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Mass spectrometry as a powerful tool to study therapeutic metallodrugs speciation mechanisms: Current frontiers and perspectives. Coord Chem Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2017.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Lin Y, Huang Y, Zheng W, Wang F, Habtemariam A, Luo Q, Li X, Wu K, Sadler PJ, Xiong S. Organometallic ruthenium anticancer complexes inhibit human glutathione-S-transferase π. J Inorg Biochem 2013; 128:77-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Wei B, Zhou Y, Xu Z, Ruan J, Cheng H, Zhu M, Hu Q, Jin K, Yan Z, Zhou D, Xuan F, Zhou H, Wang Z, Huang X, Wang Q. GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and prostate cancer risk: evidence from a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71640. [PMID: 23977100 PMCID: PMC3747220 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) is thought to be involved in the detoxification of reactive carcinogen metabolites. Numerous epidemiological studies have evaluated the association of GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism with the risk of prostate cancer. However, the results remain inconclusive. To derive a more precise estimation, a meta-analysis was performed. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A comprehensive search was conducted to identify the eligible studies. We used odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to assess the strength of the relationship. The overall association was not significant (Val/Val vs. Ile/Ile OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 0.90-1.25, P = 0.50; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.91-1.25, P = 0.44). In subgroup analyses by ethnicity and prostate cancer grade, the similar results were observed. However, in stratified analysis by clinical stage, we found a significant association with low-stage prostate cancer (Val/Val vs. Ile/Ile: OR = 2.70, 95% CI = 1.73-4.22, P<0.001; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.38-3.33, P = 0.001). Moreover, there was no statistically significant evidence of multiplicative interactions neither between the GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and GSTM1, nor between smoking status and GSTP1 on prostate cancer risk. CONCLUSIONS This meta-analysis showed that GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism might not be significantly associated with overall prostate cancer risk. Further stratified analyses showed a significant association with low-stage prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingbing Wei
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - You Zhou
- Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum 2U, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Zhuoqun Xu
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
- * E-mail: (ZX); (JR)
| | - Jun Ruan
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
- * E-mail: (ZX); (JR)
| | - Huan Cheng
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ming Zhu
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Qiang Hu
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Ke Jin
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhiqiang Yan
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Deqi Zhou
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Feng Xuan
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hongyi Zhou
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhirong Wang
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Xing Huang
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Wuxi People’s Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
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Li B, Vachali P, Bernstein PS. Human ocular carotenoid-binding proteins. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2010; 9:1418-25. [PMID: 20820671 PMCID: PMC3938892 DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00126k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Two dietary carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, are specifically delivered to the human macula at the highest concentration anywhere in the body. Whenever a tissue exhibits highly selective uptake of a compound, it is likely that one or more specific binding proteins are involved in the process. Over the past decade, our laboratory has identified and characterized several carotenoid-binding proteins from human retina including a pi isoform of glutathione S-transferase (GSTP1) as a zeaxanthin-binding protein, a member of the steroidogenic acute regulatory domain (StARD) family as a lutein-binding protein, and tubulin as a less specific, but higher capacity site for carotenoid deposition. In this article, we review the purification and characterization of these carotenoid-binding proteins, and we relate these ocular carotenoid-binding proteins to the transport and uptake role of serum lipoproteins and scavenger receptor proteins in a proposed pathway for macular pigment carotenoid delivery to the human retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binxing Li
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, 65 Mario Capecchi Drive, Moran Eye Center, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, U. S. A.; Fax: +1 801-581-3357; Tel: +1 801-581-6078
| | - Preejith Vachali
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, 65 Mario Capecchi Drive, Moran Eye Center, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, U. S. A.; Fax: +1 801-581-3357; Tel: +1 801-581-6078
| | - Paul S. Bernstein
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, 65 Mario Capecchi Drive, Moran Eye Center, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, U. S. A.; Fax: +1 801-581-3357; Tel: +1 801-581-6078
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Koutros S, Berndt SI, Sinha R, Ma X, Chatterjee N, Alavanja MCR, Zheng T, Huang WY, Hayes RB, Cross AJ. Xenobiotic metabolizing gene variants, dietary heterocyclic amine intake, and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2009; 69:1877-84. [PMID: 19223546 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-2447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
We recently reported that heterocyclic amines (HCA) are associated with prostate cancer risk in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. We now use extensive genetic data from this resource to determine if risks associated with dietary HCAs {2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP); 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-b]quinoxaline (MeIQx); and 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (DiMeIQx)} from cooked meat are modified by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in genes involved in HCA metabolism (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, GSTA1, GSTM1, GSTM3, GSTP1, NAT1, NAT2, SULT1A1, SULT1A2, and UGT1A locus). We conducted a nested case-control study that included 1,126 prostate cancer cases and 1,127 controls selected for a genome-wide association study for prostate cancer. Unconditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR), 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), and P values for the interaction between SNPs, HCA intake, and risk of prostate cancer. The strongest evidence for an interaction was noted between DiMeIQx and MeIQx and the polymorphism rs11102001 downstream of the GSTM3 locus (P(interaction) = 0.001 for both HCAs; statistically significant after correction for multiple testing). Among men carrying the A variant, the risk of prostate cancer associated with high DiMeIQx intake was 2-fold greater than that with low intake (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.7). The SNP rs11102001, which encodes a nonsynonymous amino acid change P356S in EPS8L3, is a potential candidate modifier of the effect of HCAs on prostate cancer risk. The observed effect provides evidence to support the hypothesis that HCAs may act as promoters of malignant transformation by altering mitogenic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Koutros
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA.
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Hegazy UM, Tars K, Hellman U, Mannervik B. Modulating catalytic activity by unnatural amino acid residues in a GSH-binding loop of GST P1-1. J Mol Biol 2007; 376:811-26. [PMID: 18177897 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2007.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The loop following helix alpha2 in glutathione transferase P1-1 has two conserved residues, Cys48 and Tyr50, important for glutathione (GSH) binding and catalytic activity. Chemical modification of Cys48 thwarts the catalytic activity of the enzyme, and mutation of Tyr50 generally decreases the k(cat) value and the affinity for GSH in a differential manner. Cys48 and Tyr50 were targeted by site-specific mutations and chemical modifications in order to investigate how the alpha2 loop modulates GSH binding and catalysis. Mutation of Cys48 into Ala increased K(M)(GSH) 24-fold and decreased the binding energy of GSH by 1.5 kcal/mol. Furthermore, the protein stability against thermal inactivation and chemical denaturation decreased. The crystal structure of the Cys-free variant was determined, and its similarity to the wild-type structure suggests that the mutation of Cys48 increases the flexibility of the alpha2 loop rather than dislocating the GSH-interacting residues. On the other hand, replacement of Tyr50 with Cys, producing mutant Y50C, increased the Gibbs free energy of the catalyzed reaction by 4.8 kcal/mol, lowered the affinity for S-hexyl glutathione by 2.2 kcal/mol, and decreased the thermal stability. The targeted alkylation of Cys50 in Y50C increased the affinity for GSH and protein stability. Characterization of the most active alkylated variants, S-n-butyl-, S-n-pentyl-, and S-cyclobutylmethyl-Y50C, indicated that the affinity for GSH is restored by stabilizing the alpha2 loop through positioning of the key residue into the lock structure of the neighboring subunit. In addition, k(cat) can be further modulated by varying the structure of the key residue side chain, which impinges on the rate-limiting step of catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usama M Hegazy
- Department of Biochemistry and Organic Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, Box 576, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Bostwick DG, Meiers I, Shanks JH. Glutathione S-transferase: differential expression of alpha, mu, and pi isoenzymes in benign prostate, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, and prostatic adenocarcinoma. Hum Pathol 2007; 38:1394-401. [PMID: 17555796 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2007.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2006] [Revised: 02/16/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GST) comprise a family of enzymes which are critical for inactivation of toxins and carcinogens. We examined the cellular expression of multiple subclasses of GST immunohistochemically in 25 radical prostatectomy specimens with clinically localized prostate cancer. Gleason scores ranged from 5 to 9, and pathologic stages varied from pT2a to pT3b (all N0M0). Antibodies were directed against GST Ya, Yc, and Yk (alpha subclass), Yb1 (micro subclass), and YPr (pi subclass). The percentage of positive cells and intensity of staining was assessed for benign epithelium, high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN), and adenocarcinoma. GSTalpha (Ya) was detected in 30% of cells (mean) in benign acini, 4.9% of cells in high-grade PIN, and 4.5% of cells in adenocarcinoma. The corresponding results for alpha (Yk), micro (Yb1), and pi (Yp) were 12.7%, 10.9%, and 3.5%; 8.7%, 5.2%, and 0.6%; and 66.7,% 0%, and 0%, respectively. GST Yc (alpha subclass) displayed the lowest level of expression, with diffuse weak staining in scattered benign secretory cells and only single cells (<1%) in high-grade PIN and carcinoma. These results demonstrate consistent reduction or loss of expression of all subclasses of GST with progression of prostatic neoplasia from benign epithelium to high-grade PIN and carcinoma. We hypothesize that carcinogenesis in the prostate results from impaired cellular handling of mutagenic agents owing to reduction or loss of expression of multiple GST and other detoxifying and antimutagenesis agents.
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Meiers I, Shanks JH, Bostwick DG. Glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTP1) hypermethylation in prostate cancer: review 2007. Pathology 2007; 39:299-304. [PMID: 17558856 DOI: 10.1080/00313020701329906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Prostatic carcinoma is characterised by the silencing of the pi-class glutathione S-transferase gene (GSTP1), which encodes a detoxifying enzyme. The silencing of GSTP1 results from aberrant methylation at the CpG island in the promoter-5' and occurs in the vast majority of cases of high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) and prostate cancers. We review the potential novel role of GSTP1 and its related expression in prostate cancer. The loss of expression (silencing) of the GSTP1 gene is the most common (>90%) genetic alteration reported to date in prostate cancer. Quantitative methylation-specific PCR assays allow detection of GSTP1 methylation in prostate biopsies and may improve the sensitivity of cancer detection. Advances in the epigenetic characterisation of prostate cancer have enabled the development of DNA methylation assays that may soon be used in diagnostic testing of serum and tissue for prostate cancer. Inhibition of aberrant promoter methylation could theoretically prevent carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Meiers
- Department of Pathology, Bostwick Laboratories, London, United Kingdom.
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Agalliu I, Lin DW, Salinas CA, Feng Z, Stanford JL. Polymorphisms in the glutathione S-transferase M1, T1, and P1 genes and prostate cancer prognosis. Prostate 2006; 66:1535-41. [PMID: 16921513 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes can increase oxidative stress, which may affect cancer prognosis. The aim of this study was to examine associations between GSTM1, T1, or P1 genetic variants and prostate cancer outcomes. METHODS A population-based cohort of men (n = 752) from King County, Washington, diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1993-1996, and under long-term surveillance for mortality completed a follow-up survey about prostate cancer recurrence/progression. Cox PH models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for deaths from prostate cancer or other causes and prostate cancer recurrence/progression. RESULTS There were 50 prostate cancer-specific deaths, 65 deaths from other causes, and 143 recurrence/progressions events during an average 9.6 years of follow-up. The adjusted HR for prostate cancer mortality was 3.8 (95% CI 1.6-8.9) among Caucasian men with the GSTM1-null genotype. There were no differences, however, in mortality from other causes or prostate cancer recurrence/progression between men with GSTM1-null versus not-null genotypes. The GSTT1 and GSTP1 genotypes were not associated with any of these outcomes. DISCUSSION Results suggest that the GSTM1 genotype may be a useful biomarker to identify patients at higher risk for fatal prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilir Agalliu
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
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Agalliu I, Langeberg WJ, Lampe JW, Salinas CA, Stanford JL. Glutathione S-transferase M1, T1, and P1 polymorphisms and prostate cancer risk in middle-aged men. Prostate 2006; 66:146-56. [PMID: 16173036 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes detoxify several carcinogens. Genetic polymorphisms in GSTM1, T1, and P1 (Ile105Val) have been associated with prostate cancer, however, results have been inconsistent across studies. METHODS Data from a population-based case-control study in King County, Washington, were used to further evaluate the relationships between these GST polymorphisms and prostate cancer. Incident cases (n = 590) were 40-64 years old, diagnosed from 1993 through 1996, and identified via the SEER cancer registry. Controls (n = 538) were identified via random digit dialing, and frequency age-matched to cases. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS Risk of prostate cancer was moderately increased among Caucasians with the GSTM1-null genotype (OR = 1.54; 95% CI 1.19-2.01). There were no associations for either GSTT1 or P1(Ile105Val). The association between the GSTM1-null genotype and prostate cancer was not different according to cancer aggressiveness defined by stage at diagnosis and Gleason score. Among GSTM1-null Caucasians, the relative risk of prostate cancer increased linearly with increasing pack-years of smoking (P-value for trend = 0.007), with the highest ORs observed for smokers of >30 pack-years. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that the GSTM1-null genotype defines a subgroup of men at higher risk of prostate cancer, particularly if they are heavy smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilir Agalliu
- Epidemiology Program, Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
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Di Paolo OA, Teitel CH, Nowell S, Coles BF, Kadlubar FF. Expression of cytochromes P450 and glutathione S-transferases in human prostate, and the potential for activation of heterocyclic amine carcinogens via acetyl-coA-, PAPS- and ATP-dependent pathways. Int J Cancer 2005; 117:8-13. [PMID: 15880531 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Dietary factors appear to be involved in the high incidence of prostate cancer in "Westernized" countries, implicating dietary carcinogens such as heterocyclic amines (HAs) in the initiation of prostate carcinogenesis. We examined 24 human prostate samples with respect to their potential for activation and detoxification of HAs and the presence of DNA adducts formed in vivo. Cytochromes P450 1B1, 3A4 and 3A5 were expressed at low levels (<0.1-6.2 pmol/mg microsomal protein). N-Acetyltransferase (NAT) activities, using p-aminobenzoic acid (NAT1) and sulfamethazine (NAT2) as substrates, were <5-5,500 and <5-43 pmol/min/mg cytosolic protein, respectively. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) P1, M2 and M3 were expressed at 0.038-1.284, 0.005-0.126 and 0.010-0.270 microg/mg cytosolic protein, respectively; GSTM1 was expressed in all GSTM1-positive samples (0.012-0.291 microg/mg cytosolic protein); and GSTA1 was expressed at low levels (<0.01-0.11 microg/mg cytosolic protein). Binding of N-hydroxy-PhIP to DNA in vitro occurred primarily by an AcCoA-dependent process (<1-54 pmol/mg/DNA), PAPS- and ATP-dependent binding being <1-7 pmol/mg DNA. In vivo, putative PhIP- or 4-aminobiphenyl-DNA adducts were found in 4 samples (0.4-0.8 adducts/10(8) bases); putative hydrophobic adducts were found in 6 samples (8-64 adducts/10(8) bases). Thus, the prostate appears to have low potential for N-hydroxylation of HAs but greater potential for activation of N-hydroxy HAs to genotoxic N-acetoxy esters. The prostate has potential for GSTP1-dependent detoxification of ATP-activated N-hydroxy-PhIP but little potential for detoxification of N-acetoxy-PhIP by GSTA1. However, there were no significant correlations between expression/activities and DNA adducts formed in vitro or in vivo, DNA adducts in vivo possibly reflecting carcinogen exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar A Di Paolo
- Division of Pharmacogenomics and Molecular Epidemiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079-9502, USA
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Platz EA, Krithivas K, Kantoff PW, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E. ATAAA repeat upstream of glutathione S-transferase P1 and prostate cancer risk. Urology 2002; 59:159-64. [PMID: 11796315 DOI: 10.1016/s0090-4295(01)01498-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Expression of glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTP1), a detoxification enzyme that also binds steroid hormones, is diminished or absent in human prostate tumors possibly because of promoter hypermethylation. Upstream of its promoter is a polymorphic ATAAA repeat of unknown functional significance. We evaluated whether this polymorphism is associated with prostate cancer. METHODS Incident prostate cancer cases (n = 186) and controls (n = 398) were identified among participants in the Physicians' Health Study. DNA was extracted from peripheral whole blood, and the region encompassing the repeat was amplified using fluorescent-labeled primers. The fragments were run on polyacrylamide gels and sized by Genescan software. Alleles were designated by polymerase chain reaction fragment size. We estimated the relative risk of prostate cancer for the GSTP1 gene ATAAA alleles and genotype from logistic regression models controlling for age and cigarette smoking status. RESULTS Fifteen GSTP1 ATAAA alleles were observed; C (19 repeats), G (21 repeats), and I (22 repeats) accounted for 80% among the controls. Compared with C, the relative risks for prostate cancer were 1.1 (95% confidence interval 0.7 to 1.7) for G and 0.8 (95% confidence interval 0.6 to 1.2) for I. The relative risks were also not statistically significantly elevated for the less common alleles. Compared with CC, the most common genotype, none of the other genotypes appeared to be associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study do not support an important role of the ATAAA repeat polymorphism upstream from the GSTP1 promoter in prostate cancer incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Platz
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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Parsons JK, Nelson CP, Gage WR, Nelson WG, Kensler TW, De Marzo AM. GSTA1 expression in normal, preneoplastic, and neoplastic human prostate tissue. Prostate 2001; 49:30-7. [PMID: 11550208 DOI: 10.1002/pros.1115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), inducible enzymes that catalyze the detoxification of reactive electrophiles and oxidants, protect against neoplastic transformation. Prostatic adenocarcinoma and high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) fail to express GSTP1, a major class of GST. This failure of expression is associated with methlyation of the GSTP1 promoter, a somatic alteration proposed to be a critical step in prostatic carcinogenesis. However, simple atrophy and post-atrophic hyperplasia-proliferative lesions associated with chronic inflammation, which we have termed "proliferative inflammatory atrophy" (PIA)-express elevated levels of GSTP1. We postulated that this increase in GSTP1 expression in PIA occurs in response to increased oxidative stress. We examined the expression of another major class of GST, GSTA1, in the human prostate. METHODS We performed immunohistochemistry against GSTA1 on formalin-fixed radical prostatectomies (n = 45). A stereological grid point counting method was used to estimate the percent of cells staining positive for GSTA1 in normal prostate, PIA, HGPIN, and adenocarcinoma. RESULTS In contrast to GSTP1, normal peripheral zone epithelium was virtually devoid of GSTA1. Strikingly, though, epithelial cells in PIA demonstrated strong staining for GSTA1 (median of percent of cells staining positive = 44) as compared to those in normal peripheral zone (median = 3.0, P <.00001), HGPIN (median = 2.9, P <.00001), and adenocarcinoma (median = 3.8, P <.00001). Variations in GSTA1 were also detected between normal anatomic zones: the central zone showed an increase in the percentage of cells staining positive (median = 20.9) as compared to the transition (median = 0.47, P <.0002) and the peripheral (P <.0001) zones. CONCLUSIONS Expression of GSTA1 is increased in PIA, supporting the concept that cells within these lesions are subject to localized increases in oxidative stress. Low levels of GSTA1 and GSTP1 in HGPIN and adenocarcinoma suggest a broad lack of detoxification activity in these cells, which may be associated with carcinogenesis in the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Parsons
- The Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Chang M, Shin YG, van Breemen RB, Blond SY, Bolton JL. Structural and functional consequences of inactivation of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 mediated by the catechol metabolite of equine estrogens, 4-hydroxyequilenin. Biochemistry 2001; 40:4811-20. [PMID: 11294649 DOI: 10.1021/bi002513o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The inactivation mechanism(s) of human glutathione S-transferase P1-1 (hGST P1-1) by the catechol metabolite of Premarin estrogens, 4-hydroxyequilenin (4-OHEN), was (were) studied by means of site-directed mutagenesis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometric analysis, titration of free thiol groups, kinetic studies of irreversible inhibition, and analysis of band patterns on nonreducing sodium dodecyl sulfate--polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The four cysteines (Cys 14, Cys 47, Cys 101, and Cys 169 in the primary sequence) in hGST P1-1 are susceptible to electrophilic attack and/or oxidative damage leading to loss of enzymatic activity. To investigate the role of cysteine residues in the 4-OHEN-mediated inactivation of this enzyme, one or a combination of cysteine residues was replaced by alanine residues (C47A, C101A, C47A/C101A, C14A/C47A/C101A, and C47A/C101A/C169A mutants). Mutation of Cys 47 decreased the affinity for the substrate GSH but not for the cosubstrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB). However, the Cys 47 mutation did not significantly affect the rate of catalysis since V(max) values of the mutants were similar or higher compared to that of wild type. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometric analyses of wild-type and mutant enzymes treated with 4-OHEN showed that a single molecule of 4-OHEN-o-quinone attached to the proteins, with the exception of the C14A/C47A/C101A mutant where no covalent adduct was detected. 4-OHEN also caused oxidative damage as demonstrated by the appearance of disulfide-bonded species on nonreducing SDS--PAGE and protection of 4-OHEN-mediated enzyme inhibition by free radical scavengers. The studies of thiol group titration and irreversible kinetic experiments indicated that the different cysteines have distinct reactivity for 4-OHEN; Cys 47 was the most reactive thiol group whereas Cys 169 was resistant to modification. These results demonstrate that hGST P1-1 is inactivated by 4-OHEN through two possible mechanisms: (1) covalent modification of cysteine residues and (2) oxidative damage leading to proteins inactivated by disulfide bond formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy (M/C 781), College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, USA
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Montironi R, Mazzucchelli R, Stramazzotti D, Pomante R, Thompson D, Bartels PH. Expression of pi-class glutathione S-transferase: two populations of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia with different relations to carcinoma. Mol Pathol 2000; 53:122-8. [PMID: 10897330 PMCID: PMC1186917 DOI: 10.1136/mp.53.3.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Patients with high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of the transition zone appear to be at increased risk of developing prostatic carcinoma, although not to the same degree as patients with high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of the peripheral/central zone. Previous investigations have shown loss of expression of pi-class glutathione S-transferase (GST-pi; an enzyme that protects against electrophilic carcinogens) in prostatic carcinoma and in high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. The aim of this study was to compare the expression of GST-pi in high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of the transition zone with that in high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of the peripheral/central zone (that is, non-transition zone). METHODS Immunostaining with the anti-GST-pi antibody was performed on 20 high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia samples of the transition zone, either isolated or associated with prostatic carcinoma (groups 1 and 2, respectively; 10 cases each) and on 20 high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia samples of the non-transition zone, either isolated or associated with prostatic carcinoma (groups 3 and 4, respectively; 10 cases each). This study also included six samples of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia simultaneously present in the transition and non-transition zones and not associated with prostatic carcinoma (group 5). The presence of immunostaining, staining intensity, and the distribution of immunostaining were evaluated in the high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia lesions and in the normal tissue and cancer areas. RESULTS The GST-pi antibody stained the cytoplasm of the cells lining the ducts and acini of normal prostate tissue. Staining was stronger and more diffuse in the basal cell layer than in the luminal (or secretory) cell layer. Immunohistochemical staining with anti-GST-pi antibodies failed to detect the enzyme in all prostatic carcinoma foci but one. Two patterns were detected in high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. One was represented by GST-pi staining similar to that of the normal tissue (pattern A). The other deviated from it and was characterised by absence of GST-pi expression in the secretory cells and abundant expression in scattered basal cells (pattern B). Pattern A staining was seen more frequently in the transition than in the non-transition zone. Pattern B staining was seen mainly in high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia of non-transition zone associated with cancer. CONCLUSIONS The differential expression of GST-pi in the transition and non-transition zones indicates the existence of two populations with the morphological appearance of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia that might have different associations with carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Montironi
- Institute of Pathological Anatomy and Histopathology, University of Ancona, Torrette, Italy.
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Montironi R, Mazzucchelli R, Pomante R, Thompson D, Duval da Silva V, Vaught L, Bartels PH. Immunohistochemical expression of pi class glutathione S-transferase in the basal cell layer of benign prostate tissue following chronic treatment with finasteride. J Clin Pathol 1999; 52:350-4. [PMID: 10560354 PMCID: PMC1023070 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.52.5.350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione S-transferases (GST) may prevent carcinogenesis through inactivation of reactive electrophiles by conjugation to reduced glutathione. Treatment directed at the induction or preservation of GST-pi expression in normal epithelium could have a profound impact on the prevention of prostate neoplasia. Finasteride, a 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor, is used as a chemopreventive agent because it blocks the conversion of testosterone to its byproduct which promotes prostate tumour growth. OBJECTIVE To investigate GST-pi expression immunohistochemically in benign prostate tissue from untreated patients and from patients chronically treated with finasteride. MATERIALS Immunostaining with anti-GST-pi antibody was performed on 10 (cysto-) prostatectomy, eight simple prostatectomy, and three transurethral prostatectomy specimens. The first set of 10 prostates was from untreated patients operated on for bladder cancer. The other cases were from patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia and chronically treated with finasteride. None of the specimens in either group showed prostatic cancer, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, urothelial carcinoma, or chronic prostatitis. Specimens were evaluated for the presence, intensity, and distribution of immunostaining. RESULTS Diffuse cytoplasmic immunostaining was observed in the basal cell layer of the untreated specimens. Some variability in the expression of GST-pi was seen within each zone and also between the prostate zones. Only a minority of the secretory cells was stained weakly, mainly in the subnuclear region of the cells facing an uninterrupted basal cell layer. Staining was more homogeneously diffuse in the cytoplasm of the luminal cells facing the basement membrane directly. In the benign epithelium of the finasteride treated specimens the circumferential staining of the basal cells appeared to be more continuous than in the untreated cases, the gaps in the stained basal cell layer being fewer, shorter, or even absent in some ducts and acini. There was no variability in the intensity of staining of the basal cell layer, all the cells being intensely stained in a uniform way. The intensity of staining of the secretory cells was not influenced by finasteride treatment. CONCLUSIONS Following chronic treatment with finasteride the immunohistochemical expression of pi class glutathione S-transferase in the benign prostate ducts and acini is upregulated in relation to an expanded basal cell layer. This could indicate that finasteride acts as a GST-pi inducer.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Montironi
- Institute of Pathological Anatomy and Histopathology, School of Medicine, University of Ancona, Ospedale Regionale, Italy.
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Moskaluk CA, Duray PH, Cowan KH, Linehan M, Merino MJ. Immunohistochemical expression of pi-class glutathione S-transferase is down-regulated in adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Cancer 1997; 79:1595-9. [PMID: 9118044 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0142(19970415)79:8<1595::aid-cncr23>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutathione S-transferase is often up-regulated in neoplastic tissues. A single previous study found a loss of expression associated with carcinogenesis of the prostate. METHODS To extend these results, the authors performed immunohistochemical staining for the pi-class of glutathione S-transferase (GSTpi) on 74 archival sequential prostate specimens. The antibody used was derived from rabbits immunized against purified human GSTpi. Paraffin blocks containing both benign tissue and adenocarcinoma were studied. RESULTS Heterogeneous expression of GSTpi in benign acini was found in 96% of cases, but GSTpi was not expressed in 95% of invasive adenocarcinomas of the prostate, nor was it expressed in any of the foci of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. Basal cells of benign acini showed strong, diffuse staining for GSTpi, whereas the secretory luminal epithelium expressed GSTpi weakly and focally. CONCLUSIONS This study confirms the down-regulation of GSTpi in adenocarcinoma of the prostate and shows that the loss of GSTpi expression is a phenotype associated with malignant transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Moskaluk
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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18
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Cookson MS, Reuter VE, Linkov I, Fair WR. Glutathione S-transferase PI (GST-pi) class expression by immunohistochemistry in benign and malignant prostate tissue. J Urol 1997. [PMID: 8996396 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(01)65248-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes may prevent carcinogenesis through inactivation of reactive electrophiles by conjugation to reduced glutathione. Recently, it was reported that most prostate cancers fail to express GST-pi despite an abundant presence in benign prostate tissue, suggesting a common genetic alteration. To define its presence in prostate tissue, we evaluated GST-pi expression in a variety of prostate tissues. MATERIALS AND METHODS Immunostaining with anti-GST-pi antibody was performed on 69 benign prostates, 44 malignant prostates, 12 incidental prostate carcinomas and 17 prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) specimens. Specimens were evaluated for the presence and percent of GST-pi. Within benign tissue, GST-pi immunostaining was distinguished between basal cells and secretory acinar epithelium. RESULTS In benign epithelium, the basal cells demonstrated intense staining in all cases. The mean percent staining among the basal cells was 67% (R 40-90%). The acinar epithelium stained weakly positive in 94% (65/69) of specimens, however the mean percent staining was only 5% (R 0-25%). GST-pi was detected in only 3.5% (2/56) of the prostate cancers. No incidental prostate cancers and only one (6%) high grade PIN stained positive. CONCLUSIONS Our study confirms the absence of GST-pi expression in prostate cancer and high grade PIN. Furthermore, GST-pi expression correlates well with the basal cell phenotype, but not with benign epithelial cells. The lack of staining among prostate cancer cells may reflect the absence of a basal cell layer, suggesting that GST-pi is involved more in epithelial differentiation and questioning its role in the malignant transformation of prostatic acinar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Cookson
- Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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Glutathione S-transferase PI (GST-pi) Class Expression by Immunohistochemistry in Benign and Malignant Prostate Tissue. J Urol 1997. [DOI: 10.1097/00005392-199702000-00086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raha
- Department of Pharmacology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA 19111, USA
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Murray GI, Taylor VE, McKay JA, Weaver RJ, Ewen SW, Melvin WT, Burke MD. The immunohistochemical localization of drug-metabolizing enzymes in prostate cancer. J Pathol 1995; 177:147-52. [PMID: 7490681 DOI: 10.1002/path.1711770208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The major groups of enzymes involved in activating and detoxifying therapeutic drugs, not least several anti-cancer drugs, include the cytochromes P450 (P450s), epoxide hydrolase, and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). The expression of these enzymes in malignant tumours is one possible mechanism of anti-cancer drug resistance. This study has investigated the presence, cellular localization, and distribution of drug-metabolizing enzymes in prostate cancer. The P450 subfamilies CYP1A, CYP2C, and CYP3A were present in 63, 25, and 61 per cent of tumours, respectively. Epoxide hydrolase was identified in 96 per cent of tumours. GST-alpha and GST-mu were expressed in 29 and 41 per cent of tumours, respectively, while there was no immunoreactivity for the pi form of GST. The absence of GST-pi in prostate cancer contrasts with the frequent expression of GST-pi observed in other types of malignant tumour. In non-neoplastic prostatic epithelium, there was expression of CYP1A, CYP2C, epoxide hydrolase, and the different forms of GST, while there was no apparent immunoreactivity for CYP3A.
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Affiliation(s)
- G I Murray
- Department of Pathology, University of Aberdeen, U.K
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Wilce MC, Parker MW. Structure and function of glutathione S-transferases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1205:1-18. [PMID: 8142473 DOI: 10.1016/0167-4838(94)90086-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M C Wilce
- St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, Vic., Australia
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Awasthi YC, Sharma R, Singhal SS. Human glutathione S-transferases. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1994; 26:295-308. [PMID: 8187927 DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(94)90050-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
1. Multiple forms of glutathione S-transferase (GST) isoenzymes present in human tissues are dimers of subunits belonging to three distinct gene families namely alpha, mu and pi. Only the subunits within each class hybridize to give active dimers. 2. These subunits are differentially expressed in a tissue-specific manner and the composition of glutathione S-transferases in various tissues differs significantly. 3. Minor GST subunits not belonging to these three classes are also present in some tissues. 4. An ortholog of rat GST 8-8 and mouse mGSTA4-4 is selectively expressed in some human tissues including bladder, brain, heart, liver, and pancreas. This isoenzyme designated as GST 5.8 expresses several fold higher activity towards 4-hydroxy-2,3-trans-nonenal as compared to the routinely used substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y C Awasthi
- Department of Human Biological Chemistry and Genetics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77555-1067
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Beckett
- University Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, Scotland
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Datta J, Samanta TB. Characterization of a novel microsomal glutathione S-transferase produced by Aspergillus ochraceus TS. Mol Cell Biochem 1992; 118:31-8. [PMID: 1488053 DOI: 10.1007/bf00249692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Purification and characterization of microsomal glutathione S-transferase produced by Aspergillus ochraceus TS are reported. The isozymes are located in microsomes and were active against 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, ethacrynic acid, 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene, trans-4-phenyl-3-buten-2-one,p-nitrobenzyl chloride and bromosulphophthalein. They were inhibited by N-ethylmaleimide and bromosulphophthalein. The GST isozymes produced by Aspergillus ochraceus TS are indistinguishable in respect of their molecular mass both in native and denatured state. The subunit of the purified protein had an apparent M(r) of 11 kDa while molecular mass of the native protein is around 56 kDa. The substrate specificity and pI values of the isozymes were different. The GSTs produced by Aspergillus ochraceus TS fairly share functional properties with mammalian cytosolic isozymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Datta
- Department of Microbiology, Bose Institute, Calcutta, India
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Abstract
The glutathione transferases, a family of multifunctional proteins, catalyze the glutathione conjugation reaction with electrophilic compounds biotransformed from xenobiotics, including carcinogens. In preneoplastic cells as well as neoplastic cells, specific molecular forms of glutathione transferase are known to be expressed and have been known to participate in the mechanisms of their resistance to drugs. In this article, following a brief description of recently identified molecular forms, we review new findings regarding the respective molecular forms involved in carcinogenesis and anticancer drug resistance, with particular emphasis on Pi class forms in preneoplastic tissues. The rat Pi class form, GST-P (GST 7-7), is strongly expressed not only in hepatic foci and hepatomas, but also in initiated cells that occur at the very early stages of chemical hepatocarcinogenesis, and is regarded as one of the most reliable markers for preneoplastic lesions in the rat liver. 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-responsive element-like sequences have been identified in upstream regions of the GST-P gene, and oncogene products c-jun and c-fos are suggested to activate the gene. The Pi-class forms possess unique enzymatic properties, including broad substrate specificity, glutathione peroxidase activity toward lipid hydroperoxides, low sensitivity to organic anion inhibitors, and high sensitivity to active oxygen species. The possible functions of Pi class glutathione transferases in neoplastic tissues and drug-resistant cells are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Tsuchida
- Second Department of Biochemistry, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, Japan
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