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Anamika K, Garnier N, Srinivasan N. Functional diversity of human protein kinase splice variants marks significant expansion of human kinome. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:622. [PMID: 20028505 PMCID: PMC2805699 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protein kinases are involved in diverse spectrum of cellular processes. Availability of draft version of the human genomic data in the year 2001 enabled recognition of repertoire of protein kinases. However, over the years the human genomic data is being refined and the current release of human genomic data has helped us to recognize a larger repertoire of over 900 human protein kinases represented mainly by splice variants. RESULTS Many of these identified protein kinases are alternatively spliced products. Interestingly, some of the human kinase splice variants appear to be significantly diverged in terms of their functional properties as represented by incorporation or absence of one or more domains. Many sets of protein kinase splice variants have substantially different domain organization and in a few sets of splice variants kinase domains belong to different subfamilies of kinases suggesting potential participation in different signal transduction pathways. CONCLUSIONS Addition or deletion of a domain between splice variants of multi-domain kinases appears to be a means of generating differences in the functional features of otherwise similar kinases. It is intriguing that marked sequence diversity within the catalytic regions of some of the splice variant kinases result in kinases belonging to different subfamilies. These human kinase splice variants with different functions might contribute to diversity of eukaryotic cellular signaling.
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Jiang Y, Kumada T, Cameron DB, Komuro H. Cerebellar granule cell migration and the effects of alcohol. Dev Neurosci 2008; 30:7-23. [PMID: 18075250 DOI: 10.1159/000109847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2006] [Accepted: 01/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In the developing brain the majority of neurons migrate from their birthplace to their final destination. This active movement is essential for the formation of cortical layers and nuclei. The impairment of migration does not affect the viability of neurons but often results in abnormal differentiation. The proper migration of neurons requires the orchestrated activities of multiple cellular and molecular events, such as pathway selection, the activation of specific receptors and channels, and the assembly and disassembly of cytoskeletal components. The migration of neurons is very vulnerable to exposure to environmental toxins, such as alcohol. In this article, we will focus on recent developments in the migration of cerebellar granule cells. First, we will describe when, where and how granule cells migrate through different cortical layers to reach their final destination. Second, we will present how internal programs control the sequential changes in granule cell migration. Third, we will review the roles of external guidance cues and transmembrane signals in granule cell migration. Finally, we will reveal mechanisms by which alcohol exposure impairs granule cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulan Jiang
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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Yang F, He X, Feng L, Mizuno K, Liu XW, Russell J, Xiong WC, Lu B. PI-3 kinase and IP3 are both necessary and sufficient to mediate NT3-induced synaptic potentiation. Nat Neurosci 2001; 4:19-28. [PMID: 11135641 DOI: 10.1038/82858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Signaling mechanisms underlying neurotrophic regulation of synaptic transmission are not fully understood. Here we show that neurotrophin-3 (NT3)-induced potentiation of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular synapses is blocked by inhibition of phosphoinositide-3 kinase, phospholipase C-gamma or the downstream IP3 receptors of phospholipase C-gamma, but not by inhibition of MAP kinase. However, neither stimulation of Ca2+ release from intracellular stores by photolysis of caged IP3, nor expression of a constitutively active phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K*) in presynaptic motoneurons alone is sufficient to enhance transmission. Photo-uncaging of IP3 in neurons expressing PI3K* elicits a marked synaptic potentiation, mimicking the NT3 effect. These results reveal an involvement of PI3 kinase in transmitter release, and suggest that concomitant activation of PI3 kinase and IP3 receptors is both necessary and sufficient to mediate the NT3-induced synaptic potentiation.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Calcium/metabolism
- Calcium Channels/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Enzyme Activation/drug effects
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate/analogs & derivatives
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate/metabolism
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate/pharmacology
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors
- Isoenzymes/metabolism
- Long-Term Potentiation/drug effects
- Long-Term Potentiation/physiology
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Motor Neurons/cytology
- Motor Neurons/drug effects
- Motor Neurons/metabolism
- Neuromuscular Junction/cytology
- Neuromuscular Junction/embryology
- Neuromuscular Junction/metabolism
- Neurotrophin 3/metabolism
- Neurotrophin 3/pharmacology
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/genetics
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Phospholipase C gamma
- Photolysis
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Synaptic Transmission/physiology
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
- Xenopus
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Affiliation(s)
- F Yang
- Unit on Synapse Development & Plasticity, Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, NICHD, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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4
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Wai DH, Knezevich SR, Lucas T, Jansen B, Kay RJ, Sorensen PH. The ETV6-NTRK3 gene fusion encodes a chimeric protein tyrosine kinase that transforms NIH3T3 cells. Oncogene 2000; 19:906-15. [PMID: 10702799 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1203396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/1999] [Revised: 11/18/1999] [Accepted: 12/08/1999] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The congenital fibrosarcoma t(12;15)(p13;q25) rearrangement splices the ETV6 (TEL) gene on chromosome 12p13 in frame with the NTRK3 (TRKC) neurotrophin-3 receptor gene on chromosome 15q25. Resultant ETV6-NTRK3 fusion transcripts encode the helix - loop - helix (HLH) dimerization domain of ETV6 fused to the protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) domain of NTRK3. We show here that ETV6-NTRK3 homodimerizes and is capable of forming heterodimers with wild-type ETV6. Moreover, ETV6-NTRK3 has PTK activity and is autophosphorylated on tyrosine residues. To determine if the fusion protein has transforming activity, NIH3T3 cells were infected with recombinant retroviral vectors carrying the full-length ETV6-NTRK3 cDNA. These cells exhibited a transformed phenotype, grew macroscopic colonies in soft agar, and formed tumors in severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. We hypothesize that chimeric proteins mediate transformation by dysregulating NTRK3 signal transduction pathways via ligand-independent dimerization and PTK activation. To test this hypothesis, we expressed a series of ETV6-NTRK3 mutants in NIH3T3 cells and assessed their transformation activities. Deletion of the ETV6 HLH domain abolished dimer formation with either ETV6 or ETV6-NTRK3, and cells expressing this mutant protein were morphologically non-transformed and failed to grow in soft agar. An ATP-binding mutant failed to autophosphorylate and completely lacked transformation activity. Mutants of the three NTRK3 PTK activation-loop tyrosines had variable PTK activity but had limited to absent transformation activity. Of a series of signaling molecules well known to bind to wild-type NTRK3, only phospholipase-Cgamma (PLCgamma) associated with ETV6-NTRK3. However, a PTK active mutant unable to bind PLCgamma did not show defects in transformation activity. Our studies confirm that ETV6-NTRK3 is a transforming protein that requires both an intact dimerization domain and a functional PTK domain for transformation activity. Oncogene (2000) 19, 906 - 915.
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MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Animals
- Cell Line, Transformed/enzymology
- Cell Line, Transformed/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- GRB2 Adaptor Protein
- Helix-Loop-Helix Motifs/genetics
- Humans
- Isoenzymes/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, SCID
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/chemistry
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/genetics
- Oncogene Proteins, Fusion/metabolism
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Phospholipase C gamma
- Protein Kinases/genetics
- Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Proteins/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-ets
- Receptor, trkC/biosynthesis
- Receptor, trkC/chemistry
- Receptor, trkC/genetics
- Receptor, trkC/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Repressor Proteins
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Translocation, Genetic
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
- src Homology Domains/genetics
- ETS Translocation Variant 6 Protein
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Wai
- Department of Pathology, 4480 Oak St., British Columbia's Children's Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia V6H 3V4, Canada
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5
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Ikegwuonu FI, Christou M, Jefcoate CR. Regulation of cytochrome P4501B1 (CYP1B1) in mouse embryo fibroblast (C3H10T1/2) cells by protein kinase C (PKC). Biochem Pharmacol 1999; 57:619-30. [PMID: 10037446 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(98)00344-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The effects of co-treatment of C3H10T1/2 (10T1/2) cells with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) on the expression of the novel cytochrome P4501B1 (CYP1B1) were investigated. As monitored by CYP1B1-catalyzed 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA) metabolism, TPA suppressed basal and TCDD-induced DMBA metabolism in a concentration-dependent manner, with a maximum inhibitory concentration of 100 nM. The suppression of CYP1B1 catalytic activity occurred at two time points during which protein kinase C (PKC) was activated and down-regulated in these cells as judged by analyses of cellular PKC content and PKC-inhibitor (chelerythrine chloride)-influenced suppression of CYP1B1 catalytic activity. Experiments in which TCDD and benzanthracene (BA)-induced DMBA metabolism were monitored in PKCbeta1-overexpressing 10T1/2 cells revealed that the suppression of CYP1B1 activity is a consequence of cellular PKC elevation. This suppression phenomenon could be accounted for by PKC-mediated suppression of TCDD-induced CYP1B1 mRNA and apoprotein and of nuclear translocation of the Ah-receptor. In contrast, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) proteins ERKs 1 and 2 were stimulated by TCDD under conditions in which PKC was activated. Collectively, our results suggest that PKC participates in the regulation of CYP1B1 in 10T1/2 cells, positively by directly suppressing the Ah-receptor signaling pathway, followed by an indirect or negative activation of the MAPK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- F I Ikegwuonu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison 53706, USA
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Acetylcholinesterase gene expression in axotomized rat facial motoneurons is differentially regulated by neurotrophins: correlation with trkB and trkC mRNA levels and isoforms. J Neurosci 1998. [PMID: 9822749 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.18-23-09936.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the potential influences of muscle-derived neurotrophins on the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) gene expression of adult rat motoneurons. Seven days after facial nerve transection, both AChE mRNA and enzyme activity levels were markedly reduced in untreated and vehicle-treated facial motoneurons, suggesting positive regulation of motoneuron AChE expression by muscle-derived factors. Because skeletal muscle is a source of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), NT-4/5, and BDNF, these neurotrophins were individually infused onto the proximal nerve stump for 7 d, beginning at the time of axotomy. The trkB ligands NT-4/5 and BDNF prevented the downregulation of AChE mRNA and enzymatic activity, as determined by in situ hybridization, biochemical assay, and histochemical visualization of enzyme activity. In contrast, NT-3 had limited effects, and NGF was without effect. Because motoneurons normally express both trkB and trkC receptors and the trkC ligand NT-3 is the most abundant muscle-derived neurotrophin, we investigated possible reasons for the limited effects of NT-3. In situ hybridization and reverse transcription-PCR both revealed a downregulation of trkC mRNA in axotomized motoneurons, which contrasted the upregulation of trkB expression. Furthermore, isoforms of trkC were detected carrying insertions within their kinase domains, known to limit certain trkC-mediated signal transduction pathways. Because the changes in trkB and trkC mRNA levels were not significantly altered by neurotrophin infusions, it is unlikely they were induced by loss of muscle-derived neurotrophins. These results demonstrate that NT-4/5 and BDNF stimulate AChE gene expression in motoneurons and support the concept that muscle-derived trkB ligands modulate the cholinergic phenotype of their innervating motoneurons.
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7
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Fernandes KJ, Kobayashi NR, Jasmin BJ, Tetzlaff W. Acetylcholinesterase gene expression in axotomized rat facial motoneurons is differentially regulated by neurotrophins: correlation with trkB and trkC mRNA levels and isoforms. J Neurosci 1998; 18:9936-47. [PMID: 9822749 PMCID: PMC6793312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined the potential influences of muscle-derived neurotrophins on the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) gene expression of adult rat motoneurons. Seven days after facial nerve transection, both AChE mRNA and enzyme activity levels were markedly reduced in untreated and vehicle-treated facial motoneurons, suggesting positive regulation of motoneuron AChE expression by muscle-derived factors. Because skeletal muscle is a source of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), NT-4/5, and BDNF, these neurotrophins were individually infused onto the proximal nerve stump for 7 d, beginning at the time of axotomy. The trkB ligands NT-4/5 and BDNF prevented the downregulation of AChE mRNA and enzymatic activity, as determined by in situ hybridization, biochemical assay, and histochemical visualization of enzyme activity. In contrast, NT-3 had limited effects, and NGF was without effect. Because motoneurons normally express both trkB and trkC receptors and the trkC ligand NT-3 is the most abundant muscle-derived neurotrophin, we investigated possible reasons for the limited effects of NT-3. In situ hybridization and reverse transcription-PCR both revealed a downregulation of trkC mRNA in axotomized motoneurons, which contrasted the upregulation of trkB expression. Furthermore, isoforms of trkC were detected carrying insertions within their kinase domains, known to limit certain trkC-mediated signal transduction pathways. Because the changes in trkB and trkC mRNA levels were not significantly altered by neurotrophin infusions, it is unlikely they were induced by loss of muscle-derived neurotrophins. These results demonstrate that NT-4/5 and BDNF stimulate AChE gene expression in motoneurons and support the concept that muscle-derived trkB ligands modulate the cholinergic phenotype of their innervating motoneurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Fernandes
- CORD (Collaboration on Repair Discoveries), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
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8
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Williams AG, Hargreaves AC, Gunn-Moore FJ, Tavaré JM. Stimulation of neuropeptide Y gene expression by brain-derived neurotrophic factor requires both the phospholipase Cgamma and Shc binding sites on its receptor, TrkB. Biochem J 1998; 333 ( Pt 3):505-9. [PMID: 9677306 PMCID: PMC1219610 DOI: 10.1042/bj3330505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In PC12 cells, it has been previously reported that nerve growth factor stimulates neuropeptide Y (NPY) gene expression. In the current study we examined the signalling pathways involved in this effect by transiently expressing in PC12 cells the receptor (TrkB) for the related neurotrophin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF caused a 3-fold induction of luciferase expression from a transiently co-transfected plasmid possessing the firefly luciferase gene under the control of the NPY promoter. This effect of BDNF was completely blocked by either a Y484F mutation in TrkB (which blocks high-affinity Shc binding to TrkB) or by a Y785F substitution [which blocks the binding, phosphorylation and activation of phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma)]. Activation of the NPY promoter by neurotrophin-3 in PC12 cells overexpressing TrkC was also completely blocked by a naturally occurring kinase insert which prevents the high-affinity binding of Shc and PLCgamma. NPY promoter activation by BDNF was blocked by PD98059, suggesting a role for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase). Stimulation of NPY gene expression by PMA, but not by BDNF, was blocked by Ro-31-8220, a protein kinase C inhibitor, excluding a role for this serine/threonine protein kinase in the effect of BDNF. In addition, BDNF did not cause an elevation in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. Taken together, our results suggest that stimulation of the NPY promoter by BDNF requires the simultaneous activation of two distinct pathways; one involves Shc and MAP kinase, and the other appears to be PLCgamma-independent but requires an intact tyrosine-785 on TrkB and so may involve an effector of TrkB signalling that remains to be identified.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Adaptor Proteins, Vesicular Transport
- Animals
- Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/pharmacology
- Calcium/metabolism
- Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Enzyme Activation
- Gene Expression/drug effects
- Isoenzymes/metabolism
- Mutation
- Nerve Growth Factors/pharmacology
- Neuropeptide Y/biosynthesis
- PC12 Cells
- Phospholipase C gamma
- Phosphorylation
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Protein Kinase C/metabolism
- Proteins/metabolism
- Rats
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/biosynthesis
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/physiology
- Receptor, trkB
- Receptor, trkC
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/metabolism
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/physiology
- Shc Signaling Adaptor Proteins
- Src Homology 2 Domain-Containing, Transforming Protein 1
- Stimulation, Chemical
- Transfection
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Williams
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
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9
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Rice F, Albers K, Davis B, Silos-Santiago I, Wilkinson G, LeMaster A, Ernfors P, Smeyne R, Aldskogius H, Phillips H, Barbacid M, DeChiara T, Yancopoulos G, Dunne C, Fundin B. Differential dependency of unmyelinated and Aδ epidermal and upper dermal innervation on neurotrophins, trk receptors, and p75LNGFR. Dev Biol 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0012-1606(98)80029-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gunn-Moore FJ, Tavaré JM. Progress toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of neurotrophic factor signalling. Cell Signal 1998; 10:151-7. [PMID: 9607137 DOI: 10.1016/s0898-6568(97)00114-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of action of the neurotrophic factors is central to unravelling of the mysteries of some of the neurodegenerative disorders. In this review we will discuss recent advances in our understanding of neurotrophic factor signalling in primary cultured neurons, in particular those from the superior cervical and dorsal root ganglia, as well as cerebellar granule cells, cortical neurons and oligodendrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Gunn-Moore
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, UK
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Gunn-Moore FJ, Williams AG, Toms NJ, Tavaré JM. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and p70S6 kinase is not correlated with cerebellar granule cell survival. Biochem J 1997; 324 ( Pt 2):365-9. [PMID: 9182692 PMCID: PMC1218440 DOI: 10.1042/bj3240365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the role of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase in the survival of cerebellar granule cells in primary culture. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and insulin, but not epidermal growth factor (EGF), promoted the survival of P6 cerebellar granule neurons. BDNF promoted a sustained activation of MAP kinase, whereas that induced by EGF was only transient. Insulin promoted a small but transient activation of MAP kinase that was completely blocked by PD98059, an inhibitor of MAP kinase kinase activation. PD98059 had no effect on the insulin- or BDNF-induced survival of cerebellar granule cells. We also investigated the role of p70S6 kinase in survival. The activation of p70S6 kinase by EGF was transient, whereas BDNF and insulin promoted a sustained activation of p70S6 kinase. Rapamycin, which blocked p70S6 kinase activation, had no effect on the BDNF- or insulin-induced survival of cerebellar granule cells. We conclude that sustained activation of MAP kinase is not correlated with the survival response of cerebellar granule cells; indeed insulin-mediated survival is independent of MAP kinase. Survival of cerebellar granule cells is also independent of the activation of p70S6 kinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Gunn-Moore
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, U.K
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