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Lever JEP, Turner KB, Fernandez CM, Leung HM, Hussain SS, Shei RJ, Lin VY, Birket SE, Chu KK, Tearney GJ, Rowe SM, Solomon GM. Metachrony drives effective mucociliary transport via a calcium-dependent mechanism. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2024; 327:L282-L292. [PMID: 38860289 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00392.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The mucociliary transport apparatus is critical for maintaining lung health via the coordinated movement of cilia to clear mucus and particulates. A metachronal wave propagates across the epithelium when cilia on adjacent multiciliated cells beat slightly out of phase along the proximal-distal axis of the airways in alignment with anatomically directed mucociliary clearance. We hypothesized that metachrony optimizes mucociliary transport (MCT) and that disruptions of calcium signaling would abolish metachrony and decrease MCT. We imaged bronchi from human explants and ferret tracheae using micro-optical coherence tomography (µOCT) to evaluate airway surface liquid depth (ASL), periciliary liquid depth (PCL), cilia beat frequency (CBF), MCT, and metachrony in situ. We developed statistical models that included covariates of MCT. Ferret tracheae were treated with BAPTA-AM (chelator of intracellular Ca2+), lanthanum chloride (nonpermeable Ca2+ channel competitive antagonist), and repaglinide (inhibitor of calaxin) to test calcium dependence of metachrony. We demonstrated that metachrony contributes to mucociliary transport of human and ferret airways. MCT was augmented in regions of metachrony compared with nonmetachronous regions by 48.1%, P = 0.0009 or 47.5%, P < 0.0020 in humans and ferrets, respectively. PCL and metachrony were independent contributors to MCT rate in humans; ASL, CBF, and metachrony contribute to ferret MCT rates. Metachrony can be disrupted by interference with calcium signaling including intracellular, mechanosensitive channels, and calaxin. Our results support that the presence of metachrony augments MCT in a calcium-dependent mechanism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We developed a novel imaging-based analysis to detect coordination of ciliary motion and optimal coordination, a process called metachrony. We found that metachrony is key to the optimization of ciliary-mediated mucus transport in both ferret and human tracheal tissue. This process appears to be regulated through calcium-dependent mechanisms. This study demonstrates the capacity to measure a key feature of ciliary coordination that may be important in genetic and acquired disorders of ciliary function.
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Grants
- 1K08HL138153-01A1 HHS | NIH | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
- 2P30DK072482-12 HHS | NIH | NIDDK | Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases (DEM)
- Solomon 20Y0 Cystic Fibrosis Foundation (CFF)
- R35 HL135816-04S1 HHS | NIH | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
- 5F31HL146083-02 HHS | NIH | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
- 2T32HL105346-11A1 HHS | NIH | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
- 3T32GM008361-30S1 HHS | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS)
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacelyn E Peabody Lever
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - K Brett Turner
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Courtney M Fernandez
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Hui Min Leung
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Shah Saddad Hussain
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Ren-Jay Shei
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Vivian Y Lin
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Susan E Birket
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Kengyeh K Chu
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Guillermo J Tearney
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Steven M Rowe
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - George M Solomon
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
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Cui Z, Ul Islam T, Wang Y, den Toonder JMJ. Curved Surfaces Induce Metachronal Motion of Microscopic Magnetic Cilia. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:38733-38743. [PMID: 38985460 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c06884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Cilia are hair-like organelles present on cell surfaces. They often exhibit a collective wave-like motion that can enhance fluid or particle transportation function, known as metachronal motion. Inspired by nature, researchers have developed artificial cilia capable of inducing metachronal motion, especially magnetic actuation. However, current methods remain intricate, requiring either control of the magnetic or geometrical properties of individual cilia or the generation of a complex magnetic field. In this paper, we present a novel elegant method that eliminates these complexities and induces metachronal motion of arrays of identical microscopic magnetic artificial cilia by applying a simple rotating uniform magnetic field. The key idea of our method is to place arrays of cilia on surfaces with a specially designed curvature. This results in consecutive cilia experiencing different magnetic field directions at each point in time, inducing a phase lag in their motion, thereby causing collective wave-like motion. Moreover, by tuning the surface curvature profile, we can achieve diverse metachronal patterns analogous to symplectic and antiplectic metachronal motion observed in nature, and we can even devise novel combinations thereof. Furthermore, we characterize the local flow patterns generated by the motion of the cilia, revealing the formation of vortical patterns. Our novel approach simplifies the realization of miniaturized metachronal motion in microfluidic systems and opens the possibility of controlling flow pattern generation and transportation, opening avenues for applications such as lab-on-a-chip technologies, organ-on-a-chip platforms, and microscopic object propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Tanveer Ul Islam
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M J den Toonder
- Microsystems, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AJ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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Cui Z, Wang Y, den Toonder JMJ. Metachronal Motion of Biological and Artificial Cilia. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:198. [PMID: 38667209 PMCID: PMC11048255 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9040198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cilia are slender, hair-like cell protrusions that are present ubiquitously in the natural world. They perform essential functions, such as generating fluid flow, propulsion, and feeding, in organisms ranging from protozoa to the human body. The coordinated beating of cilia, which results in wavelike motions known as metachrony, has fascinated researchers for decades for its role in functions such as flow generation and mucus transport. Inspired by nature, researchers have explored diverse materials for the fabrication of artificial cilia and developed several methods to mimic the metachronal motion observed in their biological counterparts. In this review, we will introduce the different types of metachronal motion generated by both biological and artificial cilia, the latter including pneumatically, photonically, electrically, and magnetically driven artificial cilia. Furthermore, we review the possible applications of metachronal motion by artificial cilia, focusing on flow generation, transport of mucus, particles, and droplets, and microrobotic locomotion. The overall aim of this review is to offer a comprehensive overview of the metachronal motions exhibited by diverse artificial cilia and the corresponding practical implementations. Additionally, we identify the potential future directions within this field. These insights present an exciting opportunity for further advancements in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; (Z.C.); (Y.W.)
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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4
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Wan KY, Poon RN. Mechanisms and functions of multiciliary coordination. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 86:102286. [PMID: 38035649 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2023.102286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Ciliated organisms are present in virtually every branch of the eukaryotic tree of life. In diverse systems, cilia operate in a coordinated manner to drive fluid flows, or even propel entire organisms. How do groups of motile cilia coordinate their activity within a cell or across a tissue to fulfil essential functions of life? In this review, we highlight the latest developments in our understanding of the mechanisms and functions of multiciliary coordination in diverse systems. We explore new and emerging trends in bioimaging, analytical, and computational methods, which together with their application in new model systems, have conspired to deliver important insights into one of the most fundamental questions in cellular dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Y Wan
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, EX4 4QD, UK.
| | - Rebecca N Poon
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, EX4 4QD, UK
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5
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Cui Z, Wang Y, Zhang S, Wang T, den Toonder JMJ. Miniaturized metachronal magnetic artificial cilia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2304519120. [PMID: 37611057 PMCID: PMC10629582 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2304519120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological cilia, hairlike organelles on cell surfaces, often exhibit collective wavelike motion known as metachrony, which helps generating fluid flow. Inspired by nature, researchers have developed artificial cilia as microfluidic actuators, exploring several methods to mimic the metachrony. However, reported methods are difficult to miniaturize because they require either control of individual cilia properties or the generation of a complex external magnetic field. We introduce a concept that generates metachronal motion of magnetic artificial cilia (MAC), even though the MAC are all identical, and the applied external magnetic field is uniform. This is achieved by integrating a paramagnetic substructure in the substrate underneath the MAC. Uniquely, we can create both symplectic and antiplectic metachrony by changing the relative positions of MAC and substructure. We demonstrate the flow generation of the two metachronal motions in both high and low Reynolds number conditions. Our research marks a significant milestone by breaking the size limitation barrier in metachronal artificial cilia. This achievement not only showcases the potential of nature-inspired engineering but also opens up a host of exciting opportunities for designing and optimizing microsystems with enhanced fluid manipulation capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Cui
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Shuaizhong Zhang
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart70569, Germany
| | - Tongsheng Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven5600MB, The Netherlands
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6
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Song L, Raihan MK, Yu L, Wu S, Kim N, Till SR, Song Y, Xuan X. An experimental study of the merging flow of polymer solutions in a T-shaped microchannel. SOFT MATTER 2023; 19:3207-3214. [PMID: 37074114 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm00376k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The merging flow through a T-junction is relevant to sample mixing and particle manipulation in microfluidic devices. It has been extensively studied for Newtonian fluids, particularly in the high inertial regime where flow bifurcation takes place for enhanced mixing. However, the effects of fluid rheological properties on the merging flow have remained largely unexplored. We investigate here the flow of five types of polymer solutions along with water in a planar T-shaped microchannel over a wide range of flow rates for a systematic understanding of the effects of fluid shear thinning and elasticity. It is found that the merging flow near the stagnation point of the T-junction can either be vortex dominated or have unsteady streamlines, depending on the strength of elasticity and shear thinning present in the fluid. Moreover, the shear thinning effect is found to induce a symmetric unsteady flow in comparison to the asymmetric unsteady flow in the viscoelastic fluids, the latter of which exhibits greater interfacial fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Song
- School of Instrument Science and Opto-electronic Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
| | - Mahmud Kamal Raihan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
| | - Liandong Yu
- College of Controlling Science and Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Qingdao 257061, China.
| | - Sen Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
- College of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, P. R. China
| | - Nayoung Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
| | - Savannah Rose Till
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0905, USA
| | - Yongxin Song
- College of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, P. R. China
| | - Xiangchun Xuan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
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Zhang S, Hu X, Li M, Bozuyuk U, Zhang R, Suadiye E, Han J, Wang F, Onck P, Sitti M. 3D-printed micrometer-scale wireless magnetic cilia with metachronal programmability. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf9462. [PMID: 36947622 PMCID: PMC7614626 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf9462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Biological cilia play essential roles in self-propulsion, food capture, and cell transportation by performing coordinated metachronal motions. Experimental studies to emulate the biological cilia metachronal coordination are challenging at the micrometer length scale because of current limitations in fabrication methods and materials. We report on the creation of wirelessly actuated magnetic artificial cilia with biocompatibility and metachronal programmability at the micrometer length scale. Each cilium is fabricated by direct laser printing a silk fibroin hydrogel beam affixed to a hard magnetic FePt Janus microparticle. The 3D-printed cilia show stable actuation performance, high temperature resistance, and high mechanical endurance. Programmable metachronal coordination can be achieved by programming the orientation of the identically magnetized FePt Janus microparticles, which enables the generation of versatile microfluidic patterns. Our platform offers an unprecedented solution to create bioinspired microcilia for programmable microfluidic systems, biomedical engineering, and biocompatible implants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaizhong Zhang
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Xinghao Hu
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center of Advanced Lubrication and Seal Materials, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Meng Li
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ugur Bozuyuk
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Rongjing Zhang
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Eylul Suadiye
- Central Scientific Facility Materials, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jie Han
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Fan Wang
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Patrick Onck
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- School of Medicine and College of Engineering, Koç University, 34450 Istanbul, Turkey
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Ren Z, Zhang M, Song S, Liu Z, Hong C, Wang T, Dong X, Hu W, Sitti M. Soft-robotic ciliated epidermis for reconfigurable coordinated fluid manipulation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabq2345. [PMID: 36026449 PMCID: PMC9417179 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq2345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The fluid manipulation capabilities of current artificial cilia are severely handicapped by the inability to reconfigure near-surface flow on various static or dynamically deforming three-dimensional (3D) substrates. To overcome this challenge, we propose an electrically driven soft-robotic ciliated epidermis with multiple independently controlled polypyrrole bending actuators. The beating kinematics and the coordination of multiple actuators can be dynamically reconfigured to control the strength and direction of fluid transportation. We achieve fluid transportation along and perpendicular to the beating directions of the actuator arrays, and toward or away from the substrate. The ciliated epidermises are bendable and stretchable and can be deployed on various static or dynamically deforming 3D surfaces. They enable previously difficult to obtain fluid manipulation functionalities, such as transporting fluid in tubular structures or enhancing fluid transportation near dynamically bending and expanding surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Ren
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
- Department of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Mingchao Zhang
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Shanyuan Song
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Zemin Liu
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Chong Hong
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Tianlu Wang
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Xiaoguang Dong
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Wenqi Hu
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
- Department of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
- School of Medicine and College of Engineering, Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
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