomal escape.

Multifunctional Mitochondria-Targeting Nanosystems for Enhanced Anticancer Efficacy

Mitochondria, a kind of subcellular organelle, play crucial roles in cancer cells as an energy source and as a generator of reactive substrates, which concern the generation, proliferation, drug resistance, and other functions of cancer. Therefore, precise delivery of anticancer agents to mitochondria can be a novel strategy for enhanced cancer treatment. Mitochondria have a four-layer structure with a high negative potential, which thereby prevents many molecules from reaching the mitochondria. Luckily, the advances in nanosystems have provided enormous hope to overcome this challenge. These nanosystems include liposomes, nanoparticles, and nanomicelles. Here, we summarize the very latest developments in mitochondria-targeting nanomedicines in cancer treatment as well as focus on designing multifunctional mitochondria-targeting nanosystems based on the latest nanotechnology.

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures for effective treatment of cancer: advances and prospects

Recently, DNA nanostructures with vast application potential in the field of biomedicine, especially in drug delivery. Among these, tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDN) have attracted interest worldwide due to their high stability, excellent biocompatibility, and simplicity of modification. TDN could be synthesized easily and reproducibly to serve as carriers for, chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acid drugs and imaging probes. Therefore, their applications include, but are not restricted to, drug delivery, molecular diagnostics, and biological imaging. In this review, we summarize the methods of functional modification and application of TDN in cancer treatment. Also, we discuss the pressing questions that should be targeted to increase the applicability of TDN in the future.

Research progress of nanocarriers for gene therapy targeting abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism in tumors

In recent years, the incidence of various types of tumors has gradually increased, and it has also been found that there is a certain correlation between abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism and tumors. Glycolipid metabolism can promote tumor progression through multiple pathways, and the expression of related genes also directly or indirectly affects tumor metabolism, metastasis, invasion, and apoptosis. There has been much research on targeted drug delivery systems designed for abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism due to their accuracy and efficiency when used for tumor therapy. In addition, gene mutations have become an important factor in tumorigenesis. For this reason, gene therapy consisting of drugs designed for certain specifically expressed genes have been transfected into target cells to express or silence the corresponding proteins. Targeted gene drug vectors that achieve their corresponding therapeutic purposes are also rapidly developing. The genes related to glucose and lipid metabolism are considered as the target, and a corresponding gene drug carrier is constructed to influence and interfere with the expression of related genes, so as to block the tumorigenesis process and inhibit tumor growth. Designing drugs that target genes related to glucose and lipid metabolism within tumors is considered to be a promising strategy for the treatment of tumor diseases. This article summarizes the chemical drugs/gene drug delivery systems and the corresponding methods used in recent years for the treatment of abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism of tumors, and provides a theoretical basis for the development of glucolipid metabolism related therapeutic methods.

A multimodal strategy of Fe3O4@ZIF-8/GOx@MnO2 hybrid nanozyme via TME modulation for tumor therapy

Weak acidity (6.5-6.9) and limited H₂O₂ level in the tumor microenvironment (TME) usually impact the therapeutic effect of chemodynamic therapy (CDT) for cancer. A Specific TME promotes the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment and results in high rate of recurrence and metastasis of cancer. Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8/GOx@MnO₂ multi-layer core shell nanostructure was constructed as a hybrid nanozyme. After magnetic targeting of the tumor site, the outermost MnO₂ shell catalyzed H₂O₂ in TME to produce O₂ and was broken due to the reaction with glutathione. Due to the acid response, the ZIF-8 layer would crack and release glucose oxidase (GOx) and Fe₃O₄. The generated O₂ was utilized by GOx in starvation therapy to consume glucose and produce H₂O₂ and gluconic acid. The Fenton reaction efficiency of Fe(II) was improved by the increased H₂O₂ concentration and the enhanced acidity in TME. At the same time, the intrinsic photothermal effect of Fe₃O₄ upon 808 nm laser irradiation promoted the activity of MnO₂ and GOx as oxidase, and Fe(II) as catalase-like, and ablated the primary tumor. Moreover, the hybrid nanozyme can facilitate the transformation of M2-type macrophages to M1-type, and strong systemic antitumor immune effect was induced. A synergy of multiple therapeutic modes including starvation therapy, CDT, photothermal therapy (PTT), and immunotherapy can be realized in the hybrid nanozyme for tumor therapy.

Prospective Cancer Therapies Using Stimuli-Responsive DNA Nanostructures

Nanostructures based on DNA self-assembly present an innovative way to address the increasing need for target-specific delivery of therapeutic molecules. Currently, most of the chemotherapeutics being used in clinical practice have undesired and exceedingly high off-target toxicity. This is a challenge in particular for small molecules, and hence, developing robust and effective methods to lower these side effects and enhance the antitumor activity is of paramount importance. Prospectively, these issues could be tackled with the help of DNA nanotechnology, which provides a route for the fabrication of custom, biocompatible, and multimodal structures, which can, to some extent, resist nuclease degradation and survive in the cellular environment. Similar to widely employed liposomal products, the DNA nanostructures (DNs) are loaded with selected drugs, and then by employing a specific stimulus, the payload can be released at its target region. This review explores several strategies and triggers to achieve targeted delivery of DNs. Notably, different modalities are explained through which DNs can interact with their respective targets as well as how structural changes triggered by external stimuli can be used to achieve the display or release of the cargo. Furthermore, the prospects and challenges of this technology are highlighted.

Mito-Bomb: Targeting Mitochondria for Cancer Therapy

Cancer has been one of the most common life-threatening diseases for a long time. Traditional cancer therapies such as surgery, chemotherapy (CT), and radiotherapy (RT) have limited effects due to drug resistance, unsatisfactory treatment efficiency, and side effects. In recent years, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) have been utilized for cancer treatment owing to their high selectivity, minor resistance, and minimal toxicity. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that selective delivery of drugs to specific subcellular organelles can significantly enhance the efficiency of cancer therapy. Mitochondria-targeting therapeutic strategies are promising for cancer therapy, which is attributed to the essential role of mitochondria in the regulation of cancer cell apoptosis, metabolism, and more vulnerable to hyperthermia and oxidative damage. Herein, the rational design, functionalization, and applications of diverse mitochondria-targeting units, involving organic phosphine/sulfur salts, quaternary ammonium (QA) salts, peptides, transition-metal complexes, guanidinium or bisguanidinium, as well as mitochondria-targeting cancer therapies including PDT, PTT, CDT, and others are summarized. This review aims to furnish researchers with deep insights and hints in the design and applications of novel mitochondria-targeting agents for cancer therapy.

Recent progress of graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials for cancer treatment

Background

In the last decade, graphene oxide-based nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have attracted more and more attention in the field of biomedicine. Due to the versatile surface functionalization, ultra-high surface area, and excellent biocompatibility of graphene oxide-based nanomaterials, which hold better promise for potential applications than among other nanomaterials in biomedical fields including drug/gene delivery, biomolecules detection, tissue engineering, especially in cancer treatment.

Results

Here, we review the recent progress of graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials for cancer treatment. A comprehensive and in-depth depiction of unique property of graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials is first interpreted, with particular descriptions about the suitability for applying in cancer therapy. Afterward, recently emerging representative applications of graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials in antitumor therapy, including as an ideal carrier for drugs/genes, phototherapy, and bioimaging, are systematically summarized. Then, the biosafety of the graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials is reviewed.

Conclusions

Finally, the conclusions and perspectives on further advancing the graphene oxide-based multifunctional nanomaterials toward potential and versatile development for fundamental researches and nanomedicine are proposed.

Graphic abstract

The Effects of Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction, Cynara cardunculus, and Olea europea L. Extract on Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity

Doxorubicin is an anthracycline that is commonly used as a chemotherapy drug due to its cytotoxic effects. The clinical use of doxorubicin is limited due to its known cardiotoxic effects. Treatment with anthracyclines causes heart failure in 15–17% of patients, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, intracellular calcium dysregulation, the deterioration of the cardiomyocyte structure, and apoptotic cell death. Polyphenols have a wide range of beneficial properties, and particular importance is given to Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction; Oleuropein, one of the main polyphenolic compounds of olive oil; and Cynara cardunculus extract. These natural compounds have particular beneficial characteristics, owing to their high polyphenol contents. Among these, their antioxidant and antoproliferative properties are the most important. The aim of this paper was to investigate the effects of these three plant derivatives using an in vitro model of cardiotoxicity induced by the treatment of rat embryonic cardiomyoblasts (H9c2) with doxorubicin. The biological mechanisms involved and the crosstalk existing between the mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum were examined. Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction, Oleuropein, and Cynara cardunculus extract were able to decrease the damage induced by exposure to doxorubicin. In particular, these natural compounds were found to reduce cell mortality and oxidative damage, increase the lipid content, and decrease the concentration of calcium ions that escaped from the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, the direct involvement of this cellular organelle was demonstrated by silencing the ATF6 arm of the Unfolded Protein Response, which was activated after treatment with doxorubicin.