Nucleocytoplasmic transport

Subcellular Localization of Epstein-Barr Virus BLLF2 and Its Underlying Mechanisms

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the pathogen of several human malignancies, encodes many proteins required to be transported into the nucleus for viral DNA reproduction and nucleocapsids assembly in the lytic replication cycle. Here, fluorescence microscope, mutation analysis, interspecies heterokaryon assays, co-immunoprecipitation assay, RNA interference, and Western blot were performed to explore the nuclear import mechanism of EBV encoded BLLF2 protein. BLLF2 was shown to be a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein neither by a chromosomal region maintenance 1 (CRM1)- nor by a transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP)-dependent pathway. Yet, BLLF2's two functional nuclear localization signals (NLSs), NLS1 (¹⁶KRQALETVPHPQNRGR³¹) and NLS2 (⁴⁴RRPRPPVAKRRRFPR⁵⁸), were identified, whereas the predicted NES was nonfunctional. Finally, BLLF2 was proven to transport into the nucleus via a Ran-dependent and importin β1-dependent pathway. This mechanism may contribute to a more extensive insight into the assembly and synthesis of EBV virions in the nucleus, thus affording a new direction for the treatment of viruses.

Phospholipase A2 inhibits nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase activity and mRNA export in isolated nuclei from rat liver

The present study is undertaken to investigate whether the phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) influences mRNA nucleocytoplasmic transport evaluated by nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) activity and mRNA export in isolated hepatic nuclear envelope. Isolated hepatic nuclei from rat liver were exposed to PLA(2) (10(-5) approximately 10(-2)/ml) with or without incorporation of nuclei with phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposome. Messenger RNA exports and NTPase activities of nuclear membrane were assayed using ATP and GTP as substrates. We found that the RNA efflux, evaluated by [3H] uridine, was potently decreased in a concentration-dependent manner, by incubation of hepatic nuclei with PLA(2), regardless using ATP or GTP as substrates. The PC content in nuclear membrane was also decreased by PLA(2)-treatment. The PC was incorporated into the nuclear membrane by addition of phospholipid liposomes into the incubation mixture. PC incorporation into the nuclear membrane did not alter mRNA export. However this resulted in a significant increase in mRNA export rate in PLA(2)-treated group. Messenger RNA export rate in PLA(2) (10(-3) unit/mL)- treated nuclear membrane was positively correlated with level of PC incorporation, both using ATP and GTP as substrates. The activity of nucleoside triphosphatase, a nuclear membrane-associated enzyme, showed parallel variations with mRNA transport. It is concluded that nuclear PLA(2) plays a regulatory role in RNA transport, which can be antagonized by exogenous PC. These might be pathophysiologically significance, although the mechanisms by which this effect takes place remain to be clarified.

The nuclear protein import assay in vascular smooth muscle cells

Nuclear protein import plays a critical role in both proliferation and apoptosis. Both actions are of great importance in vascular development and pathology. Consequently, a technique that would allow us to characterize import and identify novel cofactors important in modulating the process in smooth muscle cells is of great applicability. In this article, we describe a simple and reliable nuclear protein import assay that we have modified for use on aortic smooth muscle cells in culture. Briefly, the procedure permeabilizes the cells and analyzes the nuclear retention of a fluorescent import marker. Using this method, we are able to analyze the effect of agents on nuclear protein import. Most importantly, we are able to treat the cytosol, nucleus or the whole cell independently. This technique will allow for the identification and development of drugs to inhibit or stimulate the process and, potentially, to identify mechanistic insight into disease processes.

Hydrogen peroxide inhibition of nuclear protein import is mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase, ERK2

H(2)O(2) alters gene expression in many cell types. Alterations in nuclear import of transcription factors or similar key proteins may be responsible for these changes. To investigate this possibility, a cytosolic nuclear import cocktail was treated with varying ¿H(2)O(2) and used in import assays. H(2)O(2) caused a dose- and time-dependent inhibition of import at concentrations as low as 100 microM. Catalase reversed this effect. H(2)O(2) treatment of permeablized cells did not affect import, suggesting that H(2)O(2) was acting on a cytosolic factor. Treatment of import cocktail with two different free radical generating systems had no effect, but treatment of permeablized cells inhibited import, suggesting H(2)O(2) works via a distinct process from hydroxyl or superoxide radicals. Pretreatment of import cocktail with genistein reversed the effect of H(2)O(2) on import. Western blotting revealed that H(2)O(2) activated ERK2. The specific MEK1/2 inhibitor, PD98059, completely blocked the effects of H(2)O(2) on import. Activated ERK2 mimicked H(2)O(2)'s effect on import. Immunocytochemistry revealed that H(2)O(2) treatment of whole cells increased cytosolic Ran/TC4 levels, an effect reversible by catalase or PD98059. These data demonstrate that H(2)O(2) inhibits nuclear protein import and that this effect is mediated by mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase activation, possibly by altering Ran/TC4 function.

Changes of nuclear membrane lipid composition affect RNA nucleocytoplasmic transport

We have previously shown that the nuclear membrane fluidity of rat liver, measured by fluorescence anisotropy of two probes, is higher in the hydrophobic core, with respect to the bilayer surface, in newborn rats compared to adult rats. The aim of the present research is to investigate whether the nuclear membrane fluidity influences RNA nucleocytoplasmic transport. To this end two experimental models were used: the fluidity of nuclear membrane isolated from adult rats was increased by a choline base exchange reaction, which is known to be accompanied by an increase of phosphatidylcholine unsaturated fatty acids, whereas that of nuclear membrane isolated from newborn rats was decreased by incubation with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine-cholesterol liposomes. The RNA efflux, evaluated by using [3H]uridine, significantly increased in the adult nuclear membrane submitted to choline base exchange reaction, whereas a strong decrease in the newborn nuclear membrane enriched with cholesterol was found. The activity of nucleoside triphosphatase, a nuclear membrane-associated enzyme which is correlated with mRNA transport, showed parallel variations. Therefore, for the first time, we have provided evidence that the nuclear membrane fluidity plays a regulatory role in RNA nucleocytoplasmic transport, although the mechanism by which this effect takes place remains to be clarified.

Signals mediating nuclear targeting and their regulation: application in drug delivery

The recent progress with respect to understanding the signals mediating the transport of proteins in both directions through the NPC, and cellular proteins interacting with these signals to effect the transport process has made possible a number of advances in terms of the use of this information in a clinical setting. In particular, our knowledge of the mechanism of regulation of the process, and of how we may exploit the cellular transport machinery itself in a therapeutic situation, especially where there may be transport pathways specific to particular viruses, has advanced considerably. In this context, this review expounds current understanding of the signals conferring targeting to the nucleus, and their practical and potential use in delivering molecules of interest to the nucleus in a clinical context. It also deals with targeting signals conferring nuclear protein export/ shuttling between nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments as well as with those conferring nuclear or cytoplasmic retention, and with the specific mechanisms regulating the activity of these signals, and in particular those regulating signal-dependent nuclear protein import. Detailed understanding of the processes of signal-mediated nuclear protein import/export and its regulation enables the considered application and optimization of approaches to target molecules of interest, such as plasmid DNA or toxic molecules, efficiently to the nucleus according to need in a clinical or research context, and enhance the expression or efficiency of their action, respectively. The use of nuclear targeting signals in this context is reviewed, and future possibilities in terms of the application of our growing understanding of nuclear transport and its regulation are discussed.

Current evidence suggests independent regulation of nuclear calcium

We review and present current evidence supporting independent regulation of nuclear Ca2+ ([Ca2+]n). The nucleus and nuclear envelope contain proteins to both regulate and respond to changes in [Ca2+]n. However, this does not prove that [Ca2+]n is independently regulated from cytosolic Ca2+ ([Ca2+]c). Studies using fluorescent dyes suggested that changes in [Ca2+]n differed in magnitude from changes in [Ca2+]c. These studies have been criticised as the nuclear environment alters the fluorescent characteristics of these dyes. We have evaluated this question with aequorin targeted to the nucleus and cytoplasm and shown that the characteristics of the indicators are not altered in their respective environments. We have demonstrated that different stimuli induce changes in [Ca2+]n and [Ca2+]c that vary both temporally and in magnitude. The nucleus appeared to be shielded from increases in [Ca2+]c, either through a mechanism involving the nuclear envelope or by cytosolic buffering of localised increases in Ca2+. In addition, agonist stimulation resulted in an increase in [Ca2+]n, consistent with release from the perinuclear Ca2+ store. There was a stimulus dependence of the relation between [Ca2+]n and [Ca2+]c suggesting differential regulation of [Ca2+]n. These results have important implications for the role of Ca2+ as a specific regulator of nuclear events through Ca2+ binding proteins. In addition, they highlight the advantages of using targeted aequorin in intact cells to monitor changes in organelle [Ca2+].

Age- and sex-related differences in nuclear lipid content and nucleoside triphosphatase activity in the JCR:LA-cp corpulent rat

The putative role of the nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) is to provide energy to the nuclear pore complex for poly A(+) mRNA export. Previous work has demonstrated that liver nuclear NTPase activity is greater in 6 month old corpulent (cp/cp) female JCR:LA rats, a hyperlipidemic rat model, compared to lean (+/?) animals. This increase appeared to be related to increases in nuclear membrane cholesterol content. The current study extended these initial data to compare NTPase activity as a function of age and sex in isolated JCR:LA-cp rat liver nuclei, to further test the hypothesis that nuclear membrane cholesterol may modulate NTPase activity. NTPase activity was increased in cp/cp female animals compared to +/? females at all ages studied, with Vmax values increased by 60-176%. Membrane integrity of cp/cp female nuclei was reduced compared to +/? female nuclei. Nuclear membrane cholesterol levels increased linearly with age by 50, 150 and 250% in 3, 6 and 9 month old cp/cp females over leans. In contrast, nuclei from cp/cp males exhibited only minor, isolated changes in NTPase activity. Furthermore, there were no significant changes in nuclear cholesterol content or membrane integrity in the less hyperlipidemic male animals at any age. These data suggest that altered lipid metabolism may lead to changes in nuclear membrane structure, which in turn may alter NTPase activity and functioning of the nuclear pore complex.

Kinetic characterization of the human retinoblastoma protein bipartite nuclear localization sequence (NLS) in vivo and in vitro. A comparison with the SV40 large T-antigen NLS

The retinoblastoma (RB) tumor suppressor is a nuclear phosphoprotein important for cell growth control and able to bind specifically to viral oncoproteins such as the SV40 large tumor antigen (T-ag). Human RB possesses a bipartite nuclear localization sequence (NLS) consisting of two clusters of basic amino acids within amino acids 860-877, also present in mouse and Xenopus homologs, which resembles that of nucleoplasmin. The T-ag NLS represents a different type of NLS, consisting of only one stretch of basic amino acids. To compare the nuclear import kinetics conferred by the bipartite NLS of RB to those conferred by the T-ag NLS, we used beta-galactosidase fusion proteins containing the NLSs of either RB or T-ag. The RB NLS was able to target beta-galactosidase to the nucleus both in vivo (in microinjected cells of the HTC rat hepatoma line) and in vitro (in mechanically perforated HTC cells). Mutational substitution of the proximal basic residues of the NLS abolished nuclear targeting activity, confirming its bipartite character. Nuclear accumulation of the RB fusion protein was half-maximal within about 8 min in vivo, maximal levels being between 3-4-fold those in the cytoplasm, which was less than 50% of the maximal levels attained by the T-ag fusion protein, while the initial rate of nuclear import of the RB protein was also less than half that of T-ag. Nuclear import conferred by both NLSs in vitro was dependent on cytosol and ATP and inhibited by the nonhydrolyzable GTP analog GTPgammaS. Using an ELISA-based binding assay, we determined that the RB bipartite NLS had severely reduced affinity, compared with the T-ag NLS, for the high affinity heterodimeric NLS-binding protein complex importin 58/97, this difference presumably representing the basis of the reduced maximal nuclear accumulation and import rate in vivo. The results support the hypothesis that the affinity of NLS recognition by NLS-binding proteins is critical in determining the kinetics of nuclear protein import.

Oxidation of nuclear membrane cholesterol inhibits nucleoside triphosphatase activity

Oxygen derived free radicals can oxidize membrane cholesterol. We have previously shown that cholesterol in the nuclear membrane can modulate nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) activity. Nucleocytoplasmic transport of peptides and mRNA via the nuclear pore complex may be regulated by the NTPase. The purpose of the present study was to determine if oxidation of nuclear cholesterol could alter NTPase activity. Nuclear membrane cholesterol was oxidized in situ with cholesterol oxidase (to selectively oxidize cholesterol) and NTPase activity measured. HPLC analysis confirmed the formation of cholesterol oxides. The activity of the NTPase was strikingly inhibited by cholesterol oxidase treatment. The Vmax of the NTPase was significantly decreased after cholesterol oxidase treatment but the Km value was unchanged. The sensitivity of NTPase activity to varying cholesterol oxidase concentrations also suggested that cholesterol located in the inner leaflet of the nuclear membrane appeared to be more important in the modulation of NTPase activity than that in the cytoplasmic leaflet. Our results indicate that oxidation of nuclear membrane cholesterol inhibits NTPase activity. These results have implications for peptide and mRNA flux across the nuclear membrane during conditions where lipid oxidation may be expected.

Nuclear membrane cholesterol can modulate nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase activity

Previous work has suggested that changes in nuclear membrane cholesterol may induce a stimulation in nuclear nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) activity. The purpose of the present study was to directly investigate if nuclear membrane cholesterol can stimulate nuclear NTPase activity. The cholesterol content of nuclei was altered with a liposomal methodology. The cholesterol content of nuclei isolated from hepatic tissue was relatively low in comparison to that typically exhibited by other membrane fractions. Because of this, it was difficult to further deplete the nuclear membrane of cholesterol, but we could successfully increase the cholesterol content after exposure to cholesterol-enriched liposomes. Nuclear NTPase activity was potently stimulated (approximately 150-200% of control) by an increase in the nuclear membrane cholesterol content. The Vmax of the NTPase activity in the presence of ATP or GTP was significantly increased after cholesterol enrichment without altering the affinity of the enzyme for these moieties. Mg2+ dependency of NTPase activity was also altered by cholesterol incorporation into the nuclear membrane. Cholesterol enrichment of the nuclear membrane also left the nuclei more susceptible to damage by salt-induced lysis than control nuclei. Our results clearly demonstrate that the cholesterol content of the nuclear membrane will have significant, direct effects on nuclear integrity and NTPase activity.

Nuclear cholesterol content and nucleoside triphosphatase activity are altered in the JCR:LA-cp corpulent rat

A nuclear pore complex-associated nucleoside triphosphatase (NTPase) activity is believed to provide energy for nuclear export of poly(A)+ mRNA. This study was initiated to determine if nuclear membrane lipid composition is altered during chronic hyperlipidemia, and what effect this has on NTPase activity. The JCR:LA-cp corpulent rat model is characterized by severe hypertriglyceridemia and moderate hypercholesterolemia, and thus represents an ideal animal model in which to study nuclear cholesterol and NTPase activity. NTPase activity was markedly increased in purified hepatic nuclei from corpulent female JCR:LA-cp rats in comparison to lean control rats as a function of assay time, [GTP], [ATP], and [Mg2+]. Nuclear membrane cholesterol and phospholipid content were significantly elevated in the corpulent animals. Nuclei of corpulent animals were less resistant to salt-induced lysis than nuclei of lean animals, suggesting a change in relative membrane integrity. Together, these results indicate that altered lipid metabolism in a genetic corpulent animal model can lead to changes in nuclear membrane lipid composition, which in turn may alter nuclear membrane NTPase activity and integrity.

The plasma borne free fatty acids rapidly enter the hepatocellular nuclei

Long-chain free fatty acids (FA) were shown to exert a regulatory function in the nucleus. However, the route of their entry remains uncertain. The aim of the present study was to examine whether the extracellular FA enter the hepatocellular nuclei. The experiments were carried out in vivo and in vitro. Intravenous administration of albumin-bound [14C]-palmitic and [14C]-linoleic acid resulted in rapid accumulation of the labels in the nuclear lipids. Unesterified [14C]-palmitic acid represented 22.4 +/- 1.7 and [14C]-linoleic acid 17.6 +/- 1.3 percent of the total lipid radioactivity. In vitro, confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to examine 12-NBD-stearate (a fluorescent derivative of stearate) translocation into the nuclei of isolated hepatocytes. It was found that 12-NBD stearate enters the nucleus and that this uptake depends on the extracellular and/or cytoplasmic concentration. It is concluded that factors (e.g. dietary) leading to alterations in the plasma FA composition and content can result in rapid changes of the nuclear FA pool and thus regulate certain nuclear processes.

Nuclear import in permeabilized protoplasts from higher plants has unique features

The import of proteins into the nucleus is a poorly understood process that is thought to require soluble cytosolic factors in vertebrates and yeast. To test this model in plants and to identify components of the import apparatus, we developed a direct in vitro nuclear import assay by using tobacco protoplasts that were permeabilized without detergents such as digitonin or Triton X-100. Substrates were imported specifically by a mechanism that required only guanine nucleotides. Moreover, in vitro import did not require exogenous cytosol. To investigate this novel finding, we isolated a full-length cDNA encoding an Arabidopsis homolog of vertebrate and yeast nuclear localization signal receptors and produced an affinity-purified antibody. The plant receptor was tightly associated with cellular components in permeabilized protoplasts, even in the presence of 0.1% Triton X-100, indicating that this factor and probably others were retained to an extent sufficient to support import. The lectin wheat germ agglutinin bound to the nucleus; however, it did not block translocation in our system, indicating that direct interaction with polysaccharide modifications at the nuclear pore complex was probably not essential for import in plants. Other features of in vitro import included reduced but significant import at low temperature.

Evidence for an inhibitory feedback loop regulating simian virus 40 large T-antigen fusion protein nuclear transport

Nuclear protein import is central to eukaryotic cell function. It is dependent on ATP, temperature and cytosolic factors, and requires specific targeting sequences called nuclear localization signals (NLSs). Nuclear import kinetics was studied in vitro using digitonin-permeabilized cells of the HTC rat hepatoma cell line and a fluorescently labelled beta-galactosidase fusion protein carrying amino acids 111-135 of the simian virus 40 large T-antigen (T-ag), including the NLS. Nuclear accumulation was rapid, reaching steady-state after about 80 min at 37 degrees C (t1/2 at about 17 min). Surprisingly, maximal nuclear concentration was found to be directly proportional to the concentration of the cytosolic extract and of cytoplasmic T-ag protein. Neither preincubation of cells for 1 h at 37 degrees C before the addition of T-ag protein nor the addition of fresh transport medium after 1 h and continuation of the incubation for another hour affected the maximal nuclear concentration. If cells were allowed to accumulate T-ag protein for 1 h before the addition of fresh transport medium containing different concentrations of T-ag protein and incubated for a further hour, the maximal nuclear concentration did not change unless the concentration of T-ag protein in the second transport mixture exceeded that in the first, in which case the nuclear concentration increased. Nuclear import of T-ag thus appeared (i) to be strictly unidirectional over 2 h at 37 degrees C and (ii) to be regulated by an inhibitory feedback loop, whereby the cytosolic concentration of protein appears to determine directly the precise end point of nuclear accumulation. This study represents the first characterization of this previously undescribed mechanism of regulation of nuclear protein import.

Intracellular structure and nucleocytoplasmic transport

Intracellular movement of any solute or particle accords with one of two general schemes: either it takes place predominantly in the solution phase or it occurs by dynamic interactions with solid-state structures. If nucleocytoplasmic exchanges of macromolecules and complexes are predominantly solution-phase processes, i.e., if the former ("diffusionist") perspective applies, then the only significant structures in nucleocytoplasmic transport are the pore complexes. However, if such exchanges accord with the latter ("solid-state") perspective, then the roles of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton in nucleocytoplasmic transport are potentially, at least, as important as that of the pore complexes. The role of the nucleoskeleton in mRNA transport is more difficult to evaluate than that of the cytoskeleton because it is less well characterized, and current evidence does not exclude either perspective. However, the balance of evidence favors a solid-state scheme. It is argued that ribosomal subunits are also more likely to migrate by a solid-state rather than a diffusionist mechanism, though the opposite is true of proteins and tRNAs. Moreover, recent data on the effects of viral proteins on intranuclear RNA processing and migration accord with the solid-state perspective. In view of this balance of evidence, three possible solid-state mechanisms for nucleocytoplasmic mRNA transport are described and evaluated. The explanatory advantage of solid-state models is contrasted with the heuristic advantage of diffusion theory, but it is argued that diffusion theory itself, even aided by modern computational techniques and numerical and graphical approaches, cannot account for data describing the movements of materials within the cell. Therefore, the mechanisms envisaged in a diffusionist perspective cannot be confined to diffusion alone, but must include other processes such as bulk fluid flow.

Binding, uptake, and intracellular trafficking of phosphorothioate-modified oligodeoxynucleotides

An enhanced appreciation of uptake mechanisms and intracellular trafficking of phosphorothioate modified oligodeoxynucleotides (P-ODN) might facilitate the use of these compounds for experimental and therapeutic purposes. We addressed these issues by identifying cell surface proteins with which P-ODN specifically interact, studying P-ODN internalization mechanisms, and by tracking internalized P-ODN through the cell using immunochemical and ultrastructural techniques. Chemical cross-linking studies with a biotin-labeled P-ODN (bP-ODN), revealed the existence of five major cell surface P-ODN binding protein groups ranging in size from approximately 20-143 kD. Binding to these proteins was competitively inhibited with unlabeled P-ODN, but not free biotin, suggesting specificity of the interactions. Additional experiments suggested that binding proteins likely exist as single chain structures, and that carbohydrate moieties may play a role in P-ODN binding. Uptake studies with 35S-labeled P-ODN revealed that endocytosis, mediated by a receptor-like mechanism, predominated at P-ODN concentrations < 1 microM, whereas fluid-phase endocytosis prevailed at higher concentrations. Cell fractionation and ultrastructural analysis demonstrated the presence of ODN in clathrin coated pits, and in vesicular structures consistent with endosomes and lysosomes. Labeled ODN were also found in significant amounts in the nucleus, while none was associated with ribosomes, or ribosomes associated with rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Since nuclear uptake was not blocked by wheat germ agglutinin or concanavalin A, a nucleoporin independent, perhaps diffusion driven, import process is suggested. These data imply that antisense DNA may exert their effect in the nucleus. They also suggest rational ways to design ODN which might increase their efficiency.

Nuclear localization signal binding proteins in higher plant nuclei

The import of proteins into the nucleus is a vital process that is mediated by proteins which specifically recognize nuclear localization signals (NLSs). These factors have not been identified in plants. Previously, we demonstrated that higher plants possess a low-affinity binding site at the nuclear pore that specifically binds to several classes of functional NLSs. By the use of crosslinking reagents and a radiolabeled peptide to the bipartite NLS from the endogenous plant transcription factor Opaque2, two NLS binding proteins (NBPs) of 50-60 kDa and at least two NBPs of 30-40 kDa were identified. Competition studies indicated that labeling was specific for the functional NLS but not a mutant NLS impaired in vivo or a peptide unrelated to NLSs. Also, the apparent dissociation constant (100-300 microM) for labeling was similar to that of the binding site. Proteins of similar mass were labeled with two different crosslinking reagents, and concentration and time studies indicated that these NBPs were distinct proteins and not aggregates. Treatment with salt, detergent, or urea before or during NLS binding demonstrated that the properties of the binding site and the NBPs were identical. This tight correlation strongly indicates that some or all of the NBPs constitute the nuclear pore binding site. Overall, our results indicate that some components of NLS recognition are located at the nuclear pores in higher plants.

Light inactivation of Arabidopsis photomorphogenic repressor COP1 involves a cell-specific regulation of its nucleocytoplasmic partitioning

Arabidopsis COP1 acts as a repressor of photomorphogenesis in darkness, and light stimuli abrogate this suppressive action. COP1, when fused to beta-glucuronidase (GUS), is enriched in the nucleus in darkness, but not in the light, in hypocotyl cells of Arabidopsis seedlings and epidermal cells of onion bulbs. In Arabidopsis hypocotyl cells, the nuclear GUS-COP1 level changes in response to dark-light transitions and quantitatively correlates with the extent of repression of photomorphogenic development. In root cells, GUS-COP1 is constitutively nuclear, consistent with an established role of COP1 in suppressing root chloroplast development in both light and darkness. We conclude that COP1 acts inside the nucleus to suppress photomorphogenesis and that light inactivation of COP1 involves a cell type-specific control of its nucleocytoplasmic partitioning.