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Wang J, Chen C, Huang J, Xie Z, Chen X, Zheng Z, Li E, Zou H. The possibilities of LOXL4 as a prognostic marker for carcinomas. Amino Acids 2023; 55:1519-1529. [PMID: 37814029 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-023-03343-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 4 (LOXL4), a member of lysyl oxidase family, is a copper and lysine tyrosylquinone-dependent amine oxidase that serves the role of catalyzing the cross-linking of elastin and collagen in the extracellular matrix. Numerous studies have shown a significant association between LOXL4 expression levels and tumor proliferation, migration, invasion and patients' prognosis and overall survival in different types of tumors. Here we review their relationship and the molecular pathogenesis behind them, aiming to explore the possibilities of LOXL4 as a prognostic marker for diverse carcinomas and provide some indications for further research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaming Wang
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaojian Chen
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayi Huang
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziman Xie
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxue Chen
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziqi Zheng
- Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Enmin Li
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiying Zou
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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Laurentino TDS, Soares RDS, Lerario AM, Marie SKN, Oba-Shinjo SM. LOXL3 Silencing Affected Cell Adhesion and Invasion in U87MG Glioma Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158072. [PMID: 34360836 PMCID: PMC8347215 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3), belonging to the lysyl oxidase family, is responsible for the crosslinking in collagen or elastin. The cellular localization of LOXL3 is in the extracellular space by reason of its canonical function. In tumors, the presence of LOXL3 has been associated with genomic stability, cell proliferation, and metastasis. In silico analysis has shown that glioblastoma was among tumors with the highest LOXL3 expression levels. LOXL3 silencing of U87MG cells by siRNA led to the spreading of the tumor cell surface, and the transcriptome analysis of these cells revealed an upregulation of genes coding for extracellular matrix, cell adhesion, and cytoskeleton components, convergent to an increase in cell adhesion and a decrease in cell invasion observed in functional assays. Significant correlations of LOXL3 expression with genes coding for tubulins were observed in the mesenchymal subtype in the TCGA RNA-seq dataset of glioblastoma (GBM). Conversely, genes involved in endocytosis and lysosome formation, along with MAPK-binding proteins related to focal adhesion turnover, were downregulated, which may corroborate the observed decrease in cell viability and increase in the rate of cell death. Invasiveness is a major determinant of the recurrence and poor outcome of GBM patients, and downregulation of LOXL3 may contribute to halting the tumor cell invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita de S. Laurentino
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Laboratory (LIM 15), Neurology Department, Faculdade de Medicina (FMUSP), Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-000, SP, Brazil; (R.d.S.S.); (S.K.N.M.)
- Correspondence: (T.d.S.L.); (S.M.O.-S.); Tel.: +55-11-3061-8310 (T.d.S.L. & S.M.O.-S.)
| | - Roseli da S. Soares
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Laboratory (LIM 15), Neurology Department, Faculdade de Medicina (FMUSP), Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-000, SP, Brazil; (R.d.S.S.); (S.K.N.M.)
| | - Antonio M. Lerario
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA;
| | - Suely K. N. Marie
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Laboratory (LIM 15), Neurology Department, Faculdade de Medicina (FMUSP), Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-000, SP, Brazil; (R.d.S.S.); (S.K.N.M.)
| | - Sueli M. Oba-Shinjo
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Laboratory (LIM 15), Neurology Department, Faculdade de Medicina (FMUSP), Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-000, SP, Brazil; (R.d.S.S.); (S.K.N.M.)
- Correspondence: (T.d.S.L.); (S.M.O.-S.); Tel.: +55-11-3061-8310 (T.d.S.L. & S.M.O.-S.)
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3
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Lin S, Zheng L, Lu Y, Xia Q, Zhou P, Liu Z. Comprehensive analysis on the expression levels and prognostic values of LOX family genes in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma. Cancer Med 2020; 9:8624-8638. [PMID: 32970930 PMCID: PMC7666732 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.3472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS Kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC) is a major pathological type of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), and the prognosis of advanced KIRC patients is often unsatisfactory. Some lysine oxidase (LOX) family genes have been proven to be upregulated in some malignancies and play pivotal roles in the carcinogenesis. However, their roles in KIRC remain unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS Here, we used some online databases (eg, ONCOMINE, GEPIA, UALCAN, c-BioPortal, Human Protein Altas) to comprehensively explored the expression levels and the prognostic values of LOX family genes in KIRC using bioinformatic methods. RESULTS The results revealed that lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) were significantly overexpressed in KIRC at the level of mRNA expression, protein expression, and RCC cell lines. Further analysis demonstrated that higher mRNA expression of LOX and LOXL2 were significantly correlated with poor survival, tumor grade, individual cancer stages, and nodal metastasis status. DNA copy number amplifications and mRNA upregulation, DNA deep deletion, and mRNA upregulation were the main genetic mutations of LOX and LOXL2, respectively. Prognostic analysis showed that the altered group had significantly poorer overall survival (OS) compared to the unaltered group (p = .0387). Co-expression analysis showed CP, PLOD2, and COL5A1 were significantly correlated with LOX, and COL1A2 was positively correlated with LOXL2. Further analysis confirmed that these co-expressed genes were significantly upregulated and predicted unfavorable prognosis in KIRC. CONCLUSION Multi-level analysis demonstrated that LOX and LOXL2 were significantly upregulated and predicted poor survival in KIRC, which may apply as promising biomarkers for diagnosis and therapy of KIRC in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shitong Lin
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lingling Zheng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuchao Lu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Qidong Xia
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Zhou
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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4
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Smithen D, Leung LMH, Challinor M, Lawrence R, Tang H, Niculescu-Duvaz D, Pearce SP, Mcleary R, Lopes F, Aljarah M, Brown M, Johnson L, Thomson G, Marais R, Springer C. 2-Aminomethylene-5-sulfonylthiazole Inhibitors of Lysyl Oxidase (LOX) and LOXL2 Show Significant Efficacy in Delaying Tumor Growth. J Med Chem 2020; 63:2308-2324. [PMID: 31430136 PMCID: PMC7073924 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family of extracellular proteins plays a vital role in catalyzing the formation of cross-links in fibrillar elastin and collagens leading to extracellular matrix (ECM) stabilization. These enzymes have also been implicated in tumor progression and metastatic disease and have thus become an attractive therapeutic target for many types of invasive cancers. Following our recently published work on the discovery of aminomethylenethiophenes (AMTs) as potent, orally bioavailable LOX/LOXL2 inhibitors, we report herein the discovery of a series of dual LOX/LOXL2 inhibitors, as well as a subseries of LOXL2-selective inhibitors, bearing an aminomethylenethiazole (AMTz) scaffold. Incorporation of a thiazole core leads to improved potency toward LOXL2 inhibition via an irreversible binding mode of inhibition. SAR studies have enabled the discovery of a predictive 3DQSAR model. Lead AMTz inhibitors exhibit improved pharmacokinetic properties and excellent antitumor efficacy, with significantly reduced tumor growth in a spontaneous breast cancer genetically engineered mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah
A. Smithen
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Leo M. H. Leung
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Mairi Challinor
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Rae Lawrence
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - HaoRan Tang
- Molecular
Oncology Team, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Dan Niculescu-Duvaz
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Simon P. Pearce
- Clinical
and Experimental Pharmacology, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Mcleary
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Filipa Lopes
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Mohammed Aljarah
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Brown
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Johnson
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme Thomson
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Marais
- Molecular
Oncology Team, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Springer
- Drug
Discovery Unit, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, London SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
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5
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Laurentino TDS, Soares RDS, Marie SKN, Oba-Shinjo SM. LOXL3 Function Beyond Amino Oxidase and Role in Pathologies, Including Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20143587. [PMID: 31340433 PMCID: PMC6678131 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20143587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase like 3 (LOXL3) is a copper-dependent amine oxidase responsible for the crosslinking of collagen and elastin in the extracellular matrix. LOXL3 belongs to a family including other members: LOX, LOXL1, LOXL2, and LOXL4. Autosomal recessive mutations are rare and described in patients with Stickler syndrome, early-onset myopia and non-syndromic cleft palate. Along with an essential function in embryonic development, multiple biological functions have been attributed to LOXL3 in various pathologies related to amino oxidase activity. Additionally, various novel roles have been described for LOXL3, such as the oxidation of fibronectin in myotendinous junction formation, and of deacetylation and deacetylimination activities of STAT3 to control of inflammatory response. In tumors, three distinct roles were described: (1) LOXL3 interacts with SNAIL and contributes to proliferation and metastasis by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells; (2) LOXL3 is localized predominantly in the nucleus associated with invasion and poor gastric cancer prognosis; (3) LOXL3 interacts with proteins involved in DNA stability and mitosis completion, contributing to melanoma progression and sustained proliferation. Here we review the structure, function and activity of LOXL3 in normal and pathological conditions and discuss the potential of LOXL3 as a therapeutic target in various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita de S Laurentino
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 01246-903, Brazil.
| | - Roseli da S Soares
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 01246-903, Brazil
| | - Suely K N Marie
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 01246-903, Brazil
| | - Sueli M Oba-Shinjo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP 01246-903, Brazil
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6
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Leeming DJ, Willumsen N, Sand JMB, Holm Nielsen S, Dasgupta B, Brodmerkel C, Curran M, Bager CL, Karsdal MA. A serological marker of the N-terminal neoepitope generated during LOXL2 maturation is elevated in patients with cancer or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 17:38-43. [PMID: 30555938 PMCID: PMC6276730 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Lysyl oxidase like 2 (LOXL2) is associated with poor prognosis in idiopathic pulmonary disease (IPF) and cancer. We developed an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) targeting the LOXL2 neo-epitope generated through the release of the signal peptide during LOXL2 maturation. Design and methods An ELISA targeting the N-terminal site of the human LOXL2 was developed including technical optimization and validation steps. Serum LOXL2 was measured in patients with breast, colorectal, lung, ovarian, pancreatic and prostate cancer, melanoma, IPF and in healthy controls (n = 16). Results A technically robust and specific assay was developed. LOXL2 was detectable in serum from healthy controls and showed reactivity towards recombinant LOXL2. Compared to controls, LOXL2 levels were significantly (p < 0.001–0.05) elevated in serum from patients with breast, colerectal, lung, ovarian and pancreatic cancer (mean range: 49–84 ng/mL), but not in prostate cancer (mean: 36 ng/mL) and malignant melanoma patients (41 ng/mL). Serum LOXL2 was elevated in IPF patients compared to healthy controls (mean: 76.5 vs 46.8 ng/mL; p > 0.001) Conclusions A specific ELISA towards the N-terminal neo-epitope site in LOXL2 was developed which detected significantly elevated serum levels from patients with above-mentioned cancer types or IPF compared to healthy controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Leeming
- Nordic Bioscience A/S, Biomarkers and Research, Herlev, Denmark
| | - N Willumsen
- Nordic Bioscience A/S, Biomarkers and Research, Herlev, Denmark
| | - J M B Sand
- Nordic Bioscience A/S, Biomarkers and Research, Herlev, Denmark
| | - S Holm Nielsen
- Nordic Bioscience A/S, Biomarkers and Research, Herlev, Denmark
| | - B Dasgupta
- Janssen Research and Development, LLC, Spring House, PA, USA
| | - C Brodmerkel
- Janssen Research and Development, LLC, Spring House, PA, USA
| | - M Curran
- Janssen Research and Development, LLC, Spring House, PA, USA
| | | | - M A Karsdal
- Nordic Bioscience A/S, Biomarkers and Research, Herlev, Denmark
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7
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Santamaría PG, Floristán A, Fontanals-Cirera B, Vázquez-Naharro A, Santos V, Morales S, Yuste L, Peinado H, García-Gómez A, Portillo F, Hernando E, Cano A. Lysyl oxidase-like 3 is required for melanoma cell survival by maintaining genomic stability. Cell Death Differ 2017; 25:935-950. [PMID: 29229995 PMCID: PMC5907912 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-017-0030-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3) is a member of the lysyl oxidase family comprising multifunctional enzymes with depicted roles in extracellular matrix maturation, tumorigenesis, and metastasis. In silico expression analyses followed by experimental validation in a comprehensive cohort of human cell lines revealed a significant upregulation of LOXL3 in human melanoma. We show that LOXL3 silencing impairs cell proliferation and triggers apoptosis in various melanoma cell lines. Further supporting a pro-oncogenic role in melanoma, LOXL3 favors tumor growth in vivo and cooperates with oncogenic BRAF in melanocyte transformation. Upon LOXL3 depletion, melanoma cells display a faulty DNA damage response (DDR), characterized by ATM checkpoint activation and inefficient ATR activation leading to the accumulation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) and aberrant mitosis. Consistent with these findings, LOXL3 binds to proteins involved in the maintenance of genome integrity, in particular BRCA2 and MSH2, whose levels dramatically decrease upon LOXL3 depletion. Moreover, LOXL3 is required for efficient DSB repair in melanoma cells. Our results reveal an unexpected role for LOXL3 in the control of genome stability and melanoma progression, exposing its potential as a novel therapeutic target in malignant melanoma, a very aggressive condition yet in need for more effective treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia G Santamaría
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Alfredo Floristán
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Bárbara Fontanals-Cirera
- Department of Pathology and Interdisciplinary Melanoma Cooperative Group, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alberto Vázquez-Naharro
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Vanesa Santos
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Saleta Morales
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lourdes Yuste
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Héctor Peinado
- Microenvironment and Metastasis Laboratory, Department of Molecular Oncology, Spanish National Cancer Research Center (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio García-Gómez
- Chromatin and Disease Group, Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Programme (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Hernando
- Department of Pathology and Interdisciplinary Melanoma Cooperative Group, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Amparo Cano
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain.
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8
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Cai L, Xiong X, Kong X, Xie J. The Role of the Lysyl Oxidases in Tissue Repair and Remodeling: A Concise Review. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2017; 14:15-30. [PMID: 30603458 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-016-0007-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue injury provokes a series of events containing inflammation, new tissue formation and tissue remodeling which are regulated by the spatially and temporally coordinated organization. It is an evolutionarily conserved, multi-cellular, multi-molecular process via complex signalling network. Tissue injury disorders present grievous clinical problems and are likely to increase since they are generally associated with the prevailing diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and obesity. Although these dynamic responses vary not only for the different types of trauma but also for the different organs, a balancing act between the tissue degradation and tissue synthesis is the same. In this process, the degradation of old extracellular matrix (ECM) elements and new ones' synthesis and deposition play an essential role, especially collagens. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) and four lysyl oxidase-like proteins are a group of enzymes capable of catalyzing cross-linking reaction of collagen and elastin, thus initiating the formation of covalent cross-links that insolubilize ECM proteins. In this way, LOX facilitates ECM stabilization through ECM formation, development, maturation and remodeling. This ability determines its potential role in tissue repair and regeneration. In this review, based on the current in vitro, animal and human in vivo studies which have shown the significant role of the LOXs in tissue repair, e.g., tendon regeneration, ligament healing, cutaneous wound healing, and cartilage remodeling, we focused on the role of the LOXs in inflammation phase, proliferation phase, and tissue remodeling phase of the repair process. By summarizing its healing role, we hope to shed light on the understanding of its potential in tissue repair and provide up to date therapeutic strategies towards related injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyi Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangli Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People's Republic of China
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9
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Zhang J, Liu Z, Zhang T, Lin Z, Li Z, Zhang A, Sun X, Gao J. Loss of Lysyl Oxidase-like 3 Attenuates Embryonic Lung Development in Mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33856. [PMID: 27645581 PMCID: PMC5029289 DOI: 10.1038/srep33856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3), a human disease gene candidate, is a member of the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family and is indispensable for mouse palatogenesis and vertebral column development. Our previous study showed that the loss of LOXL3 resulted in a severe cleft palate and spinal deformity. In this study, we investigated a possible role for LOXL3 in mouse embryonic lung development. LOXL3-deficient mice displayed reduced lung volumes and weights, diminished saccular spaces, and deformed and smaller thoracic cavities. Excess elastic fibres were detected in LOXL3-deficient lungs, which might be related to the increased LOXL4 expression. Increased transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) expression might be involved in the up-regulation of LOXL4 in LOXL3-deficient lungs. We concluded that the loss of LOXL3 attenuates mouse embryonic lung development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Ziyi Liu
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Zhuchun Lin
- Jinan First People's Hospital, Jinan 250011, China
| | - Zhenzu Li
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Aizhen Zhang
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Xiaoyang Sun
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Jiangang Gao
- School of Life Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
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10
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Zhang J, Yang R, Liu Z, Hou C, Zong W, Zhang A, Sun X, Gao J. Loss of lysyl oxidase-like 3 causes cleft palate and spinal deformity in mice. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 24:6174-85. [PMID: 26307084 PMCID: PMC4599675 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In mammals, embryonic development are highly regulated morphogenetic processes that are tightly controlled by genetic elements. Failure of any one of these processes can result in embryonic malformation. The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family genes are closely related to human diseases. In this study, we investigated the essential role of lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3), a member of the LOX family, in embryonic development. Mice lacking LOXL3 exhibited perinatal lethality, and the deletion of the Loxl3 gene led to impaired development of the palate shelves, abnormalities in the cartilage primordia of the thoracic vertebrae and mild alveolar shrinkage. We found that the obvious decrease of collagen cross-links in palate and spine that was induced by the lack of LOXL3 resulted in cleft palate and spinal deformity. Thus, we provide critical in vivo evidence that LOXL3 is indispensable for mouse palatogenesis and vertebral column development. The Loxl3 gene may be a candidate disease gene resulting in cleft palate and spinal deformity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Rui Yang
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Ziyi Liu
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Congzhe Hou
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Wen Zong
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Aizhen Zhang
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Xiaoyang Sun
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Jiangang Gao
- Institute of Developmental Biology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, 27 Shanda Nanlu, Jinan 250100, China
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11
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Mieczkowska A, Bouvard B, Chappard D, Mabilleau G. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) directly affects collagen fibril diameter and collagen cross-linking in osteoblast cultures. Bone 2015; 74:29-36. [PMID: 25582623 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is absolutely crucial in order to obtain optimal bone strength and collagen quality. However, as the GIPR is expressed in several tissues other than bone, it is difficult to ascertain whether the observed modifications of collagen maturity, reported in animal studies, were due to direct effects on osteoblasts or indirect through regulation of signals originating from other tissues. The aims of the present study were to investigate whether GIP can directly affect collagen biosynthesis and processing in osteoblast cultures and to decipher which molecular pathways were necessary for such effects. MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured in the presence of GIP ranged between 10 and 100pM. Collagen fibril diameter was investigated by electron microscopy whilst collagen maturity was determined by Fourier transform infra-red microspectroscopy (FTIRM). GIP treatment resulted in dose-dependent increases in lysyl oxidase activity and collagen maturity. Furthermore, GIP treatment shifted the collagen fiber diameter towards lower value but did not significantly affect collagen heterogeneity. GIP acted directly on osteoblasts by activating the adenylyl cyclase-cAMP pathway. This study provides evidences that GIP acts directly on osteoblasts and is capable of improving collagen maturity and fibril diameter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Mieczkowska
- GEROM Groupe Etudes Remodelage Osseux et bioMatériaux-LHEA, IRIS-IBS Institut de Biologie en Santé, CHU d'Angers, LUNAM Université, 49933 Angers Cedex, France
| | - Beatrice Bouvard
- Service de Rhumatologie, CHU d'Angers, 49933 Angers Cedex, France
| | - Daniel Chappard
- GEROM Groupe Etudes Remodelage Osseux et bioMatériaux-LHEA, IRIS-IBS Institut de Biologie en Santé, CHU d'Angers, LUNAM Université, 49933 Angers Cedex, France; SCIAM, Service Commun d'Imagerie et Analyses Microscopiques, IRIS-IBS Institut de Biologie en Santé, CHU d'Angers, LUNAM Université, 49933 Angers Cedex, France
| | - Guillaume Mabilleau
- GEROM Groupe Etudes Remodelage Osseux et bioMatériaux-LHEA, IRIS-IBS Institut de Biologie en Santé, CHU d'Angers, LUNAM Université, 49933 Angers Cedex, France; SCIAM, Service Commun d'Imagerie et Analyses Microscopiques, IRIS-IBS Institut de Biologie en Santé, CHU d'Angers, LUNAM Université, 49933 Angers Cedex, France.
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12
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Abstract
Metastasis is the main reason for cancer-associated deaths and therapies are desperately needed to target the progression of cancer. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) plays a pivotal role in cancer progression, including metastasis, and is therefore is an attractive therapeutic target. In this review we will breakdown the process of cancer progression and the various roles that LOX plays has in the advancement of cancer. We will highlight why LOX is an exciting therapeutic target for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Perryman
- Biotech Research & Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, Copenhagen 2200, Denmark
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13
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Martin A, Salvador F, Moreno-Bueno G, Floristán A, Ruiz-Herguido C, Cuevas EP, Morales S, Santos V, Csiszar K, Dubus P, Haigh JJ, Bigas A, Portillo F, Cano A. Lysyl oxidase-like 2 represses Notch1 expression in the skin to promote squamous cell carcinoma progression. EMBO J 2015; 34:1090-109. [PMID: 25759215 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201489975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) is involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes, including fibrosis and tumor progression, implicating intracellular and extracellular functions. To explore the specific in vivo role of LOXL2 in physiological and tumor contexts, we generated conditional gain- and loss-of-function mouse models. Germ-line deletion of Loxl2 promotes lethality in half of newborn mice mainly associated to congenital heart defects, while Loxl2 overexpression triggers male sterility due to epididymal dysfunction caused by epithelial disorganization, fibrosis and acute inflammation. Remarkably, when challenged to chemical skin carcinogenesis, Loxl2-overexpressing mice increased tumor burden and malignant progression, while Loxl2-deficient mice exhibit the opposite phenotypes. Loxl2 levels in premalignant tumors negatively correlate with expression of epidermal differentiation markers and components of the Notch1 pathway. We show that LOXL2 is a direct repressor of NOTCH1. Additionally, we identify an exclusive expression pattern between LOXL2 and members of the canonical NOTCH1 pathway in human HNSCC. Our data identify for the first time novel LOXL2 roles in tissue homeostasis and support it as a target for SCC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Martin
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Salvador
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema Moreno-Bueno
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain Fundación MD Anderson International Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfredo Floristán
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Eva P Cuevas
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Saleta Morales
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vanesa Santos
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Katalin Csiszar
- John A Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu HI, USA
| | - Pierre Dubus
- Histologie et pathologie moléculaire des tumeurs, Universitie Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jody J Haigh
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Anna Bigas
- Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Médiques (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
| | - Amparo Cano
- Departamento de Bioquímica, UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, IdiPAZ, Madrid, Spain
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14
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Shetty R, Sathyanarayanamoorthy A, Ramachandra RA, Arora V, Ghosh A, Srivatsa PR, Pahuja N, Nuijts RMMA, Sinha-Roy A, Mohan RR, Ghosh A. Attenuation of lysyl oxidase and collagen gene expression in keratoconus patient corneal epithelium corresponds to disease severity. Mol Vis 2015; 21:12-25. [PMID: 25593510 PMCID: PMC4301596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Keratoconus (KC) is characterized by progressive vision loss due to corneal thinning and structural abnormalities. It is hypothesized that KC is caused by deregulated collagen levels and collagen fibril-maturating enzyme lysyl oxidase (LOX). Further, it is currently not understood whether the gene expression deregulated by the corneal epithelium influences KC pathogenesis. We studied (i) the expressions of the LOX, collagen I (COL IA1), collagen IV (COL IVA1), MMP9, and IL6 genes in KC corneal epithelia, (ii) validated their expression levels in patient tissues, and (iii) correlated expression levels with KC disease severity. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the importance of these genes in the progression of KC. METHODS We analyzed the gene expression levels of the key proteins LOX, collagens (COL IA1 and COL IVA1), MMP9, and IL6 in debrided corneal epithelia from a large cohort of KC patients (90 eyes) and compared them to control patients (52 eyes) without KC. We measured the total LOX activity in the tears of KC patients compared to controls. We also correlated the protein expression levels of LOX and collagens by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in primary tissues from KC patients (27 eyes) undergoing keratoplasty compared to healthy donor corneas (15 eyes). RESULTS We observed a significant reduction in LOX transcript levels in KC corneal epithelia, and LOX activity in KC tears correlated with disease severity. Collagen transcripts were also reduced in KC while MMP9 transcript levels were upregulated and correlated with disease severity. IL6 was moderately increased in KC patients. IHC demonstrated a reduction in the protein expression levels of LOX in the epithelium and collagen IV in the basement membrane of KC patients compared to healthy donor corneas. CONCLUSIONS The data demonstrates that the structural deformity of the KC cornea may be dependent on reduced expressions of collagens and LOX, as well as on MMP9 elevated by the corneal epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Shetty
- Cornea Department, Narayana Nethralaya, Bangalore, India
| | | | | | - Vishal Arora
- Cornea Department, Narayana Nethralaya, Bangalore, India
| | - Anuprita Ghosh
- GROW Research Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Natasha Pahuja
- Cornea Department, Narayana Nethralaya, Bangalore, India
| | - Rudy M. M. A. Nuijts
- Cornea Clinic, Department of Ophthalmology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Netherlands
| | - Abhijit Sinha-Roy
- GROW Research Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bangalore, India
| | - Rajiv R. Mohan
- Mason Eye Institute, School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, NY
| | - Arkasubhra Ghosh
- GROW Research Laboratory, Narayana Nethralaya Foundation, Bangalore, India,Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore
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15
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Okkelman IA, Sukaeva AZ, Kirukhina EV, Korneenko TV, Pestov NB. Nuclear translocation of lysyl oxidase is promoted by interaction with transcription repressor p66β. Cell Tissue Res 2014; 358:481-9. [PMID: 25118846 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1972-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an amine oxidase involved in protein cross-linking of the extracellular matrix. Less well characterized is the role that LOX plays among nuclear proteins, and molecular mechanisms of its transport to the nucleus are currently unknown. Here, we have employed yeast two-hybrid library screening and found that the LOX catalytic domain interacts with the transcription repressor p66β. This interaction has been confirmed in vitro and has been found to be accomplished through the CR2-containing domain of p66β. Moreover, co-expression of p66β and LOX in living tumor cells leads to the nuclear accumulation of LOX. Thus, p66β might be important for the regulation of LOX in the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina A Okkelman
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
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16
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Moon HJ, Finney J, Ronnebaum T, Mure M. Human lysyl oxidase-like 2. Bioorg Chem 2014; 57:231-241. [PMID: 25146937 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase like-2 (LOXL2) belongs to the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, which comprises Cu(2+)- and lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent amine oxidases. LOXL2 is proposed to function similarly to LOX in the extracellular matrix (ECM) by promoting crosslinking of collagen and elastin. LOXL2 has also been proposed to regulate extracellular and intracellular cell signaling pathways. Dysregulation of LOXL2 has been linked to many diseases, including cancer, pro-oncogenic angiogenesis, fibrosis and heart diseases. In this review, we will give an overview of the current understandings and hypotheses regarding the molecular functions of LOXL2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Jung Moon
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Joel Finney
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Trey Ronnebaum
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
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17
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Finney J, Moon HJ, Ronnebaum T, Lantz M, Mure M. Human copper-dependent amine oxidases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2014; 546:19-32. [PMID: 24407025 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Copper amine oxidases (CAOs) are a class of enzymes that contain Cu(2+) and a tyrosine-derived quinone cofactor, catalyze the conversion of a primary amine functional group to an aldehyde, and generate hydrogen peroxide and ammonia as byproducts. These enzymes can be classified into two non-homologous families: 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylalanine quinone (TPQ)-dependent CAOs and the lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent lysyl oxidase (LOX) family of proteins. In this review, we will focus on recent developments in the field of research concerning human CAOs and the LOX family of proteins. The aberrant expression of these enzymes is linked to inflammation, fibrosis, tumor metastasis/invasion and other diseases. Consequently, there is a critical need to understand the functions of these proteins at the molecular level, so that strategies targeting these enzymes can be developed to combat human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Finney
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Hee-Jung Moon
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Trey Ronnebaum
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Mason Lantz
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
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18
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Kim JH, Lee EH, Park HJ, Park EK, Kwon TG, Shin HI, Cho JY. The role of lysyl oxidase-like 2 in the odontogenic differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells. Mol Cells 2013; 35:543-9. [PMID: 23677379 PMCID: PMC3887878 DOI: 10.1007/s10059-013-0080-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 04/01/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) are a unique population of precursor cells those are isolated from postnatal dental pulp and have the ability to differentiate into a variety of cell types utilized for the formation of a reparative dentin-like complex. Using LC-MS/MS proteomics approaches, we identified the proteins secreted from the differentiating hDPSCs in mineralization media. Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) was identified as a protein that was down-regulated in the hDPSCs that differentiate into odontoblast-like cells. The role of LOXL2 has not been studied in dental pulp stem cells. LOXL2 mRNA levels were reduced in differentiating hDPSCs, whereas the levels of other LOX family members including LOX, LOXL1, LOXL3, and LOXL4, are increased. The protein expression and secretion levels of LOXL2 were also decreased during odontogenic differentiation. Recombinant LOXL2 protein treatment to hDPSCs resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the early differentiation and the mineralization accompanying with the lower levels of odontogenic markers such as DSPP, DMP-1 and ALP. These results suggest that LOXL2 has a negative effect on the differentiation of hDPSCs and blocking LOXL2 can promote the hDPSC differentiation to odontoblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Hyun Kim
- Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Brain Korea 21 and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
Korea
- Department of Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 700-412,
Korea
| | | | - Hye-jeong Park
- Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Brain Korea 21 and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
Korea
| | - Eui-Kyun Park
- Department of Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 700-412,
Korea
| | - Tae-Geon Kwon
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 700-412,
Korea
| | - Hong-In Shin
- Department of Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 700-412,
Korea
| | - Je-Yoel Cho
- Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Brain Korea 21 and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
Korea
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19
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Tjäderhane L, Vered M, Pääkkönen V, Peteri A, Mäki JM, Myllyharju J, Dayan D, Salo T. The expression and role of Lysyl oxidase (LOX) in dentinogenesis. Int Endod J 2012. [PMID: 23190333 DOI: 10.1111/iej.12031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM To establish whether eliminating Lysyl oxidase (LOX) gene would affect dentine formation. METHODOLOGY Newborn wild-type (wt) and homo- and heterozygous LOX knock-out (Lox(-/-) and Lox(+/-) , respectively) mice were used to study developing tooth morphology and dentine formation. Collagen aggregation in the developing dentine was examined histochemically with picrosirius red (PSR) staining followed by polarized microscopy. Because Lox(-/-) die at birth, adult wt and Lox(+/-) mouse tooth morphologies were examined with FESEM. Human odontoblasts and pulp tissue were used to study the expression of LOX and its isoenzymes with Affymetrix cDNA microarray. RESULTS No differences between Lox(-/-) , Lox(+/-) and wt mice developing tooth morphology were seen by light microscopy. Histochemically, however, teeth in wt mice demonstrated yellow-orange and orange-red polarization colours with PSR staining, indicating thick and more densely packed collagen fibres, whilst in Lox(-/-) and Lox(+/-) mice, most of the polarization colours were green to green-yellow, indicating thinner, less aggregated collagen fibres. Fully developed teeth did not show any differences between Lox(+/-) and wt mice with FESEM. Human odontoblasts expressed LOX and three of four of its isoenzymes. CONCLUSIONS The data indicate that LOX is not essential in dentinogenesis, even though LOX deletion may affect dentine matrix collagen thickness and packing. The absence of functional LOX may be compensated by LOX isoenzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Tjäderhane
- Institute of Dentistry, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland. leo.Tja¨
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20
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van Boxtel AL, Gansner JM, Hakvoort HWJ, Snell H, Legler J, Gitlin JD. Lysyl oxidase-like 3b is critical for cartilage maturation during zebrafish craniofacial development. Matrix Biol 2011; 30:178-87. [PMID: 21244857 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Revised: 12/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate craniofacial development requires coordinated morphogenetic interactions between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the differentiating chondrocytes essential for cartilage formation. Recent studies reveal a critical role for specific lysyl oxidases in ECM integrity required for embryonic development. We now demonstrate that loxl3b is abundantly expressed within the head mesenchyme of the zebrafish and is critically important for maturation of neural crest derived cartilage elements. Histological and ultrastructural analyses of cartilage elements in loxl3b morphant embryos reveal abnormal maturation of cartilage and altered chondrocyte morphology. Spatiotemporal analysis of craniofacial markers in loxl3b morphant embryos shows that cranial neural crest cells migrate normally into the developing pharyngeal arches but that differentiation and condensation markers are aberrantly expressed. We further show that the loxl3b morphant phenotype is not due to P53 mediated cell death but likely to be due to reduced chondrogenic progenitor cell proliferation within the pharyngeal arches. Taken together, these data demonstrate a novel role for loxl3b in the maturation of craniofacial cartilage and can provide new insight into the specific genetic factors important in the pathogenesis of craniofacial birth defects.
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21
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Lopez KM, Greenaway FT. Identification of the copper-binding ligands of lysyl oxidase. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 118:1101-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-010-0559-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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Purification of high yields of catalytically active lysyl oxidase directly from Escherichia coli cell culture. Protein Expr Purif 2010; 74:116-21. [PMID: 20600936 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2010.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Revised: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase is a highly insoluble enzyme requiring high concentrations of urea to solubilize. A method to obtain lysyl oxidase in high yields directly from an Escherichia coli culture without the need for refolding of inclusion bodies has been developed using nutrient rich media. pET21b was used to overexpress the lysyl oxidase enzyme and to introduce a C-terminal 6X histidine tag for purification. Lysyl oxidase yields of 10 mg of active and properly folded enzyme per liter of media have been obtained. Purification was achieved via affinity chromatography using a Ni-NTA column. Copper content was found to be 19%. LTQ cofactor formation in LOX is a self-processing event in the presence of copper. LTQ content was determined to be 24% based on reaction with phenylhydrazine to form a phenylhydrazone adduct. Quantification of this adduct was attained using the previously reported extinction coefficient of 15.4 mM(-1)cm(-1). LTQ presence was also verified by redox cycling. Specific enzymatic activity was measured to be 0.31 U/mg, one of the highest activities reported.
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23
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Vora SR, Guo Y, Stephens DN, Salih E, Vu ED, Kirsch KH, Sonenshein GE, Trackman PC. Characterization of recombinant lysyl oxidase propeptide. Biochemistry 2010; 49:2962-72. [PMID: 20192271 DOI: 10.1021/bi902218p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase enzyme activity is critical for the biosynthesis of mature and functional collagens and elastin. In addition, lysyl oxidase has tumor suppressor activity that has been shown to depend on the propeptide region (LOX-PP) derived from pro-lysyl oxidase (Pro-LOX) and not on lysyl oxidase enzyme activity. Pro-LOX is secreted as a 50 kDa proenzyme and then undergoes biosynthetic proteolytic processing to active approximately 30 kDa LOX enzyme and LOX-PP. The present study reports the efficient recombinant expression and purification of rat LOX-PP. Moreover, using enzymatic deglycosylation and DTT derivatization combined with mass spectrometry technologies, it is shown for the first time that rLOX-PP and naturally occurring LOX-PP contain both N- and O-linked carbohydrates. Structure predictions furthermore suggest that LOX-PP is a mostly disordered protein, which was experimentally confirmed in circular dichroism studies. Due to its high isoelectric point and its disordered structure, we propose that LOX-PP can associate with extracellular and intracellular binding partners to affect its known biological activities as a tumor suppressor and inhibitor of cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddharth R Vora
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University Henry M. Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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Pischon N, Mäki JM, Weisshaupt P, Heng N, Palamakumbura AH, N'Guessan P, Ding A, Radlanski R, Renz H, Bronckers TALJJ, Myllyharju J, Kielbassa AM, Kleber BM, Bernimoulin JP, Trackman PC. Lysyl oxidase (lox) gene deficiency affects osteoblastic phenotype. Calcif Tissue Int 2009; 85:119-26. [PMID: 19458888 PMCID: PMC2827261 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-009-9252-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) catalyzes cross-linking of elastin and collagen, which is essential for the structural integrity and function of bone tissue. The present study examined the role of Lox gene deficiency for the osteoblast phenotype in primary calvarial osteoblasts from E18.5 Lox knockout (Lox ( -/- )) and wild type (wt) (C57BL/6) mice. Next to Lox gene depletion, mRNA expression of Lox isoforms, LOXL1-4, was significantly downregulated in Lox ( -/- ) bone tissue. A significant decrease of DNA synthesis of Lox ( -/- ) osteoblasts compared to wt was found. Early stages of osteoblastic apoptosis studied by annexin-V binding as well as later stages of DNA fragmentation were not affected. However, mineral nodule formation and osteoblastic differentiation were markedly decreased, as revealed by significant downregulation of osteoblastic markers, type I collagen, bone sialoprotein, and Runx2/Cbfa1.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Pischon
- Department of Operative Dentistry and Periodontology, CharitéCentrum 3, University School of Dental Medicine, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 14197 Berlin, Germany.
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25
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Contente S, Yeh TJA, Friedman RM. Tumor suppressive effect of lysyl oxidase proenzyme. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2009; 1793:1272-8. [PMID: 19410608 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2009.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2008] [Revised: 04/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase acts as both a matrix modifying enzyme and an oncogene suppressor. It is synthesized as a 50-kDa proenzyme, secreted, and processed into an approximately 30 kDa mature, active enzyme and an 18-kDa propeptide. The tumor suppressive effect of lysyl oxidase appears to be exerted within the cell, so the subcellular localization of protein forms was investigated. Propeptide-specific antibody detected 50-kDa proenzyme in cytoplasmic and nuclear extracts of non-transformed mouse fibroblasts, but free 18-kDa propeptide was not detected in any extract. Antibody to epitope near the N-terminus of mature lysyl oxidase detected the proenzyme product in non-transformed cells, and a 30-kDa cytoplasmic protein in both non-transformed and transformed cells. RNA interference reduced the expression of lysyl oxidase mRNA and 50-kDa proenzyme in non-transformed cells, but had no effect on 30-kDa protein, indicating that although this protein displays a lysyl oxidase epitope, it is not derived from lysyl oxidase message. The absence of both free 18-kDa propeptide and mature lysyl oxidase within non-transformed cells suggests that cellular reversion after restoration of lysyl oxidase gene expression is mediated by the 50-kDa proenzyme within cells.
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26
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Lelièvre E, Hinek A, Lupu F, Buquet C, Soncin F, Mattot V. VE-statin/egfl7 regulates vascular elastogenesis by interacting with lysyl oxidases. EMBO J 2008; 27:1658-70. [PMID: 18497746 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2008.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously characterized VE-statin/egfl7, a protein that is exclusively secreted by endothelial cells and modulates smooth muscle cell migration. Here, we show that VE-statin/egfl7 is the first known natural negative regulator of vascular elastogenesis. Transgenic mice, expressing VE-statin/egfl7 under the control of keratin-14 promoter, showed an accumulation of VE-statin/egfl7 in arterial walls where its presence correlated with an impaired organization of elastic fibres. In vitro, fibroblasts cultured in the presence of VE-statin/egfl7 were unable to deposit elastic fibres due to a deficient conversion of soluble tropoelastin into insoluble mature elastin. VE-statin/egfl7 interacts with the catalytic domain of lysyl oxidase (LOX) enzymes and, in endothelial cells, endogenous VE-statin/egfl7 colocalizes with LoxL2 and inhibits elastic fibre deposition. In contrast, mature elastic fibres are abundantly deposited by endothelial cells that are prevented from producing endogenous VE-statin/egfl7. We propose a model where VE-statin/egfl7 produced by endothelial cells binds to the catalytic domains of enzymes of the LOX family in the vascular wall, thereby preventing the crosslink of tropoelastin molecules into mature elastin polymers and regulating vascular elastogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Lelièvre
- CNRS, UMR 8161, Institut de Biologie de Lille, Equipe labellisée La Ligue 2005, Université de Lille I, Université de Lille II, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
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27
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Hurtado PA, Vora S, Sume SS, Yang D, St Hilaire C, Guo Y, Palamakumbura AH, Schreiber BM, Ravid K, Trackman PC. Lysyl oxidase propeptide inhibits smooth muscle cell signaling and proliferation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 366:156-61. [PMID: 18060869 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Accepted: 11/19/2007] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase is required for the normal biosynthesis and maturation of collagen and elastin. It is expressed by vascular smooth muscle cells, and its increased expression has been previously found in atherosclerosis and in models of balloon angioplasty. The lysyl oxidase propeptide (LOX-PP) has more recently been found to have biological activity as a tumor suppressor, and it inhibits Erk1/2 Map kinase activation. We reasoned that LOX-PP may have functions in normal non-transformed cells. We, therefore, investigated its effects on smooth muscle cells, focusing on important biological processes mediated by Erk1/2-dependent signaling pathways including proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression. In addition, we investigated whether evidence for accumulation of LOX-PP could be found in vivo in a femoral artery injury model. Recombinant LOX-PP was expressed and purified, and was found to inhibit primary rat aorta smooth muscle cell proliferation and DNA synthesis by more than 50%. TNF-alpha-stimulated MMP-9 expression and Erk1/2 activation were both significantly inhibited by LOX-PP. Immunohistochemistry studies carried out with affinity purified anti-LOX-PP antibody showed that LOX-PP epitopes were expressed at elevated levels in vascular lesions of injured arteries. These novel data suggest that LOX-PP may provide a feedback control mechanism that serves to inhibit properties associated with the development of vascular pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola A Hurtado
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Division of Oral Biology, 700 Albany Street, W-210 Boston, MA 02118, USA
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28
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Cenizo V, André V, Reymermier C, Sommer P, Damour O, Perrier E. LOXL as a target to increase the elastin content in adult skin: a dill extract induces the LOXL gene expression. Exp Dermatol 2006; 15:574-81. [PMID: 16842595 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2006.00442.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The lysyl oxidases lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase-like (LOXL) are responsible for elastin cross-linking. It was shown recently that LOXL is essential for the elastic fibres homeostasis and for their maintenance at adult age. We first determined whether or not elastin, LOX and LOXL are less expressed during adulthood. The LOX and LOXL mRNA level, quantified by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction decreased in adult skin fibroblasts compared with fibroblasts from children. In contrast, the elastin mRNA level remains stable at all ages. The goal of this study was to induce elastogenesis at the adult age. Therefore, both enzymes, and in particular LOXL, of which expression is the most affected by age, could be targeted to induce elastogenesis in adult skin. We screened a library of about 1000 active ingredients to find activators capable to stimulate specifically the LOXL gene expression in adult dermal fibroblasts. The positive effect of selected active ingredients was confirmed on fibroblasts grown on monolayers and on dermal and skin equivalent cultures. One extract, obtained from dill (LYS'LASTINE V, Engelhard, Lyon, France), stimulates the LOXL gene expression in dermal equivalents (+64% increase in the LOXL mRNA level when compared with control). At the same time, the elastin detection is increased in dermal equivalents and under the dermal-epidermal junction of skin equivalents, without increase of the elastin mRNA. In conclusion, LOXL can be considered as a new target to reinduce elastogenesis. Its stimulation by a dill extract is correlated with increased elastin detection, suggesting an increase in elastogenesis efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Cenizo
- Laboratoire des Substituts Cutanés, Hôpital E. Herriot, Lyon, France
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29
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McLaughlin PJ, Chen Q, Horiguchi M, Starcher BC, Stanton JB, Broekelmann TJ, Marmorstein AD, McKay B, Mecham R, Nakamura T, Marmorstein LY. Targeted disruption of fibulin-4 abolishes elastogenesis and causes perinatal lethality in mice. Mol Cell Biol 2006; 26:1700-9. [PMID: 16478991 PMCID: PMC1430262 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.26.5.1700-1709.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Elastic fibers provide tissues with elasticity which is critical to the function of arteries, lungs, skin, and other dynamic organs. Loss of elasticity is a major contributing factor in aging and diseases. However, the mechanism of elastic fiber development and assembly is poorly understood. Here, we show that lack of fibulin-4, an extracellular matrix molecule, abolishes elastogenesis. fibulin-4-/- mice generated by gene targeting exhibited severe lung and vascular defects including emphysema, artery tortuosity, irregularity, aneurysm, rupture, and resulting hemorrhages. All the homozygous mice died perinatally. The earliest abnormality noted was a uniformly narrowing of the descending aorta in fibulin-4-/- embryos at embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5). Aorta tortuosity and irregularity became noticeable at E15.5. Histological analysis demonstrated that fibulin-4-/- mice do not develop intact elastic fibers but contain irregular elastin aggregates. Electron microscopy revealed that the elastin aggregates are highly unusual in that they contain evenly distributed rod-like filaments, in contrast to the amorphous appearance of normal elastic fibers. Desmosine analysis indicated that elastin cross-links in fibulin-4-/- tissues were largely diminished. However, expression of tropoelastin or lysyl oxidase mRNA was unaffected in fibulin-4-/- mice. In addition, fibulin-4 strongly interacts with tropoelastin and colocalizes with elastic fibers in culture. These results demonstrate that fibulin-4 plays an irreplaceable role in elastogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Precious J McLaughlin
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85711, USA
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30
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Abstract
Collagens are abundant proteins in higher organisms, and are formed by a complex biosynthetic pathway involving intracellular and extracellular post-translational modifications. Starting from simple soluble precursors, this interesting pathway produces insoluble functional fibrillar and non-fibrillar elements of the extracellular matrix. The present review highlights recent progress and new insights into biological regulation of extracellular procollagen processing, and some novel functions of byproducts of these extracellular enzymatic transformations. These findings underscore the notion that released propeptides and other proteolytic products of extracellular matrix proteins have important biological functions, and that structural proteins are multifunctional. An emerging concept is that a dynamic interplay exists between extracellular products and byproducts with cells that helps to maintain normal cellular phenotypes and tissue integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C Trackman
- Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Division of Oral Biology, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA.
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31
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Mäki JM, Sormunen R, Lippo S, Kaarteenaho-Wiik R, Soininen R, Myllyharju J. Lysyl oxidase is essential for normal development and function of the respiratory system and for the integrity of elastic and collagen fibers in various tissues. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2005; 167:927-36. [PMID: 16192629 PMCID: PMC1603668 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)61183-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidases, a family comprising LOX and four LOX-like enzymes, catalyze crosslinking of elastin and collagens. Mouse Lox was recently shown to be crucial for development of the cardiovascular system because null mice died perinatally of aortic aneurysms and cardiovascular dysfunction. We show here that Lox is also essential for development of the respiratory system and the integrity of elastic and collagen fibers in the lungs and skin. The lungs of E18.5 Lox(-/-) embryos showed impaired development of the distal and proximal airways. Elastic fibers in E18.5 Lox(-/-) lungs were markedly less intensely stained and more disperse than in the wild type, especially in the mesenchyme surrounding the distal airways, bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea, and were fragmented in pulmonary arterial walls. The organization of individual collagen fibers into tight bundles was likewise abnormal. Similar elastic and collagen fiber abnormalities were seen in the skin. Lysyl oxidase activity in cultured Lox(-/-) skin fibroblasts and aortic smooth muscle cells was reduced by approximately 80%, indicating that Lox is the main isoenzyme in these cells. LOX abnormalities may thus be critical for the pathogenesis of several common diseases, including pulmonary, skin, and cardiovascular disorders.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Aorta/cytology
- Aorta/embryology
- Cells, Cultured
- Collagen/metabolism
- Collagen/ultrastructure
- Collagen Type I/metabolism
- Collagen Type I/ultrastructure
- Collagen Type IV/metabolism
- Collagen Type IV/ultrastructure
- Culture Media, Conditioned/analysis
- Elastin/metabolism
- Elastin/ultrastructure
- Embryonic Development
- Fibroblasts/cytology
- Fibroblasts/enzymology
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Fibroblasts/ultrastructure
- Fluorescent Antibody Technique, Indirect
- Fluorescent Dyes
- Heterozygote
- Homozygote
- Immunohistochemistry
- Lung/embryology
- Lung/enzymology
- Lung/growth & development
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/ultrastructure
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Microscopy, Immunoelectron
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/embryology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/enzymology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/analysis
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/genetics
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/physiology
- Respiratory System/embryology
- Respiratory System/enzymology
- Respiratory System/growth & development
- Respiratory System/metabolism
- Respiratory System/ultrastructure
- Rhodamines
- Skin/cytology
- Skin/embryology
- Skin/enzymology
- Skin/growth & development
- Skin/metabolism
- Skin/ultrastructure
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Affiliation(s)
- Joni M Mäki
- Collagen Research Unit, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oulu, PO Box 5000, 90014 Oulu, Finland.
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32
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Vadasz Z, Kessler O, Akiri G, Gengrinovitch S, Kagan HM, Baruch Y, Izhak OB, Neufeld G. Abnormal deposition of collagen around hepatocytes in Wilson's disease is associated with hepatocyte specific expression of lysyl oxidase and lysyl oxidase like protein-2. J Hepatol 2005; 43:499-507. [PMID: 16023247 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2005.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 02/01/2005] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Lysyl-oxidases catalyze the oxidation of lysine residues in collagen and elastin thereby promoting their polymerization. We have studied here the expression of four lysyl-oxidases in normal and diseased human liver. METHODS The expression of the different lysyl-oxidases in paraffin embedded liver sections was studied using in-situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. The enzymatic activity of lysyl-oxidase like protein-2 (Loxl2 or LOR-1) using a previously described lysyl-oxidase assay. RESULTS We have found that the four lysyl-oxidases which we examined are not significantly expressed in the normal liver. By contrast, Wilson's disease and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) patients express lysyl-oxidase (Lox) and lysyl-oxidase like protein-2 (Loxl2 or LOR-1) in hepatocytes, and the expression is accompanied by collagen deposition around the hepatocytes. Lysyl-oxidases are also expressed in additional fibrotic liver diseases such as hepatitis B and C but in these diseases the expression is confined to the fibrotic lesions and collagen does not accumulate around hepatocytes. We have found that Loxl2 is able to oxidize lysine residues of collagen, and behaves in that respect similarly to Lox. The copper chelator D-penicillamine inhibits Loxl2 induced oxidation of collagen but the Lox inhibitor beta-aminopropionitrile did not inhibit the oxidation using a BAPN concentration at which Lox activity was completely inhibited. Loxl2 also catalyzed the oxidation of cell surface proteins on HepG2 hepatoblastoma cells and inhibited their proliferation. CONCLUSIONS Upregulation of Lox and Loxl2 in hepatocytes of Wilson's disease and PBC patients may contribute to liver damage by various mechanisms. The upregulation of Lox and Loxl2 in Wilson's disease could perhaps be utilized for diagnostic purposes since their expression is up-regulated in hepatocytes even before the onset of fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zehava Vadasz
- The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 9697, 1 Efron St., 31096 Haifa, Israel
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33
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Gilad GM, Kagan HM, Gilad VH. Evidence for increased lysyl oxidase, the extracellular matrix-forming enzyme, in Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurosci Lett 2005; 376:210-4. [PMID: 15721223 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.11.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2004] [Revised: 11/18/2004] [Accepted: 11/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The study is based on the premise that the enzyme lysyl oxidase (LO), which catalyzes the crosslinking of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, participates in ECM modulation and senile plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Experiments on hippocampal samples indicate that LO activity is increased (about 30%) in AD, but also in non-Alzheimer's dementia, as compared to controls with unrelated diseases. Immunohistochemistry with specific LO antibody indicates localization in blood vessel walls and in plaque-like structures. The number of LO-positive plaque-like structures in AD was over two-fold higher as compared to both non-Alzheimer's dementia and control groups. The findings lead us to suggest that active LO molecules in the ECM may be associated with plaque formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gad M Gilad
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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34
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Lu L, Ying K, Wei S, Fang Y, Liu Y, Lin H, Ma L, Mao Y. Asiaticoside induction for cell-cycle progression, proliferation and collagen synthesis in human dermal fibroblasts. Int J Dermatol 2004; 43:801-7. [PMID: 15533060 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02047.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Asiaticoside, isolated from Centella asiatica, promotes fibroblast proliferation and extracullar matrix synthesis in wound healing. The precise mechanism, however, in molecular and gene expression levels still remains partially understood. Using cDNA microarray technology, the alternation of genes expression profiles was determined in a human dermal fibroblast in vitro in the presence of asiaticoside (30 microg/ml). Fifty-four genes, with known functions for cell proliferation, cell-cycle progression and synthesis of the extracellular matrix, were significantly up-regulated in our "whole-genes nest" expression profile at various timepoints. Furthermore, mRNA levels and protein productions of certain genes responsible for extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis (e.g. encoding type I and type III collagen proteins) were evaluated by Northern blot and radioimmunoassay, respectively. As a result, there is a close correlation among the gene profile, mRNA and protein production in the cells response to asiaticoside stimulation. This information could be used for exploring the target genes in response to asiaticoside in fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luo Lu
- From the State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Institute of Genetics, School of Life Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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35
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Abstract
Copper is a trace element, important for the function of many cellular enzymes. Copper ions can adopt distinct redox states oxidized Cu(II) or reduced (I), allowing the metal to play a pivotal role in cell physiology as a catalytic cofactor in the redox chemistry of enzymes, mitochondrial respiration, iron absorption, free radical scavenging and elastin cross-linking. If present in excess, free copper ions can cause damage to cellular components and a delicate balance between the uptake and efflux of copper ions determines the amount of cellular copper. In biological systems, copper homeostasis has been characterized at the molecular level. It is coordinated by several proteins such as glutathione, metallothionein, Cu-transporting P-type ATPases, Menkes and Wilson proteins and by cytoplasmic transport proteins called copper chaperones to ensure that it is delivered to specific subcellular compartments and thereby to copper-requiring proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tapiero
- Université de Paris - Faculté de Pharmacie CNRS UMR 8612, 5, rue Jean-Baptiste-Clément, 94200, Chatenay-Malabry, France.
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36
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Jung ST, Kim MS, Seo JY, Kim HC, Kim Y. Purification of enzymatically active human lysyl oxidase and lysyl oxidase-like protein from Escherichia coli inclusion bodies. Protein Expr Purif 2003; 31:240-6. [PMID: 14550642 DOI: 10.1016/s1046-5928(03)00217-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an extracellular copper dependent enzyme catalyzing lysine-derived cross-links in extracellular matrix proteins. Recent molecular cloning has revealed the existence of a LOX family consisting of LOX and four lysyl oxidase-like proteins (LOXLs; LOXL, LOXL2, LOXL3, and LOXL4). Each member of the LOX family contains a copper-binding domain, residues for lysyl-tyrosyl quinone, and a cytokine receptor-like domain. Very recently, novel functions, such as tumor suppression, cellular senescence, and chemotaxis, have been attributed to this family of amine oxidases, but functional differences among the family members have yet to be determined. For efficient expression and purification, we cloned the cDNAs corresponding to proteolytically processed forms of LOX (LOX-p) and LOXL (LOXL-p1 and LOXL-p2) into a bacterial expression vector pET21a with six continuous histidine codons attached to the 3' of the gene. The recombinant proteins were purified with nickel-chelating affinity chromatography and converted into enzymatically active forms by stepwise dialysis in the presence of N-lauroylsarcosinate and Cu2+. The purified LOX-p, LOXL-p1, and LOXL-p2 proteins showed specific amine oxidase activity of 0.097, 0.054, and 0.150 U/mg, respectively, which was inhibited by beta-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), a specific inhibitor of LOX. Availability of these pure and active forms of LOX and LOXLs will be significantly helpful in functional studies related to substrate specificity and crystal structures of this family of amine oxidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Taek Jung
- Laboratory of Functional Proteomics, Samyang-Genex Biotechnology Research Institute, 63-2, Hwaam-Dong, Yusung-Gu, Daejeon City, Republic of Korea
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37
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de Wolf F. Chapter V Collagen and gelatin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0921-0423(03)80005-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
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38
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Mäki JM, Tikkanen H, Kivirikko KI. Cloning and characterization of a fifth human lysyl oxidase isoenzyme: the third member of the lysyl oxidase-related subfamily with four scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domains. Matrix Biol 2001; 20:493-6. [PMID: 11691589 DOI: 10.1016/s0945-053x(01)00157-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We report the complete cDNA sequence of the human lysyl oxidase-like 4 (LOXL4) gene, a new member of the lysyl oxidase (LO) gene family. The predicted polypeptide is 756 amino acids long, including a 24-residue signal peptide. The C-terminal region contains a LO domain similar to those of LOX, LOXL, LOXL2 and LOXL3. The N-terminal region has four subregions similar to scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domains that are highly conserved with LOXL2 and LOXL3. The LOXL4 mRNA is approximately 4 kb in size and is expressed in many tissues, the highest levels among the tissues studied being in the skeletal muscle, testis and pancreas. Recombinant LOXL4 expressed in HT-1080 cells was secreted into the culture medium with no evident proteolytic processing.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Oxidoreductases/classification
- Amino Acid Oxidoreductases/genetics
- Amino Acid Oxidoreductases/metabolism
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 10
- Cloning, Molecular
- Cysteine/genetics
- Cysteine/metabolism
- Humans
- Isoenzymes/classification
- Isoenzymes/genetics
- Male
- Membrane Proteins
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Peptides/classification
- Peptides/genetics
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- Receptors, Lipoprotein
- Receptors, Scavenger
- Scavenger Receptors, Class B
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Tissue Distribution
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Mäki
- The Collagen Research Unit, Biocenter Oulu and Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 5000, FIN-90014 Oulu, Finland
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