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Fedorowicz J, Sączewski J. Advances in the Synthesis of Biologically Active Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4649. [PMID: 38731869 PMCID: PMC11083083 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25094649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the design and synthesis of biologically active quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs). The covered scope extends beyond commonly reviewed antimicrobial derivatives to include synthetic agents with antifungal, anticancer, and antiviral properties. Additionally, this review highlights examples of quaternary ammonium compounds exhibiting activity against protozoa and herbicidal effects, as well as analgesic and anesthetic derivatives. The article also embraces the quaternary-ammonium-containing cholinesterase inhibitors and muscle relaxants. QACs, marked by their inherent permanent charge, also find widespread usage across diverse domains such as fabric softeners, hair conditioners, detergents, and disinfectants. The effectiveness of QACs hinges greatly on finding the right equilibrium between hydrophilicity and lipophilicity. The ideal length of the alkyl chain varies according to the unique structure of each QAC and its biological settings. It is expected that this review will provide comprehensive data for medicinal and industrial chemists to design and develop novel QAC-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Fedorowicz
- Department of Chemical Technology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdańsk, Al. Gen. J. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jarosław Sączewski
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdańsk, Al. Gen. J. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland;
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2
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Xu T, Mi L, Namulinda T, Yan YJ, Meerovich GA, Reshetov IV, Kogan EA, Chen ZL. Quaternary ammonium cations conjugated 5,15-diaryltetranaphtho[2,3]porphyrins as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116228. [PMID: 38354521 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
In quest for new photosensitizers (PSs) with remarkable antitumor photodynamic efficacy, a series of fifteen quaternary ammonium (QA) cations conjugated 5,15-diaryltetranaphtho[2,3]porphyrins (Ar2TNPs) was synthesized and evaluated in vitro and in vivo to understand how variations in the length of the alkoxy group and the kind of QA cations on meso-phenyl influence the photodynamic antitumor activity. All final compounds (I1-5, II1-5, and III1-5) exhibited robust absorption at 729 nm with significant bathochromic shift and high molar extinction coefficients (1.16 × 105-1.41 × 105 M-1 cm-1), as well as other absorptions at 445, 475, 651, and 714 nm for tumors and other diseases of diverse sizes and depths. Upon exposure to 474 nm light, they displayed intense fluorescence emission with fluorescence quantum yields ranging from 0.32 to 0.43. The ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) was also quantified, attaining a maximum rate of up to 0.0961 s-1. The IC50 values of all the compounds regarding phototoxicity and dark toxicity were determined using KYSE-150 cells, and the phototoxicity indices were calculated. Among these compounds, III1 demonstrated the highest phototoxic index with minimal dark toxicity, and suppressed successfully the growth of esophageal carcinoma xenograft with favorable tolerance in vivo. Furthermore, the histological results showed III1-mediated PDT had a significant cytotoxic effect on the tumor. These outcomes underscore the potential of III1 as a highly effective antitumor photosensitizer drug in photodynamic therapy (PDT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science & Technology, College of Biology and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Le Mi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science & Technology, College of Biology and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Tabbisa Namulinda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science & Technology, College of Biology and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Yi-Jia Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Huadong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China; Shanghai Xianhui Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, 201620, China.
| | - Gennady A Meerovich
- Prokhorov General Physics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | | | - Evgeniy Altarovna Kogan
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, 119992, Russia
| | - Zhi-Long Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science & Technology, College of Biology and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China; Department of Pharmacy, Huadong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
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3
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Jiang YN, Tan M, He C, Wang J, Wei Y, Jing N, Wang B, Yang F, Zhang Y, Li M. Supramolecular Switch for the Regulation of Antibacterial Efficacy of Near-Infrared Photosensitizer. Molecules 2024; 29:1040. [PMID: 38474550 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29051040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The global antibiotic resistance crisis has drawn attention to the development of treatment methods less prone to inducing drug resistance, such as antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT). However, there is an increasing demand for new photosensitizers capable of efficiently absorbing in the near-infrared (NIR) region, enabling antibacterial treatment in deeper sites. Additionally, advanced strategies need to be developed to avert drug resistance stemming from prolonged exposure. Herein, we have designed a conjugated oligoelectrolyte, namely TTQAd, with a donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D) backbone, enabling the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under NIR light irradiation, and cationic adamantaneammonium groups on the side chains, enabling the host-guest interaction with curcubit[7]uril (CB7). Due to the amphiphilic nature of TTQAd, it could spontaneously form nanoassemblies in aqueous solution. Upon CB7 treatment, the positive charge of the cationic adamantaneammonium group was largely shielded by CB7, leading to a further aggregation of the nanoassemblies and a reduced antibacterial efficacy of TTQAd. Subsequent treatment with competitor guests enables the release of TTQAd and restores its antibacterial effect. The reversible supramolecular switch for regulating the antibacterial effect offers the potential for the controlled release of active photosensitizers, thereby showing promise in preventing the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Na Jiang
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo 315302, China
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Manqi Tan
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo 315302, China
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Chenglong He
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo 315302, China
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Jiaxi Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yi Wei
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ningning Jing
- College of Science and Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315300, China
| | - Bing Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
- Zhejiang International Scientific and Technological Cooperative Base of Biomedical Materials and Technology, Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo 315300, China
| | - Fang Yang
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo 315302, China
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
- Zhejiang International Scientific and Technological Cooperative Base of Biomedical Materials and Technology, Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo 315300, China
| | - Yujie Zhang
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo 315302, China
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
- Zhejiang International Scientific and Technological Cooperative Base of Biomedical Materials and Technology, Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo 315300, China
| | - Meng Li
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging Probe Materials and Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
- Zhejiang International Scientific and Technological Cooperative Base of Biomedical Materials and Technology, Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo 315300, China
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4
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Zhang K, Limwongyut J, Moreland AS, Wei SCJ, Jim Jia Min T, Sun Y, Shin SJ, Kim SY, Jhun BW, Pethe K, Bazan GC. An anti-mycobacterial conjugated oligoelectrolyte effective against Mycobacterium abscessus. Sci Transl Med 2024; 16:eadi7558. [PMID: 38381846 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adi7558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Infections caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria have increased more than 50% in the past two decades and more than doubled in the elderly population. Mycobacterium abscessus (Mab), one of the most prevalent of these rapidly growing species, is intrinsically resistant to numerous antibiotics. Current standard-of-care treatments are not satisfactory, with high failure rate and notable adverse effects. We report here a potent anti-Mab compound from the flexible molecular framework afforded by conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs). A screen of structurally diverse, noncytotoxic COEs identified a lead compound, COE-PNH2, which was bactericidal against replicating, nonreplicating persisters and intracellular Mab.COE-PNH2 had low propensity for resistance development, with a frequency of resistance below 1.25 × 10-9 and showed no detectable resistance upon serial passaging. Mechanism of action studies were in line with COE-PNH2 affecting the physical and functional integrity of the bacterial envelope and disrupting the mycomembrane and associated essential bioenergetic pathways. Moreover, COE-PNH2 was well-tolerated and efficacious in a mouse model of Mab lung infection. This study highlights desirable in vitro and in vivo potency and safety index of this COE structure, which represents a promising anti-mycobacterial to tackle an unmet medical need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Alex S Moreland
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Samuel Chan Jun Wei
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Tania Jim Jia Min
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yan Sun
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Brain Korea 21 Project, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Su-Young Kim
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Byung Woo Jhun
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Kevin Pethe
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921 Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), 60 Nanyang Drive, 639798 Singapore, Singapore
- National Centre for Infectious Diseases (NCID), 16 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, 308442 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 4 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), 60 Nanyang Drive, 639798 Singapore, Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials (I-FIM), National University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore, Singapore
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5
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Zhang X, Zhou C, Hou J, Feng G, Xu Z, Shao Y, Yang C, Xu G. Conjugated Oligoelectrolyte with DNA Affinity for Enhanced Nuclear Imaging and Precise DNA Quantification. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:105. [PMID: 38392025 PMCID: PMC10887168 DOI: 10.3390/bios14020105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Precise DNA quantification and nuclear imaging are pivotal for clinical testing, pathological diagnosis, and drug development. The detection and localization of mitochondrial DNA serve as crucial indicators of cellular health. We introduce a novel conjugated oligoelectrolyte (COE) molecule, COE-S3, featuring a planar backbone composed of three benzene rings and terminal side chains. This unique amphiphilic structure endows COE-S3 with exceptional water solubility, a high quantum yield of 0.79, and a significant fluorescence Stokes shift (λex = 366 nm, λem = 476 nm), alongside a specific fluorescence response to DNA. The fluorescence intensity correlates proportionally with DNA concentration. COE-S3 interacts with double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) through an intercalation binding mode, exhibiting a binding constant (K) of 1.32 × 106 M-1. Its amphiphilic nature and strong DNA affinity facilitate its localization within mitochondria in living cells and nuclei in apoptotic cells. Remarkably, within 30 min of COE-S3 staining, cell vitality can be discerned through real-time nuclear fluorescence imaging of apoptotic cells. COE-S3's high DNA selectivity enables quantitative intracellular DNA analysis, providing insights into cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth. Our findings underscore COE-S3, with its strategically designed, shortened planar backbone, as a promising intercalative probe for DNA quantification and nuclear imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmeng Zhang
- Shenzhen Testing Center of Medical Devices, Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen 518057, China
- College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Cheng Zhou
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jianxun Hou
- Shenzhen Testing Center of Medical Devices, Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Gang Feng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Zhourui Xu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yonghong Shao
- College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Chengbin Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Gaixia Xu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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6
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Chan SJW, Zhu JY, Mia Soh WW, Bazan GC. Real-Time Monitoring of Mitochondrial Damage Using Conjugated Oligoelectrolytes. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:660-667. [PMID: 38131111 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs) comprise a class of fluorescent reporters with tunable optical properties and lipid bilayer affinity. These molecules have proven effective in a range of bioimaging applications; however, their use in characterizing specific subcellular structures remains restricted. Such capabilities would broaden COE applications to understand cellular dysfunction, cell communication, and the targets of different pharmaceutical agents. Here, we disclose a novel COE derivative, COE-CN, which enables the visualization of mitochondria, including morphological changes and lysosomal fusion upon treatment with depolarizing agents. COE-CN is characterized by the presence of imidazolium solubilizing groups and an optically active cyanovinyl-linked distyrylbenzene core with intramolecular charge-transfer characteristics. Our current understanding is that the relatively shorter molecular length of COE-CN leads to weaker binding within lipid bilayer membranes, which allows sampling of internal cellular structures and ultimately to different localization relative to elongated COEs. As a means of practical demonstration, COE-CN can be used to diagnose cells with damaged mitochondria via flow cytometry. Coupled with an elongated COE that does not translocate upon depolarization, changes in ratiometric fluorescence intensity can be used to monitor mitochondrial membrane potential disruption, demonstrating the potential for use in diagnostic assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J W Chan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Ji-Yu Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Wilson Wee Mia Soh
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117544, Singapore
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117585, Singapore
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7
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Limwongyut J, Moreland AS, Zhang K, Raynor M, Chattagul S, Fitzgerald TA, Le Breton Y, Zurawski DV, Bazan GC. Amidine-Based Cationic Conjugated Oligoelectrolytes with Antimicrobial Activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms. J Med Chem 2023; 66:14303-14314. [PMID: 37798258 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic Gram-negative bacterium that can cause high-morbidity infections. Due to its robust, flexible genome and ability to form biofilms, it can evade and rapidly develop resistance to antibiotics. Cationic conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs) have emerged as a promising class of antimicrobials. Herein, we report a series of amidine-containing COEs with high selectivity for bacteria. From this series, we identified 1b as the most active compound against P. aeruginosa (minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) = 2 μg/mL) with low cytotoxicity (IC50 (HepG2) = 1024 μg/mL). The activity of 1b was not affected by known drug-resistant phenotypes of 100 diverse P. aeruginosa isolates. Moreover, 1b is bactericidal with a low propensity for P. aeruginosa to develop resistance. Furthermore, 1b is also able to inhibit biofilm formation at subinhibitory concentrations and kills P. aeruginosa in established biofilms. The in vivo efficacy of 1b was demonstrated in biofilm-associated murine wound infection models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alex S Moreland
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kaixi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore
| | - Malik Raynor
- Experimental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United States
| | - Supaksorn Chattagul
- Experimental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United States
| | - Timothy A Fitzgerald
- Wound Infections Department, Bacterial Diseases Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United States
| | - Yoann Le Breton
- Wound Infections Department, Bacterial Diseases Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United States
| | - Daniel V Zurawski
- Wound Infections Department, Bacterial Diseases Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United States
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 117544 Singapore
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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8
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Moreland AS, Limwongyut J, Holton SJ, Bazan GC. Structural modulation of membrane-intercalating conjugated oligoelectrolytes decouples outer membrane permeabilizing and antimicrobial activities. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:12172-12175. [PMID: 37747122 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc02861e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
We report a series of membrane-intercalating conjugated oligoelectrolytes (MICOEs) to probe how structural features impact bacterial membrane integrity and antibiotic activity. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and outer membrane (OM) permeability correlated to different structural parameters suggesting that the antimicrobial mechanism is not related to OM permeabilization. However, lipid order parameters and MICs correlated to the same structural feature suggesting a possible link.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex S Moreland
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | | | - Samuel J Holton
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore 117544, Singapore
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore 117544, Singapore.
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9
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Jia Y, Chen W, Tang R, Zhang J, Liu X, Dong R, Hu F, Jiang X. Multi-armed antibiotics for Gram-positive bacteria. Cell Host Microbe 2023; 31:1101-1110.e5. [PMID: 37442098 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2023.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a serious threat to public health. Here, we propose a multi-armed chemical scaffold (MACS) for antibiotic screening, which refers to multi-armed molecules (MAMs) consisting of a core unit and three or four arms, neither of which is active for pathogens. Based on a structure-activity relationship study of MAMs, we discover a class of multi-armed antibiotics (MAAs) with a core similar to ethylene (E), carbon atom (C), benzene (B), nitrogen atom (N), and triazine (T) and three or four 4-phenylbenzoic acid (PBA) arms, or a B core and three 4-vinylbenzoic acid (VBA) or 4-ethynylbenzoic acid (EBA) arms. They can selectively interact with Gram-positive bacteria and inhibit cell wall assembly by targeting the lipid carriers of cell wall biosynthesis. MAAs have excellent antibacterial activities against Gram-positive bacteria, including clinical multi-drug-resistant (MDR) isolates. Our study provides a chemical scaffold and identifies eight antibacterial lead compounds for the development of antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuexiao Jia
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China; Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, School of Medical and Health Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou, Jiangsu 213164, P.R. China
| | - Wenwen Chen
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Rongbing Tang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Jiangjiang Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Ruihua Dong
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China
| | - Fupin Hu
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Xingyu Jiang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Smart Healthcare Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Biomaterials, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, No. 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, P.R. China.
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10
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Heithoff DM, Mahan SP, Barnes V L, Leyn SA, George CX, Zlamal JE, Limwongyut J, Bazan GC, Fried JC, Fitzgibbons LN, House JK, Samuel CE, Osterman AL, Low DA, Mahan MJ. A broad-spectrum synthetic antibiotic that does not evoke bacterial resistance. EBioMedicine 2023; 89:104461. [PMID: 36801104 PMCID: PMC10025758 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a critical threat to public health and disproportionately affects the health and well-being of persons in low-income and middle-income countries. Our aim was to identify synthetic antimicrobials termed conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs) that effectively treated AMR infections and whose structures could be readily modified to address current and anticipated patient needs. METHODS Fifteen chemical variants were synthesized that contain specific alterations to the COE modular structure, and each variant was evaluated for broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and for in vitro cytotoxicity in cultured mammalian cells. Antibiotic efficacy was analyzed in murine models of sepsis; in vivo toxicity was evaluated via a blinded study of mouse clinical signs as an outcome of drug treatment. FINDINGS We identified a compound, COE2-2hexyl, that displayed broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. This compound cured mice infected with clinical bacterial isolates derived from patients with refractory bacteremia and did not evoke bacterial resistance. COE2-2hexyl has specific effects on multiple membrane-associated functions (e.g., septation, motility, ATP synthesis, respiration, membrane permeability to small molecules) that may act together to negate bacterial cell viability and the evolution of drug-resistance. Disruption of these bacterial properties may occur through alteration of critical protein-protein or protein-lipid membrane interfaces-a mechanism of action distinct from many membrane disrupting antimicrobials or detergents that destabilize membranes to induce bacterial cell lysis. INTERPRETATION The ease of molecular design, synthesis and modular nature of COEs offer many advantages over conventional antimicrobials, making synthesis simple, scalable and affordable. These COE features enable the construction of a spectrum of compounds with the potential for development as a new versatile therapy for an imminent global health crisis. FUNDING U.S. Army Research Office, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas M Heithoff
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Scott P Mahan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Lucien Barnes V
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Semen A Leyn
- Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Cyril X George
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Jaime E Zlamal
- Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Jeffrey C Fried
- Department of Medical Education, Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital, Santa Barbara, CA, 93105, USA; Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital, Santa Barbara, CA, 93105, USA
| | - Lynn N Fitzgibbons
- Department of Medical Education, Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital, Santa Barbara, CA, 93105, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital, Santa Barbara, CA, 93105, USA
| | - John K House
- Faculty of Science, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, 2570, Australia
| | - Charles E Samuel
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Andrei L Osterman
- Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - David A Low
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
| | - Michael J Mahan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA; Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
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11
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Zhou C, Chia GWN, Yong KT. Membrane-intercalating conjugated oligoelectrolytes. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:9917-9932. [PMID: 36448452 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00014h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
By acting as effective biomimetics of the lipid bilayers, membrane-intercalating conjugated oligoelectrolytes (MICOEs) can spontaneously insert themselves into both synthetic lipid bilayers and biological membranes. The modular and intentional molecular design of MICOEs enable a range of applications, such as bioproduction, biocatalysis, biosensing, and therapeutics. This tutorial review provides a structural evolution of MICOEs, which originated from the broader class of conjugated molecules, and analyses the drivers behind this evolutionary process. Various representative applications of MICOEs, accompanied by insights into their molecular design principles, will be reviewed separately. Perspectives on the current challenges and opportunities in research on MICOEs will be discussed at the end of the review to highlight their potential as unconventional and value-added materials for biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Zhou
- Institute of Polymer Optoelectronic Materials and Devices, State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, P. R. China. .,Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Geraldine W N Chia
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Ken-Tye Yong
- School of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia.
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12
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Limwongyut J, Moreland AS, Nie C, Read de Alaniz J, Bazan GC. Amide Moieties Modulate the Antimicrobial Activities of Conjugated Oligoelectrolytes against Gram-negative Bacteria. Chemistry 2022; 11:e202100260. [PMID: 35133087 PMCID: PMC8822875 DOI: 10.1002/open.202100260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cationic conjugated oligoelectrolytes (COEs) are a class of compounds that can be tailored to achieve relevant in vitro antimicrobial properties with relatively low cytotoxicity against mammalian cells. Three distyrylbenzene‐based COEs were designed containing amide functional groups on the side chains. Their properties were compared to two representative COEs with only quaternary ammonium groups. The optimal compound, COE2−3C−C3‐Apropyl, has an antimicrobial efficacy against Escherichia coli with an MIC=2 μg mL−1, even in the presence of human serum albumin low cytotoxicity (IC50=740 μg mL−1) and minimal hemolytic activity. Moreover, we find that amide groups increase interactions between COEs and a bacterial lipid mimic based on calcein leakage assay and allow COEs to readily permeabilize the cytoplasmic membrane of E. coli. These findings suggest that hydrogen bond forming moieties can be further applied in the molecular design of antimicrobial COEs to further improve their selectivity towards bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Alex S Moreland
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Chenyao Nie
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Javier Read de Alaniz
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
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13
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14
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Tiihonen A, Cox-Vazquez SJ, Liang Q, Ragab M, Ren Z, Hartono NTP, Liu Z, Sun S, Zhou C, Incandela NC, Limwongyut J, Moreland AS, Jayavelu S, Bazan GC, Buonassisi T. Predicting Antimicrobial Activity of Conjugated Oligoelectrolyte Molecules via Machine Learning. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:18917-18931. [PMID: 34739239 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c05055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
New antibiotics are needed to battle growing antibiotic resistance, but the development process from hit, to lead, and ultimately to a useful drug takes decades. Although progress in molecular property prediction using machine-learning methods has opened up new pathways for aiding the antibiotics development process, many existing solutions rely on large data sets and finding structural similarities to existing antibiotics. Challenges remain in modeling unconventional antibiotic classes that are drawing increasing research attention. In response, we developed an antimicrobial activity prediction model for conjugated oligoelectrolyte molecules, a new class of antibiotics that lacks extensive prior structure-activity relationship studies. Our approach enables us to predict the minimum inhibitory concentration for E. coli K12, with 21 molecular descriptors selected by recursive elimination from a set of 5305 descriptors. This predictive model achieves an R2 of 0.65 with no prior knowledge of the underlying mechanism. We find the molecular representation optimum for the domain is the key to good predictions of antimicrobial activity. In the case of conjugated oligoelectrolytes, a representation reflecting the three-dimensional shape of the molecules is most critical. Although it is demonstrated with a specific example of conjugated oligoelectrolytes, our proposed approach for creating the predictive model can be readily adapted to other novel antibiotic candidate domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armi Tiihonen
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Sarah J Cox-Vazquez
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
| | - Qiaohao Liang
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Mohamed Ragab
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Zekun Ren
- Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, #05-09, Innovation Wing, 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | | | - Zhe Liu
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Shijing Sun
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Cheng Zhou
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
| | - Nathan C Incandela
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Jakkarin Limwongyut
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alex S Moreland
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Senthilnath Jayavelu
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Artificial Intelligence, Analytics and Informatics, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore 138632, Singapore
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore.,Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tonio Buonassisi
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Singapore MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, #05-09, Innovation Wing, 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
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15
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Du C, Gao D, Gao M, Yuan H, Liu X, Wang B, Xing C. Property Regulation of Conjugated Oligoelectrolytes with Polyisocyanide to Achieve Efficient Photodynamic Antibacterial Biomimetic Hydrogels. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:27955-27962. [PMID: 34124876 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c06659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Fabricating antibacterial hydrogels with antimicrobial drugs and synthetic biocompatible biomimetic hydrogels is a promising strategy for practical medical applications. Here, we report a bicomponent hydrogel composed of a biomimetic polyisocyanopetide (PIC) hydrogel and a photodynamic antibacterial membrane-intercalating conjugated oligoelectrolyte (COE). The aggregation behavior and aggregate size of the COEs in water can be regulated using the PIC hydrogel, which could induce COEs with higher reactive oxygen species (ROS) production efficiency and increased association of COEs toward bacteria, therefore enhancing the antibacterial efficiency. This strategy provides a facile method for developing biomimetic hydrogels with high antibacterial capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changsheng Du
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
| | - Dong Gao
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
| | - Mengshi Gao
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
| | - Hongbo Yuan
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoning Liu
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
| | - Bing Wang
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, P. R. China
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Chengfen Xing
- Institute of Biophysics, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, P. R. China
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16
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Zamani E, Johnson TJ, Chatterjee S, Immethun C, Sarella A, Saha R, Dishari SK. Cationic π-Conjugated Polyelectrolyte Shows Antimicrobial Activity by Causing Lipid Loss and Lowering Elastic Modulus of Bacteria. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:49346-49361. [PMID: 33089982 PMCID: PMC8926324 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cationic, π-conjugated oligo-/polyelectrolytes (CCOEs/CCPEs) have shown great potential as antimicrobial materials to fight against antibiotic resistance. In this work, we treated wild-type and ampicillin-resistant (amp-resistant) Escherichia coli (E. coli) with a promising cationic, π-conjugated polyelectrolyte (P1) with a phenylene-based backbone and investigated the resulting morphological, mechanical, and compositional changes of the outer membrane of bacteria in great detail. The cationic quaternary amine groups of P1 led to electrostatic interactions with negatively charged moieties within the outer membrane of bacteria. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we showed that due to this treatment, the bacterial outer membrane became rougher, decreased in stiffness/elastic modulus (AFM nanoindentation), formed blebs, and released vesicles near the cells. These evidences, in addition to increased staining of the P1-treated cell membrane by lipophilic dye Nile Red (confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)), suggested loosening/disruption of packing of the outer cell envelope and release and exposure of lipid-based components. Lipidomics and fatty acid analysis confirmed a significant loss of phosphate-based outer membrane lipids and fatty acids, some of which are critically needed to maintain cell wall integrity and mechanical strength. Lipidomics and UV-vis analysis also confirmed that the extracellular vesicles released upon treatment (AFM) are composed of lipids and cationic P1. Such surface alterations (vesicle/bleb formation) and release of lipids/fatty acids upon treatment were effective enough to inhibit further growth of E. coli cells without completely disintegrating the cells and have been known as a defense mechanism of the cells against cationic antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Zamani
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Tyler J. Johnson
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Shyambo Chatterjee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Cheryl Immethun
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Anandakumar Sarella
- Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience, Voelte-Keegan Nanoscience Research Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0298, United States
| | - Rajib Saha
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
| | - Shudipto Konika Dishari
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, United States
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