Integration of a capacitor to a 3-D DNA walker and a biofuel cell-based self-powered system for ultrasensitive bioassays of microRNAs

A self-powered electrochemical aptasensor for the detection of 17β-estradiol based on carbon nanocages/gold nanoparticles and DNA bioconjugate mediated biofuel cells

17β-Estradiol (E2) is an important endogenous estrogen, which disturbs the endocrine system and poses a threat to human health because of its accumulation in the human body. Herein, a biofuel cell (BFC)-based self-powered electrochemical aptasensor was developed for E2 detection. Porous carbon nanocage/gold nanoparticle composite modified indium tin oxide (CNC/AuNP/ITO) and glucose oxidase modified CNC/AuNP/ITO were used as the biocathode and bioanode of BFCs, respectively. [Fe(CN)6]3- was selected as an electroactive probe, which was entrapped in the pores of positively charged magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (PMNPs) and then capped with a negatively charged E2 aptamer to form a DNA bioconjugate. The presence of the target E2 triggered the entrapped [Fe(CN)6]3- probe release due to the removal of the aptamer via specific recognition, which resulted in the transfer of electrons produced by glucose oxidation at the bioanode to the biocathode and produced a high open-circuit voltage (EOCV). Consequently, a "signal-on" homogeneous self-powered aptasensor for E2 assay was realized. Promisingly, the BFC-based self-powered aptasensor has particularly high sensitivity for E2 detection in the concentration range of 0.5 pg mL-1 to 15 ng mL-1 with a detection limit of 0.16 pg mL-1 (S/N = 3). Therefore, the proposed BFC-based self-powered electrochemical aptasensor has great promise to be applied as a successful prototype of a portable and on-site bioassay in the field of environment monitoring and food safety.

Advanced Self-Powered Biofuel Cells with Capacitor and Nanogenerator for Biomarker Sensing

Self-powered biofuel cells (BFCs) have evolved for highly sensitive detection of biomarkers such as noncodon micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) in the presence of interfering substrates. Self-charging supercapacitive BFCs for in vivo and in vitro cellular microenvironments represent the most prevalent sensing mechanism for diagnosis. Therefore, self-powered biosensing (SPB) with a capacitor and contact separation with a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) offers electrochemical and colorimetric dual-mode detection via improved electrical signal intensity. In this review, we discuss three major components: stretchable self-powered BFC design, miRNA sensing, and impedance spectroscopy. A specific focus is given to 1) assembling of sensors for biomarkers, 2) electrical output signal intensification, and 3) role of supercapacitors and nanogenerators in SPBs. We outline the key features of stretchable SPBs and the sequence of miRNA sensing by SPBs. We have emphasized the need of a supercapacitor and nanogenerator for SPBs in the context of advanced assembly of the sensing unit. Finally, we outline the role of impedance spectroscopy in the detection and estimation of biomarkers. We highlight key challenges in SPBs for biomarker sensing, which needs improved sensing accuracy, integration strategies of electrochemical biosensing for in vitro and in vivo microenvironments, and the impact of miRNA sensing on cancer diagnostics. This article attempts a specific focus on the accuracy and limitations of sensing unit for miRNA biomarkers and associated tool for boosting electrical signal intensity for a potential big step further.

Electrochemiluminescence Sensor with Controlled-Release Triggering Electrostatic Attraction Elimination Mechanism for Trenbolone Trace Detection

A controlled-release strategy can meet the needs of sensitive environmental monitoring for pollutants through a self-on/off mode. In this work, an electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor with controlled-release triggering electrostatic attraction elimination and biomolecular stimulated response strategies was constructed to detect environmental steroid hormones sensitively. The blocked pores on the aminated mesoporous silica nanocontainers were opened by specific binding between the trenbolone (TB) antigen and the antibody. The released l-cysteine counteracted the negative charge on the MnO2 NF surface through the redox reaction between -SH and MnO2, making the electrostatic interaction between the MnO2 NFs and the Ru(dcbpy)32+ disappear. Ru(dcbpy)32+ released an ECL signal on the electrode, thus completing the controlled-release triggering electrostatic attraction elimination strategy. In addition, with the TB antibody as the target and the competition strategy between the TB antigen and the standard substance, the constructed controlled-release ECL biosensor was used to detect the TB standard substance. Moreover, MnO2 NFs as the substrate of the ECL biosensor increased the active specific surface area of the electrode, effectively catalyzing the production of OH• and O2•-, thus endowing the ECL biosensor with coreactant-catalytic enhancement characteristic and further improving its ECL performance. This sensitive signal response brought about a low limit of detection of 2.53 fg/mL for the constructed ECL biosensor, which contributed a feasible idea for efficient trace analysis of pollutants in the environment.

Orientation-Controllable Enzyme Cascade on Electrode for Bioelectrocatalytic Chain Reaction

The accomplishment of concurrent interenzyme chain reaction and direct electric communication in a multienzyme-electrode is challenging since the required condition of multienzymatic binding conformation is quite complex. In this study, an enzyme cascade-induced bioelectrocatalytic system has been constructed using solid binding peptide (SBP) as a molecular binder that coimmobilizes the invertase (INV) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent glucose dehydrogenase gamma-alpha complex (GDHγα) cascade system on a single electrode surface. The SBP-fused enzyme cascade was strategically designed to induce diverse relative orientations of coupling enzymes while enabling efficient direct electron transfer (DET) at the FAD cofactor of GDHγα and the electrode interface. The interenzyme relative orientation was found to determine the intermediate delivery route and affect overall chain reaction efficiency. Moreover, interfacial DET between the fusion GDHγα and the electrode was altered by the binding conformation of the coimmobilized enzyme and fusion INVs. Collectively, this work emphasizes the importance of interenzyme orientation when incorporating enzymatic cascade in an electrocatalytic system and demonstrates the efficacy of SBP fusion technology as a generic tool for developing cascade-induced direct bioelectrocatalytic systems. The proposed approach is applicable to enzyme cascade-based bioelectronics such as biofuel cells, biosensors, and bioeletrosynthetic systems utilizing or producing complex biomolecules.

A novel signal amplification strategy for label-free electrochemical DNA sensor based on the interaction between α-cyclodextrin and ferrocenyl indicator

The synthesized ferrocene appended naphthalimide derivative (FND) exhibited great binding ability toward dsDNA, while its usage as the electrochemical hybridization indicator was restricted by the poor water solubility. Herein, a simple and effective signal amplification strategy for FND based label-free DNA biosensors was developed based on the interaction between FND and cyclodextrin. α-Cyclodextrin (α-CD), β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) were helpful to amplify the signal of the DNA biosensor, while the signal amplification effect of α-CD was better than that of β-CD and γ-CD. Under the optimum conditions, there was a 3-fold increase in the sensitivity of the DNA biosensor after the addition of α-CD. The interaction between FND and α-/β-/γ-CD was investigated by differential pulse voltammetry and fluorescence experiment. Experimental results showed that α-CD not only minimized the impact on the electrochemical activity of FND but also improved the dispersity of FND in aqueous solution. That was why the proposed biosensor showed higher sensitivity in the presence of α-CD. This strategy was universal for other ferrocenyl indicators with similar structures as used in this work.

An ingenious designed dual mode self-powered biosensing platform based on graphdiyne heterostructure substrate for instant hepatocarcinoma marker detection

We report here for the first time a self-powered biosensing platform based on graphene/graphdiyne/graphene (GDY-Gr) heterostructure substrate material for ultrasensitive hepatocarcinoma marker (microRNA-21) detection in both electrochemical and colorimetric test modes. The dual-mode signal intuitively displayed on a smartphone fundamentally improves the detection accuracy. In electrochemical mode, the calibration curve is established in the linear range of 0.1-10000 fM, and the detection limit is as low as 0.333 fM (S/N = 3). Simultaneously, colorimetric analysis of the miRNA-21 is realized by using ABTS as an indicator. The detection limit is confirmed as 32 fM (S/N = 3), and miRNA-21 of concentration from 0.1 pM to 1 nM exhibit a linear relationship with R2 = 0.9968. Overall, the combination of GDY-Gr and multiple signal amplification strategy significantly improved the sensitivity by 310 times compared with traditional enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs) based detection platform, showing broad application prospects for on-site analysis and future mobile medical services.

Self-Powered Biosensor for a Highly Efficient and Ultrasensitive Dual-Biomarker Assay

A dual-biomarker, self-powered biosensor was fabricated for the ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-21 (miRNA-21) and miRNA-155 based on enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs), catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA), and DNA hybridization chain reaction (HCR), with a capacitor and digital multimeter (DMM). In the presence of miRNA-21, the CHA and HCR are triggered and lead to the generation of a double-helix chain, which stimulates [Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺ to move to the biocathode surface due to electrostatic interaction. Subsequently, the biocathode obtains electrons from the bioanode and reduces [Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺ to [Ru(NH₃)₆]²⁺, which significantly increases the open-circuit voltage (E₁^OCV). When miRNA-155 is present, CHA and HCR cannot be completed, resulting in a low E₂^OCV. The self-powered biosensor allows for the simultaneous ultrasensitive detection of miRNA-21 and miRNA-155 with detection limits of 0.15 and 0.66 fM, respectively. Moreover, this self-powered biosensor exhibits the highly sensitive detection for miRNA-21 and miRNA-155 assay in human serum samples.

AgPdNFs and AuNOs@GO nanocomposites for T-2 toxin detection by catalytic hairpin assembly

T-2 toxin is the most potent and toxic mycotoxin, produced by various Fusarium species that can potentially affect human health, and widely exists in field crops and stored grain. In this work, an electrochemical aptasensor with nonenzymatic signal amplification strategy for the detection of T-2 toxin is presented, using noble metal nanocomposites and catalytic hairpin assembly as signal amplification strategy. Silver palladium nanoflowers and gold octahedron nanoparticles@graphene oxide nanocomposites are used for synergistic amplification of electrical signals. Simultaneously, the catalytic hairpin assembly strategy based on artificial molecular technology was introduced to further amplify the signal. Under optimal conditions, T-2 toxin was measured within a linear concentration range 1 × 10^-2 ~ 1 × 10⁴ pg·mL^-1 with an extremely low detection limit of 6.71 fg·mL^-1. The aptasensor exhibited high sensitivity, good selectivity, satisfactory stability, and excellent reproducibility. Moreover, this method had high accuracy in detecting T-2 toxin in beer sample. The encouraging results show the potential application in foodstuff analysis. A dual signal amplification electrochemical biosensor for the detection of T-2 toxins was constructed, through the signal amplification of noble metal nanomaterials and CHA strategy.

Real-time multiple signal amplification self-powered biosensing platform for ultrasensitive detection of MicroRNA

A real-time self-powered biosensor is designed for ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-21 based on electrochemical energy device capacitor and target-induced recycling double amplification strategy, which greatly improves the output signal by converting a small number of targets into two glucose oxidase labeled output strand DNAs, and the squeezed-out output strand is recycled by the cathode to fix more signal [Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺ to further improve the detection signal. A digital multimeter (DMM) is connected to computer for real-time displaying the output signal of the self-powered biosensing system, which improves the accuracy of the sensing platform. The sensitivity of the proposed biosensor is 116.15 μA/pM for target microRNA-21, which is 32.26 times higher than that of pure EBFC (3.6 μA/pM). The target concentration is proportional to the open-circuit voltage value in a wide linear range of 0.1-10000 fM with a low detection limit of 0.04 fM (S/N = 3). The method shows high sensitivity and excellent selectivity, and can be applied to detect tumor marker microRNA-21 in biological matrix.

AuNPs/graphdiyne self-powered sensing platform for sensitive detection of microRNA with DNAzyme walker for signal amplification

A novel self-powered biosensor is engineered by the integration of DNAzyme walker and AuNPs/graphdiyne biosensing interface, realizing sensitive detection of target microRNA. The cleverly constructed DNAzyme walker with outstanding signal transduction ability to obtain an amplified signal response. In addition, the AuNPs/graphdiyne significantly improves electron transport speed of biosensing interface for improving the sensitivity of biosensor. A dynamic linear range of 0.05 fM-10 pM with a low detection limit of 0.015 fM (S/N = 3) is obtained by utilizing the self-powered biosensor. Meanwhile, the developed self-powered biosensor is capable of assaying miRNA-21 in human serum samples with satisfactory recoveries. This strategy provides a valid method for the sensitive microRNA detection, and shows great potential in point-care detection of tumor biomarker.

Superior graphdiyne self-powered biosensing platform with highly sensitivity and reliability for dual-mode detection of MicroRNA by integrating T7 Exonuclease and 3D DNA walker induced rolling circle amplification

A highly sensitivity self-powered biosensor is developed based on T7 exonuclease (T7 Exo) and 3D DNA walker induced rolling circle amplification (RCA) for electrochemical/colorimetric dual-mode detection of microRNA-21 (miRNA-21) with improved reliability. Taking its advantage of fascinating properties, such as high structure defects and good conductivity, graphdiyne is prepared and used to prepare high-performance enzyme biofuel cell. T7 Exo-assisted 3D DNA walker target recognition triggers RCA reaction to obtain a significantly amplified signal response. A capacitor is integrated to the enzyme biofuel cell to further amplify the electrochemical output signal of the self-powered biosensor. In detection system, glucose oxidase catalyzes glucose oxidation to produce hydrogen peroxide, and 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) is then catalyzed to generate colored products, so as to achieve the colorimetric detection of the target. Analysis signals of diverse modes are recorded independently. Consequently, detection of microRNA with improved reliability and wider signal response range are achieved by electrochemical/colorimetric dual-mode with detection limits of 0.15 and 33 fM (S/N = 3) respectively. In addition, the proposed self-powered biosensor successfully applied for the detection of miRNA-21 in human serum samples, confirming its practical applicability in clinical diagnosis. It is powerfully anticipated the proposed self-powered biosensor possesses great potential to be applied to other biomedical domains.

The self-powered electrochemical biosensing platform with multi-amplification strategy for ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-155

A self-powered biosensor (SPB) was constructed for the ultra-sensitive detection of microRNA-155 (miR-155) by combining a capacitor/enzymatic biofuel cell (EBFC), a strategy of rolling circle amplification (RCA) and a digital multimeter (DMM). The experimental results show that the sensitivity of the assembled EBFC-SPB can reach 15.85 μA/pM with the action of matching capacitor, which is 513% of that without capacitor (3.09 μA/pM). This achieves the first signal amplification. Furthermore, when the target miR-155 triggers RCA, electrons are continuous generated and flow to the biocathode through the external circuit to catalyze the reduction of oxygen and release [Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺ electron acceptor. This achieves the second signal amplification. Finally, DMM is used to convert the signal into instantaneous current and amplify it for real-time reading. This achieves the third signal amplification. Therefore, the limit of detection (LOD) of the developed biosensor is as low as 0.17 fM (S/N = 3), and the linear range is between 0.5 fM and 10,000 fM, indicating that the EBFC-SPB has a broad application prospect for cancer marker of miR-155 with ultrasensitive detection.

Design an efficient photoelectrochemical aptasensor for PCB72 based on CdTe@CdS core@shell quantum dots-decorated TiO2 nanotubes

In this work, an efficient and novel photoelectrochemical (PEC) aptasensor for 2,3',5,5'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB72) was constructed based on CdTe@CdS core@shell quantum dots (CdTe@CdS QDs)-decorated TiO₂ nanotubes (TiO₂ NTs). CdTe@CdS QDs were prepared by the combination of CdTe and CdS with a proper lattice mismatch. Due to their large band offsets, core@shell QDs can reduce undesirable carrier recombination, significantly improving their charge separation efficiency. Then the synthesized CdTe@CdS QDs were modified on TiO₂ NTs (CdTe@CdS QDs/TiO₂ NTs) through electrostatic adsorption method. The as-prepared composites exhibit a wide visible light absorption range, good PEC activity and high photoelectric conversion efficiency. Also, the PEC aptasensor prepared via the immobilization of anti-PCB72 aptamer on the composites exhibits outstanding analytical performance with high sensitivity and specificity for PCB72 under visible-light irradiation, achieving a detection limit as low as 0.03 ng/L. It was also applied to detect PCB72 in four different real environmental samples with satisfactory results.

Quantitative and amplification-free detection of SOCS-1 CpG methylation percentage analyses in gastric cancer by fiber optic nanoplasmonic biosensor

A new innovative approach is essential for early and effective diagnosis of gastric cancer, using promoter hypermethylation of the tumor suppressor, SOCS-1, that is frequently inactivated in human cancers. We have developed an amplification-free fiber optic nanoplasmonic biosensor for detecting DNA methylation of the SOCS-1 human genome. The method is based on the fiber optic nanogold-linked sorbent assay of PCR-free DNA from human gastric tumor tissue and cell lines. We designed a specific DNA probe fabricated on the fiber core surface while the other probe is bioconjugated with gold nanoparticles in free form to allow percentage determination and differentiating the methylated and unmethylated cell lines, further demonstrating the SOCS-1 methylation occurs in cancer patients but not in normal cell lines. The observed detection limit is 0.81 fM for methylated DNA, and the detection time is within 15 min. In addition, our data were significantly correlated to the data obtained from PCR-based pyrosequencing, and yet with superior accuracy. Hence our results provide new insight to the quantitative evaluation of methylation status of the human genome and can act as an alternative to PCR with a great potential.

Colloidal Au sphere and nanoflower-based immunochromatographic strips for sensitive detection of zearalenone in cereals

Zearalenone (ZEN), also known as an F-2 toxin, is a secondary metabolite in the toxic Fusarium species with estrogen properties. ZEN and its derivatives can cause developmental and reproductive disorders in humans and other mammals. In this study, colloidal Au spheres (AuSPs) and Au nanoflowers (AuNFs) were used as signal labels to detect ZEN in cereals, and the critical factors affecting the sensitivity of the immunochromatographic strip (ICS), namely the volume of antigen, antibody, and probe quantities were optimized and compared in detail. Since the large specific surface area of AuNFs reduces the steric hindrance of proteins, it is more conducive to improving the fixation rate of antibodies and proteins. Compared with the traditional colloidal AuSP immunochromatographic strip (AuSP-ICS), the volume of the antibody used in the AuNF immunochromatographic strip (AuNF-ICS) was 0.6 times that in the AuSPs-ICS. At the same antigen volume, a lower amount of probe can achieve the desired visual detection effect and higher sensitivity. For the AuNF-ICS, the limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 0.08 ng mL^-1. ZEN could be detected quickly and accurately from 0.08-10.2 ng mL^-1. And the AuNF-ICS had a high degree of specificity and sensitivity to ZEN. In summary, the AuNF-ICS serves as a valuable tool in large-scale on-site detection of ZEN.

Ultrasensitive detection of patulin based on a Ag+-driven one-step dual signal amplification

Due to improper storage, the presence of patulin in fruits poses a threat to food safety. Herein, a one-step dual amplification strategy-based electrochemical aptasensor was proposed for patulin detection. Silver-palladium nanoparticles (AgPdNPs) with a hollow and branched structure were used as a supporting material for thionine to provide numerous attachment sites. AuNFs/g-C₃N₄ was employed as an electrode modification material, which has been demonstrated to facilitate electron transport and improve signal label loading capacity. Ag⁺ ions were released in the presence of patulin, activating the Ag⁺-DNAzyme on the electrode surface. The formed Ag⁺-DNAzymes further cyclically cleaved the substrate DNA, and the released sequences were used as a new trigger to mediate the secondary recirculation. This one-step dual amplification strategy enabled double target recycling without additional procedures. The signal cascade amplification through dual target recycling, was thus available for trace detection of patulin. Under the optimal conditions, the electrochemical aptasensor achieved a satisfactory linear range from 5.0 × 10^-6 μg L^-1 to 50 μg L^-1 with a detection limit of 0.92 fg·mL^-1 for the determination of patulin. In addition, the aptasensor exhibited favorable selectivity, reproducibility, repeatability and long-term stability, and thus can be employed for patulin detection in apple juice samples, providing excellent choice for the detection of trace patulin.

Electrochemical aptasensor based on Ce3NbO7/CeO2@Au hollow nanospheres by using Nb.BbvCI-triggered and bipedal DNA walker amplification strategy for zearalenone detection

Herein, an electrochemical aptasensor combining Nb.BbvCI-triggered bipedal DNA walking strategy was constructed for ultrasensitive assay of zearalenone (ZEN). The aptasensor used Ce₃NbO₇/CeO₂ @Au hollow nanospheres as electrode modification material and PdNi@MnO₂/MB as the signal label. Importantly, the Ce₃NbO₇/CeO₂ synthesized by hydrothermal method were combined with Au nanoparticles and applied to the electrode surface. The as-prepared Ce₃NbO₇/CeO₂ @Au possessed a large surface area, excellent electrical conductivity, stability and more binding sites. PdNi@MnO₂ with high specific surface area and porosity combined with molecule methylene blue (MB) was introduced into electrodes as the signal label. The proposed aptasensor utilized the advantages of specific recognition of aptamers and target molecules to release bipedal DNA walker (w-DNA), and then the w-DNA was triggered by Nb.BbvCI and entered the cycle to release more signal probes. The feasibility of this strategy was recorded by the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) method. Under the optimized conditions, the electrochemical aptasensor exhibited a wide linear dynamic range from 1 × 10^-4 to 1 × 10³ ng mL^-1 with a low detection limit of 4.57 × 10^-6 ng mL^-1. Moreover, the aptasensor had high selectivity, good stability, excellent repeatability and provided an effective method for the trace detection of ZEN in real samples.

A sensitive electrochemical platform integrated with a 3D graphene aerogel for point-of-care testing for tumor markers

Point-of-care testing (POCT) of tumor markers, such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), can be used for the early diagnosis of cancer. In this paper, a highly sensitive electrochemical immuno-biochip based on a porous three-dimensional graphene aerogel (3D-GA) is presented to detect multiple tumor biomarkers and exosomes. The 3D-GA was prepared via in situ chemical reduction of graphene oxide with L-ascorbic acid and then dehydration by freeze-drying. The obtained 3D-GA exhibits a large specific surface area of 125.3 m² g^-1 due to its intrinsic 3D porous architecture. After chemical activation and modification of the 3D-GA, the prepared microfluidic biochip can be used for detecting various tumor markers in liquid samples via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The electrochemical platform with only 5 μL sample achieved a broad detection range of 1.0 × 10^-8-1.0 × 10^-5 and 1.0 × 10^-8-5.0 × 10^-4 mg mL^-1 for AFP and CEA, respectively, and a low limit of detection (LOD) of 7.9 and 6.2 pg mL^-1 for AFP and CEA respectively, which was much better than the outcomes of many other reports. Moreover, the biochip determined the tumor cell-derived exosomes with a low LOD of 10 particles per μL in the PBS solution and an average recovery rate of ∼90% in the diluted serum.

Nucleic acid isothermal amplification-based soft nanoarchitectonics as an emerging electrochemical biosensing platform

The emergence of nucleic acid isothermal amplification strategies based on soft nanoarchitectonics offers a new dimension to the traditional electrochemical technique, particularly because of its flexibility, high efficiency, and increased sensitivity for analytical applications. Various DNA/RNA isothermal amplification strategies have been developed for the design and fabrication of new electrochemical biosensors for efficient and important biomolecular detection. Herein, we provide an overview of recent efforts in this research field and the strategies for signal-amplified sensing systems, with their biological applications, current challenges and prospects in this promising new area.

Biorecognition antifouling coatings in complex biological fluids: a review of functionalization aspects

Recent progress in biointerface research has highlighted the role of antifouling functionalizable coatings in the development of advanced biosensors for point-of-care bioanalytical and biomedical applications dealing with real-world complex samples. The resistance to nonspecific adsorption promotes the biorecognition performance and overall increases the reliability and specificity of the analysis. However, the process of modification with biorecognition elements (so-called functionalization) may influence the resulting antifouling properties. The extent of these effects concerning both functionalization procedures potentially changing the surface architecture and properties, and the physicochemical properties of anchored biorecognition elements, remains unclear and has not been summarized in the literature yet. This critical review summarizes these key functionalization aspects with respect to diverse antifouling architectures showing low or ultra-low fouling quantitative characteristics in complex biological media such as bodily fluids or raw food samples. The subsequent discussion focuses on the impact of functionalization on fouling resistance. Furthermore, this review discusses some of the drawbacks of available surface sensitive characterization methods and highlights the importance of suitable assessment of the resistance to fouling.

Recent advances in biological detection with rolling circle amplification: design strategy, biosensing mechanism, and practical applications

Rolling circle amplification (RCA) is a simple and isothermal DNA amplification technique that is used to generate thousands of repeating DNA sequences using circular templates under the catalysis of DNA polymerase.