The effects of truncations of the small subunit on m-calpain activity and heterodimer formation

Human calpain-3 and its structural plasticity: dissociation of a homohexamer into dimers on binding titin

Calpain-3 is an intracellular Ca2+-dependent cysteine protease abundant in skeletal muscle. Its physiological role in the sarcomere is thought to include removing damaged muscle proteins after exercise. Loss-of-function mutations in its single-copy gene cause a dystrophy of the limb-girdle muscles. These mutations, of which there are over 500 in humans, are spread all along this 94-kDa multi-domain protein that includes three 40+-residue sequences (NS, IS1, and IS2). The latter sequences are unique to this calpain isoform and are hypersensitive to proteolysis. To investigate the whole enzyme structure and how mutations might affect its activity, we produce the proteolytically more stable 85-kDa calpain-3 ΔNS ΔIS1 form with a C129A inactivating mutation as a recombinant protein in E. coli. During size-exclusion chromatography, this calpain-3 was consistently eluted as a much larger 0.5-MDa complex rather than the expected 170-kDa dimer. Its size, which was confirmed by SEC-MALS, Blue Native PAGE, and AUC, made the complex amenable to single-particle cryo-EM analysis. From two data sets, we obtained a 3.85-Å reconstruction map that shows the complex is a trimer of calpain-3 dimers with six penta-EF-hand domains at its core. Calpain-3 has been reported to bind the N2A region of the giant muscle protein titin. When this 37-kDa region of titin was co-expressed with calpain-3 the multimer was reduced to a 320-kDa particle, which appears to be the calpain dimer bound to several copies of the titin fragment. We suggest that newly synthesized calpain-3 is kept as an inactive hexamer until it binds the N2A region of titin in the sarcomere, whereupon it dissociates into functional dimers.

The intersection between cysteine proteases, Ca2+ signalling and cancer cell apoptosis

Apoptosis is a highly complex and regulated cell death pathway that safeguards the physiological balance between life and death. Over the past decade, the role of Ca2+ signalling in apoptosis and the mechanisms involved have become clearer. The initiation and execution of apoptosis is coordinated by three distinct groups of cysteines proteases: the caspase, calpain and cathepsin families. Beyond its physiological importance, the ability to evade apoptosis is a prominent hallmark of cancer cells. In this review, we will explore the involvement of Ca2+ in the regulation of caspase, calpain and cathepsin activity, and how the actions of these cysteine proteases alter intracellular Ca2+ handling during apoptosis. We will also explore how apoptosis resistance can be achieved in cancer cells through deregulation of cysteine proteases and remodelling of the Ca2+ signalling toolkit.

Calpain as a therapeutic target in cancer

INTRODUCTION

Calpain-1 and calpain-2 are prototypical classical isoforms of the calpain family of calcium-activated cysteine proteases. Their substrate proteins participate in a wide range of cellular processes, including transcription, survival, proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion. Dysregulated calpain activity has been implicated in tumorigenesis, suggesting that calpains may be promising therapeutic targets.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers clinical and basic research studies implicating calpain-1 and calpain-2 expression and activity in tumorigenesis and metastasis. We highlight isoform specific functions and provide an overview of substrates and cancer-related signalling pathways affected by calpain-mediated proteolytic cleavage. We also discuss efforts to develop clinically relevant calpain specific inhibitors and spotlight the challenges facing inhibitor development.

EXPERT OPINION

Rationale for targeting calpain-1 and calpain-2 in cancer is supported by pre-clinical and clinical studies demonstrating that calpain inhibition has the potential to attenuate carcinogenesis and block metastasis of aggressive tumors. The wide range of substrates and cleavage products, paired with inconsistencies in model systems, underscores the need for more complete understanding of physiological substrates and how calpain cleavage alters their function in cellular processes. The development of isoform specific calpain inhibitors remains an important goal with therapeutic potential in cancer and other diseases.

Affinity purification of human m-calpain through an intrinsically disordered inhibitor, calpastatin

Calpains are calcium-activated proteases that have biomedical and biotechnological potential. Their activity is tightly regulated by their endogenous inhibitor, calpastatin that binds to the enzyme only in the presence of calcium. Conventional approaches to purify calpain comprise multiple chromatographic steps, and are labor-intensive, leading to low yields. Here we report a new purification procedure for the human m-calpain based on its reversible calcium-mediated interaction with the intrinsically disordered calpastatin. We exploit the specific binding properties of human calpastatin domain 1 (hCSD1) to physically capture human m-calpain from a complex biological mixture. The dissociation of the complex is mediated by chelating calcium, upon which heterodimeric calpain elutes while hCSD1 remains immobilized onto the stationary phase. This novel affinity-based purification was compared to the conventional multistep purification strategy and we find that it is robust, it yields a homogeneous preparation, it can be scaled up easily and it rests on a non-disruptive step that maintains close to physiological conditions that allow further biophysical and functional studies.

Adrenodemedullation activates the Ca2+-dependent proteolysis in soleus muscles from rats exposed to cold

Previous studies have shown that catecholamines in vivo and in vitro inhibit the activity of Ca2+-dependent proteolysis in skeletal muscles under basal conditions. In the present study we sought to investigate the role of catecholamines in regulating the Ca2+-dependent proteolysis in soleus and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles from rats acutely exposed to cold. Overall proteolysis, the activity of proteolytic systems, protein levels and gene expression of different components of the calpain system were investigated in rats submitted to adrenodemedullation (ADMX) and exposed to cold for 24 h. ADMX drastically reduced plasma epinephrine and promoted an additional increase in the overall proteolysis, which was already increased by cold exposure. The rise in the rate of protein degradation in soleus muscles from adrenodemedullated cold-exposed rats was caused by the high activity of the Ca2+-dependent proteolysis, which was associated with the generation of a 145-kDa cleaved α-fodrin fragment, a typical calpain substrate, and lower protein levels and mRNA expression of calpastatin, the endogenous calpain inhibitor. Unlike that observed for soleus muscles, the cold-induced muscle proteolysis in EDL was not affected by ADMX. In isolated soleus muscle, clenbuterol, a selective β2-adrenoceptor agonist, reduced the basal Ca2+-dependent proteolysis and completely abolished the activation of this pathway by the cholinergic agonist carbachol. These data suggest that catecholamines released from the adrenal medulla inhibit cold-induced protein breakdown in soleus, and this antiproteolytic effect on the Ca2+-dependent proteolytic system is apparently mediated through expression of calpastatin, which leads to suppression of calpain activation.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY Although many effects of the sympathetic nervous system on muscle physiology are known, the role of catecholamines in skeletal muscle protein metabolism has been scarcely studied. We suggest that catecholamines released from adrenal medulla may be of particular importance for restraining the activation of the Ca2+-dependent proteolysis in soleus muscles during acute cold exposure. This finding helps us to understand the adaptive changes that occur in skeletal muscle protein metabolism during cold stress.

Allosteric inhibitors of calpains: Reevaluating inhibition by PD150606 and LSEAL

BACKGROUND

The mercaptoacrylate calpain inhibitor, PD150606, has been shown by X-ray crystallography to bind to a hydrophobic groove in the enzyme's penta-EF-hand domains far away from the catalytic cleft and has been previously described as an uncompetitive inhibitor of calpains. The penta-peptide LSEAL has been reported to be an inhibitor of calpain and was predicted to bind in the same hydrophobic groove. The X-ray crystal structure of calpain-2 bound to its endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin, shows that calpastatin also binds to the hydrophobic grooves in the two penta-EF-hand domains, but its inhibitory domain binds to the protease core domains and blocks the active site cleft directly.

METHODS

The mechanisms of inhibition by PD150606 and LSEAL were investigated using steady-state kinetics of cleavage of a fluorogenic substrate by calpain-2 and the protease core of calpain1, as well as by examining the inhibition of casein hydrolysis by calpain and the autoproteolysis of calpain.

RESULTS

PD150606 inhibits both full-length calpain-2 and the protease core of calpain-1 with an apparent noncompetitive kinetic model. The penta-peptide LSEAL failed to inhibit either whole calpain or its protease core in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

PD150606 cannot inhibit cleavage by calpain-2 of small substrates via binding to the penta-EF-hand domain.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

PD150606 is often described as a calpain-specific inhibitor due to its ability to target the penta-EF-hand domains of calpain, but we show that it must be acting at a site on the protease core domain instead.

Calpain chronicle--an enzyme family under multidisciplinary characterization

Calpain is an intracellular Ca2+-dependent cysteine protease (EC 3.4.22.17; Clan CA, family C02) discovered in 1964. It was also called CANP (Ca2+-activated neutral protease) as well as CASF, CDP, KAF, etc. until 1990. Calpains are found in almost all eukaryotes and a few bacteria, but not in archaebacteria. Calpains have a limited proteolytic activity, and function to transform or modulate their substrates' structures and activities; they are therefore called, "modulator proteases." In the human genome, 15 genes--CAPN1, CAPN2, etc.--encode a calpain-like protease domain. Their products are calpain homologs with divergent structures and various combinations of functional domains, including Ca2+-binding and microtubule-interaction domains. Genetic studies have linked calpain deficiencies to a variety of defects in many different organisms, including lethality, muscular dystrophies, gastropathy, and diabetes. This review of the study of calpains focuses especially on recent findings about their structure-function relationships. These discoveries have been greatly aided by the development of 3D structural studies and genetic models.

Genetic disruption of calpain correlates with loss of membrane blebbing and differential expression of RhoGDI-1, cofilin and tropomyosin

Dynamic regulation of the actin cytoskeleton is important for cell motility, spreading and the formation of membrane surface extensions such as lamellipodia, ruffles and blebs. The ubiquitous calpains contribute to integrin-mediated cytoskeletal remodelling during cell migration and spreading, by cleavage of focal adhesion components and signalling molecules. In the present study, the live-cell morphology of calpain-knockout and wild-type cells was examined by time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, and a role of calpain in mediating the formation of sporadic membrane blebs was established. Membrane blebbing was significantly reduced in calpain-knockout cells, and genetic rescue fully restored the wild-type phenotype in knockout cells. Proteomic comparison of wild-type and knockout cells identified decreased levels of RhoGDI-1 (Rho GDP-dissociation inhibitor) and cofilin 1, and increased levels of tropomyosin in calpain-knockout cells, suggesting a role of calpain in regulating membrane extensions involving these proteins. RhoGDI, cofilin and tropomyosin are known regulators of actin filament dynamics and membrane extensions. The reduced levels of RhoGDI-1 in calpain-knockout cells observed by proteome analysis were confirmed by immunoblotting. Genetic rescue of the calpain-knockout cells enhanced RhoGDI-1-expression 2-fold above that normally present in wild-type cells. These results suggest a regulatory connection between calpain and RhoGDI-1 in promoting formation of membrane blebs.

NRF-1, and AP-1 regulate the promoter of the human calpain small subunit 1 (CAPNS1) gene

Ubiquitously expressed micro- and m-calpain are cysteine proteases with broad functions in cell spreading, migration, proliferation, apoptosis, and in tumor invasion. They are heterodimers, with a distinct large 80-kDa catalytic, and a common small 28-kDa regulatory subunit (Capn4/CAPNS1). CAPNS1 is required to maintain stability and activity of both calpains. Despite its biological importance, the transcriptional regulation of this gene has not been studied, and the CAPNS1 promoter has not yet been characterized. In this study, we identified the main transcriptional start site, and cloned and characterized the ~2.0 kb upstream region of the CAPNS1 gene. Deletion analysis identified the core promoter located within region -187/+174. Site-directed mutagenesis, EMSA- and supershift analysis identified Sp1-, NRF-1-, and AP-1-binding elements within the CAPNS1 core promoter. Binding of NRF-1, Sp1 and AP-1 to the natural core promoter was confirmed by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Site-directed mutagenesis at the NRF-1 site in HeLa and MCF7 cells substantially reduced core promoter activity by 70%, whereas mutation of the AP-1-binding and Sp1-binding site reduced promoter activity by 50% and 30%, respectively. Double mutation of the NRF-1 and the AP-1 site reduced promoter activity by 90%. In Drosophila SL2 cells, ectopic expression of NRF-1 led to a significant induction of CAPNS1 promoter activity. Furthermore, an siRNA against NRF-1 substantially reduced promoter activity in HeLa cells, which was paralleled by a significant downregulation of CAPNS1 mRNA. These results reveal that especially NRF-1, along with AP-1 and, to a minor extent, an Sp1 site, is essential for human CAPNS1 promoter activity and gene expression.

N terminus of calpain 1 is a mitochondrial targeting sequence

The ubiquitous m- and mu-calpains are thought to be localized in the cytosolic compartment, as is their endogenous inhibitor calpastatin. Previously, mu-calpain was found to be enriched in mitochondrial fractions isolated from rat cerebral cortex and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, but the submitochondrial localization of mu-calpain was not determined. In the present study, submitochondrial fractionation and digitonin permeabilization studies indicated that both calpain 1 and calpain small subunit 1, which together form mu-calpain, are present in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. The N terminus of calpain 1 contains an amphipathic alpha-helical domain, and is distinct from the N terminus of calpain 2. Calpain 1, but not calpain 2, was imported into mitochondria. Removal of the N-terminal 22 amino acids of calpain 1 blocked the mitochondrial calpain import, while addition of this N-terminal region to calpain 2 or green fluorescent protein enabled mitochondrial import. The N terminus of calpain 1 was not processed following mitochondrial import, but was removed by autolysis following calpain activation. Calpain small subunit 1 was not directly imported into mitochondria, but was imported in the presence of calpain 1. The presence of a mitochondrial targeting sequence in the N-terminal region of calpain 1 is consistent with the localization of mu-calpain to the mitochondrial intermembrane space and provides new insight into the possible functions of this cysteine protease.

Molecular mechanisms of euplotin C-induced apoptosis: involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and proteases

The metabolite euplotin C (EC), isolated from the marine ciliate Euplotes crassus, is a powerful cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic agent in tumour cell lines. For instance, EC induces the rapid depletion of ryanodine Ca(2+) stores, the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, and the activation of caspase-3, leading to apoptosis. The purpose of this study was to gain further insight into the mechanisms of EC-induced apoptosis in rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. We found that EC increases Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and that Bax is responsible of the EC-induced dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsi(m)). In addition, EC induces the generation of reactive oxygene species (ROS) without involvement of p53. The inhibition of ROS generation prevents, at least in part, the pro-apoptotic effects of EC as well as the effects of EC on Bax, Deltapsi(m) and intracellular free Ca(2+), indicating a cross-talk between different pathways. However, definition of the effector cascade turns out to be more complex than expected and caspase-independent mechanisms, acting in parallel with caspases, should also be considered. Among them, EC increases the expression/activity of calpains downstream of ROS generation, although calpains seem to exert protective effects.

Ubiquitous calpains promote caspase-12 and JNK activation during endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis

Ubiquitously expressed mu- and m-calpain proteases are implicated in development and apoptosis. They consist of 80-kDa catalytic subunits encoded by the capn1 and capn2 genes, respectively, and a common 28-kDa regulatory subunit encoded by the capn4 gene. The regulatory subunit is required to maintain the stability and activity of mu- and m-calpains. Accordingly, genetic disruption of capn4 in the mouse eliminated both ubiquitous calpain activities. In embryonic fibroblasts derived from these mice, calpain deficiency correlated with resistance to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis, and this was directly related to a calpain requirement for activation of both caspase-12 and the ASK1-JNK cascade. This study provides compelling genetic evidence for calpain's role in caspase-12 activation at the ER, and reveals a novel role for the ubiquitous calpains in ER-stress induced apoptosis and JNK activation.

m-Calpain is required for preimplantation embryonic development in mice

Background

μ-calpain and m-calpain are ubiquitously expressed proteases implicated in cellular migration, cell cycle progression, degenerative processes and cell death. These heterodimeric enzymes are composed of distinct catalytic subunits, encoded by Capn1 (μ-calpain) or Capn2 (m-calpain), and a common regulatory subunit encoded by Capn4. Disruption of the mouse Capn4 gene abolished both μ-calpain and m-calpain activity, and resulted in embryonic lethality, thereby suggesting essential roles for one or both of these enzymes during mammalian embryogenesis. Disruption of the Capn1 gene produced viable, fertile mice implying that either m-calpain could compensate for the loss of μ-calpain, or that the loss of m-calpain was responsible for death of Capn4^-/- mice.

Results

To distinguish between the alternatives described above, we deleted an essential coding region in the mouse Capn2 gene in embryonic stems cells and transmitted this mutant allele through the mouse germline. Breeding of heterozygous animals failed to produce homozygous mutant live offspring or implanted embryos. A nested PCR genotyping protocol was established, and homozygous preimplantation mutant embryos were detected at the morula but not at the blastocyts stage.

Conclusion

We conclude that homozygous disruption of the Capn2 gene results in pre-implantation embryonic lethality between the morula and blastocyst stage. This establishes that μ-calpain and m-calpain have distinct functions, and that m-calpain is vital for development of the preimplantation murine embryo.

μ-Calpain binds to lipid bilayers via the exposed hydrophobic surface of its Ca2+-activated conformation

Mu- and m-calpain are cysteine proteases requiring micro- and millimolar Ca2+ concentrations for their activation in vitro. Among other mechanisms, interaction of calpains with membrane phospholipids has been proposed to facilitate their activation by nanomolar [Ca2+] in living cells. Here the interaction of non-autolysing, C115A active-site mutated heterodimeric human mu-calpain with phospholipid bilayers was studied in vitro using protein-to-lipid fluorescence resonance energy transfer and surface plasmon resonance. Binding to liposomes was Ca2+-dependent, but not selective for specific phospholipid head groups. [Ca2+]0.5 for association with lipid bilayers was not lower than that required for the exposure of hydrophobic surface (detected by TNS fluorescence) or for enzyme activity in the absence of lipids. Deletion of domain V reduced the lipid affinity of the isolated small subunit (600-fold) and of the heterodimer (10- to 15-fold), thus confirming the proposed role of domain V for membrane binding. Unexpectedly, mutations in the acidic loop of the 'C2-like' domain III, a putative Ca2+ and phospholipid-binding site, did not affect lipid affinity. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that in vitro membrane binding of mu-calpain is due to the exposed hydrophobic surface of the active conformation and does not reduce the Ca2+ requirement for activation.

Conditional disruption of ubiquitous calpains in the mouse

Ubiquitous mu- and m-calpain proteases are implicated in development and apoptosis. They are heterodimers consisting of 80-kDa catalytic subunits encoded by capn1 and capn2, respectively, and a common 28-kDa regulatory subunit encoded by capn4. The regulatory subunit is required to maintain stability and activity of mu- and m-calpains; thus, genetic disruption of capn4 was predicted to eliminate both calpain activities. Germline disruption of capn4 caused embryonic lethality, hampering the use of those mouse models to explore physiological calpain functions. Here we describe a loxP/cre conditional capn4 targeted mouse model that enables tissue-specific and temporal deletion of calpain activity. Disruption of the floxed capn4 gene using a ubiquitous cytomegalovirus promoter driven Cre recombinase transgene led to midgestation embryonic lethality. Fibroblasts from these embryos lacked detectable regulatory subunit expression, had reduced levels of the mu- and m-calpain catalytic subunits, and had no detectable mu- and m-calpain activities. These defects were corrected with a capn4-encoding lentivirus.

Electrostatic interactions of domain III stabilize the inactive conformation of mu-calpain

The ubiquitous mu- and m-calpains are Ca2+-dependent cysteine proteases. They are activated via rearrangement of the catalytic domain II induced by cooperative binding of Ca2+ to several sites of the molecule. Based on the crystallographic structures, a cluster of acidic residues in domain III, the acidic loop, has been proposed to function as part of an electrostatic switch in the activation process. Experimental support for this hypothesis was obtained by site-directed mutagenesis of recombinant human mu-calpain expressed with the baculovirus system in insect cells. Replacing the acidic residues of the loop individually with alanine resulted in an up to 7-fold reduction of the half-maximal Ca2+ concentration required for conformational changes (probed with 2-p-toluidinylnapthalene-6-sulphonate fluorescence) and for enzymic activity. Along with structural information, the contribution of individual acidic residues to the Ca2+ requirement for activation revealed that interactions of the acidic loop with basic residues in the catalytic subdomain IIb and in the pre-transducer region of domain III stabilize the structure of inactive micro-calpain. Disruption of these electrostatic interactions makes the molecule more flexible and increases its Ca2+ sensitivity. It is proposed that the acidic loop and the opposing basic loop of domain III constitute a double-headed electrostatic switch controlling the assembly of the catalytic domain.

Stabilization of calpain large subunits by overexpression of truncated calpain small subunit in L8 myoblasts

The objectives were to investigate the function of the small subunit in the calpain system by expression of the autolytic form of this subunit in L8 myoblasts. Rat post-autolysis small subunit (21 kDa) cDNA expression plasmid was transfected into L8 myoblasts and selected by G418 containing medium. The concentrations of cytosolic micro-calpain in transfected cells, SS2 and SS3, were found to be 15.7 and 17.3% higher than that in L8Neo control cells, and the concentrations of cytosolic m-calpain in SS2 and SS3 cells were 23.3 and 16.6% higher than that in control cells (L8Neo). The half-life of micro-calpain in SS3 cells (36.5 h) was longer than that in L8Neo cells (32.4 h), while the half-life of m-calpain in SS3 cells (40.1 h) was longer than that in L8Neo cell (37.5 h). These results indicated that the expression of truncated small subunit increased the stability of micro- and m-calpain large subunits in cytosol.

Genome-scale expression of proteins from Bacillus subtilis

We have applied high throughput methods for cloning and expression of more than 850 genes from the Bacillus subtilis genome. The process uses 96-well plates and is automated from the level of primer design to the detection of soluble protein by a tag detection screen. This process was applied to a set of cytoplasmic targets from Bacillus subtilis to produce clones expressing soluble protein for incorporation into the structure determination pipeline of the Midwest Center for Structural Genomics. We also evaluated the feasibility of these plate-based methods for domain-based cloning and expression of secretory proteins and putative soluble domains of membrane proteins. This approach shows promise for implementation in a high throughput format and could provide additional target resources for structure determination. The continued development of new technologies that can be implemented in an automated format will be essential for continued success in the structural genomic programs.

A second binding site revealed by C-terminal truncation of calpain small subunit, a penta-EF-hand protein

The subunits in calpain and in the related penta-EF-hand (PEF) proteins are bound through contacts between the unpaired EF-hand 5 from each subunit. To study subunit binding further, a tetra-EF-hand 18 kDa N- and C-terminally truncated form of the calpain small subunit was prepared (18k). This protein does not combine with the calpain large subunit to form active calpain, but forms homodimers in solution, as shown by ultracentrifugation. The X-ray structure of the 18k protein in the presence of cadmium was solved to a resolution of 2.0 A. The structure of the monomer is almost identical to the known structure of the calpain small subunit, but the 18k protein forms an oligomer in the crystal by the use of two binding sites. One of these sites is an artefact arising from the C-terminal truncation, but the other is a naturally occurring site that is fully exposed to water in intact purified calpain. The characteristics of this site suggest that it may be important in binding other protein modulators involved in the regulation of calpain and of PEF proteins.

The calpain system

The calpain system originally comprised three molecules: two Ca2+-dependent proteases, mu-calpain and m-calpain, and a third polypeptide, calpastatin, whose only known function is to inhibit the two calpains. Both mu- and m-calpain are heterodimers containing an identical 28-kDa subunit and an 80-kDa subunit that shares 55-65% sequence homology between the two proteases. The crystallographic structure of m-calpain reveals six "domains" in the 80-kDa subunit: 1). a 19-amino acid NH2-terminal sequence; 2). and 3). two domains that constitute the active site, IIa and IIb; 4). domain III; 5). an 18-amino acid extended sequence linking domain III to domain IV; and 6). domain IV, which resembles the penta EF-hand family of polypeptides. The single calpastatin gene can produce eight or more calpastatin polypeptides ranging from 17 to 85 kDa by use of different promoters and alternative splicing events. The physiological significance of these different calpastatins is unclear, although all bind to three different places on the calpain molecule; binding to at least two of the sites is Ca2+ dependent. Since 1989, cDNA cloning has identified 12 additional mRNAs in mammals that encode polypeptides homologous to domains IIa and IIb of the 80-kDa subunit of mu- and m-calpain, and calpain-like mRNAs have been identified in other organisms. The molecules encoded by these mRNAs have not been isolated, so little is known about their properties. How calpain activity is regulated in cells is still unclear, but the calpains ostensibly participate in a variety of cellular processes including remodeling of cytoskeletal/membrane attachments, different signal transduction pathways, and apoptosis. Deregulated calpain activity following loss of Ca2+ homeostasis results in tissue damage in response to events such as myocardial infarcts, stroke, and brain trauma.

The PEF family proteins sorcin and grancalcin interact in vivo and in vitro

The penta-EF hand (PEF) family of calcium binding proteins includes grancalcin, peflin, sorcin, calpain large and small subunits as well as ALG-2. Systematic testing of the heterodimerization abilities of the PEF proteins using the yeast two-hybrid and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays revealed the new finding that grancalcin interacts strongly with sorcin. In addition, sorcin and grancalcin can be co-immunoprecipitated from lysates of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Our results indicate that heterodimerization, in addition to differential interactions with target proteins, might be a way to regulate and fine tune processes mediated by calcium binding proteins of the penta-EF hand type.

Subcellular localization and in vivo subunit interactions of ubiquitous mu-calpain

Ubiquitously expressed calpains are Ca(2+)-dependent, intracellular cysteine proteases comprising a large catalytic subunit (domains DI-DIV) and a noncovalently bound small regulatory subunit (domains DV and DVI). It is unclear whether Ca(2+)-induced calpain activation is followed by subunit dissociation or not. Here, we have applied advanced fluorescence microscopy techniques to study calpain subunit interactions in living cells using recombinant calpain subunits or domains fused to enhanced cyan and enhanced yellow fluorescent reporter proteins. All of the overexpressed variants of the catalytic subunit (DI-IV, DI-III, and DI-IIb) were active and Ca(2+)-dependent. The intact large subunit, but not its truncated variants, associates with the small subunit under resting and ionomycin-activated conditions. All of the variants were localized in cytoplasm and nuclei, except DI-IIb, which accumulates in the nucleus and in nucleoli as shown by microscopy and cell fractionation. Localization studies with mutated and chimeric variants indicate that nuclear targeting of the DI-IIb variant is conferred by the two N-terminal helices of DI. Only those variants that contain DIII migrated to membranes upon the addition of ionomycin, suggesting that DIII is essential for membrane targeting. We propose that intracellular localization and in particular membrane targeting of activated calpain, but not dissociation of its intact subunits, contribute to regulate its proteolytic activity in vivo.

Participation of the conventional calpains in apoptosis

The conventional calpains, m- and micro-calpain, are suggested to be involved in apoptosis triggered by many different mechanisms. However, it has not been possible to definitively associate calpain function with apoptosis, largely because of the incomplete selectivity of the cell permeable calpain inhibitors used in previous studies. In the present study, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines overexpressing micro-calpain or the highly specific calpain inhibitor protein, calpastatin, have been utilized to explore apoptosis signals that are influenced by calpain content. This approach allows unambiguous alteration of calpain activity in cells. Serum depletion, treatment with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin, and treatment with calcium ionophore A23187 produced apoptosis in CHO cells, which was increased in calpain overexpressing cells and decreased by induced expression of calpastatin. Inhibition of calpain activity protected beta-spectrin, but not alpha-spectrin, from proteolysis. The calpains seemed not to be involved in apoptosis triggered by a number of other treatments. Calpain protected against TNF-alpha induced apoptosis. In contrast to previous studies, we found no evidence that calpains proteolyze I kappa B-alpha in TNF-alpha-stimulated cells. These studies indicate that the conventional calpains participate in some, but not all, apoptotic signaling mechanisms. In most cases, they contributed to apoptosis, but in at least one case, they were protective.

Activity profile of calpains I and II in chronically infarcted rat myocardium--influence of the calpain inhibitor CAL 9961

1. The calpains have been proposed to be activated following cardiac ischaemia and to contribute to myocyte damage after myocardial infarction (MI). In this study, the activity of calpains I and II in the infarcted and non-infarcted rat myocardium and the action of the selective calpain inhibitor, CAL 9961, has been investigated. 2. MI was induced by permanent ligation of the left coronary artery. One, 3, 7 and 14 days post MI, the enzymes calpain I and II were separated from homogenates of the interventricular septum (IS) and left ventricular free wall (LVFW) by chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose. The activity of the calpains was measured in sham-operated and MI animals chronically treated with placebo or CAL 9961 (15 mg kg(-1) d(-1) s.c.) in a synthetic substrate assay. Treatment was started 3 days before MI induction. 3. Calpain I activity reached highest values in IS 14 days post MI, whereas maximum activity of calpain II was measured in LVFW 3 days post MI. In experiments in vitro, CAL 9961 completely inhibited both calpains. In vivo, chronic treatment of MI animals with CAL 9961 partially prevented the increase in calpain I activity in IS and reduced calpain II activity in LVFW to sham levels. 4. Our findings demonstrate that calpains I and II are activated after MI, however, both enzymes differ in their regional and temporal activation within the infarcted myocardium. Chronic inhibition of these enzymes with CAL 9961 might limit the calpain-induced myocardial damage and preserve cardiac structural integrity post MI.

Dissociation and aggregation of calpain in the presence of calcium

Calpain is a heterodimeric Ca(2+)-dependent cysteine protease consisting of a large (80 kDa) catalytic subunit and a small (28 kDa) regulatory subunit. The effects of Ca(2+) on the enzyme include activation, aggregation, and autolysis. They may also include subunit dissociation, which has been the subject of some debate. Using the inactive C105S-80k/21k form of calpain to eliminate autolysis, we have studied its disassociation and aggregation in the presence of Ca(2+) and the inhibition of its aggregation by means of crystallization, light scattering, and sedimentation. Aggregation, as assessed by light scattering, depended on the ionic strength and pH of the buffer, on the Ca(2+) concentration, and on the presence or absence of calpastatin. At low ionic strength, calpain aggregated rapidly in the presence of Ca(2+), but this was fully reversible by EDTA. With Ca(2+) in 0.2 m NaCl, no aggregation was visible but ultracentrifugation showed that a mixture of soluble high molecular weight complexes was present. Calpastatin prevented aggregation, leading instead to the formation of a calpastatin-calpain complex. Crystallization in the presence of Ca(2+) gave rise to crystals mixed with an amorphous precipitate. The crystals contained only the small subunit, thereby demonstrating subunit dissociation, and the precipitate was highly enriched in the large subunit. Reversible dissociation in the presence of Ca(2+) was also unequivocally demonstrated by the exchange of slightly different small subunits between mu-calpain and m-calpain. We conclude that subunit dissociation is a dynamic process and is not complete in most buffer conditions unless driven by factors such as crystal formation or autolysis of active enzymes. Exposure of the hydrophobic dimerization surface following subunit dissociation may be the main factor responsible for Ca(2+)-induced aggregation of calpain. It is likely that dissociation serves as an early step in calpain activation by releasing the constraints upon protease domain I.

Proteolysis of the human DNA polymerase epsilon catalytic subunit by caspase-3 and calpain specifically during apoptosis

Human DNA polymerase epsilon (pol epsilon) normally contains a 261-kDa catalytic subunit (p261), but from some sources it is isolated as a 140-kDa catalytic core of p261. This shortened form possesses normal or somewhat enhanced polymerase activity and its significance is unknown. We report here that caspase-3 and calpain can form p140 from p261 in vitro and in vivo and that during early stages of apoptosis induced in Jurkat cells by staurosporine or anti-Fas-activating antibody, p261 is cleaved into p140 by caspase-3. At later stages, activated calpain might also contribute to this conversion. The sites of cleavage by caspase-3 have been identified, and mutations at these 'DEAD boxes' resulted in cleavage-resistant enzyme. Cleavage at these sites separates the 'N-terminal catalytic core' from the 'C-terminal' regions described for p261. Cleavage does not occur during necrosis or following exposure to H(2)O(2) or methanesulfonic acid methyl ester. p140 is unlikely to be able to functionally replace p261 in vivo, since it does not bind to PCNA or the other pol epsilon subunits.

Disruption of the murine calpain small subunit gene, Capn4: calpain is essential for embryonic development but not for cell growth and division

Calpains are a family of Ca(2+)-dependent intracellular cysteine proteases, including the ubiquitously expressed micro- and m-calpains. Both mu- and m-calpains are heterodimers, consisting of a distinct large 80-kDa catalytic subunit, encoded by the genes Capn1 and Capn2, and a common small 28-kDa regulatory subunit (Capn4). The physiological roles and possible functional distinctions of mu- and m-calpains remain unclear, but suggested functions include participation in cell division and migration, integrin-mediated signal transduction, apoptosis, and regulation of cellular control proteins such as cyclin D1 and p53. Homozygous disruption of murine Capn4 eliminated both mu- and m-calpain activities, but this did not affect survival and proliferation of cultured embryonic stem cells or embryonic fibroblasts, or the early stages of organogenesis. However, mutant embryos died at midgestation and displayed defects in the cardiovascular system, hemorrhaging, and accumulation of erythroid progenitors.

Roles of individual EF-hands in the activation of m-calpain by calcium

m-Calpain is a heterodimeric, cytosolic, thiol protease, which is activated by Ca(2+)-binding to EF-hands in the C-terminal domains of both subunits. There are four potential Ca(2+)-binding EF-hands in each subunit, but their relative affinities for Ca(2+) are not known. In the present study mutations were made in both subunits to reduce the Ca(2+)-binding affinity at one or more EF-hands in one or both subunits. X-ray crystallography of some of the mutated small subunits showed that Ca(2+) did not bind to the mutated EF-hands, but that its binding at other sites was not affected. The structures of the mutant small subunits in the presence of Ca(2+) were otherwise identical to that of the Ca(2+)-bound wild-type small subunit. In the whole enzyme the wild-type macroscopic Ca(2+) requirement (K(d)) was approx. 350 microM. The mutations did not affect the maximum specific activity of the enzyme, but caused increases in K(d), which were characteristic of each site. All the EF-hands could be mutated in various combinations without loss of activity, but preservation of at least one wild-type EF-hand 3 sequence was required to maintain K(d) values lower than 1 mM. The results suggest that all the EF-hands can contribute co-operatively to calpain activation, but that EF-hand 3, in both subunits, has the highest intrinsic affinity for Ca(2+) and provides the major driving force for conformational change.

Association and dissociation of the calcium-binding domains of calpain by Ca2+

The calmodulin-like domain of calpain is important for the association of the calpain large and small subunits. We expressed the calmodulin-like domains of the large subunits of rabbit mu- and m-calpains and their small subunits in E. coli and purified them to homogeneity. Unlike the full-length subunits, the calmodulin-like domains are soluble in buffer containing Ca2+. We performed gel filtration chromatography of the purified proteins and found that all three calmodulin-like domains exist as homodimers in the absence of Ca2+ and dissociate into monomers upon the addition of Ca2+.

Hydrostatic pressure and calcium-induced dissociation of calpains

The dissociation of mu- and m-calpains was studied by fluorescence spectroscopy under high hydrostatic pressure (up to 650 MPa). Increasing pressure induced a red shift of the tryptophan fluorescence of the calcium-free enzyme. The concentration dependence of the spectral transition was consistent with a pressure-induced dissociation of the subunits. Rising temperature increased the stability of calpain heterodimers and confirmed the predominance of hydrophobic interactions between monomers. At saturating calcium, the spectral transition was not observed for native or iodoacetamide-inactivated calpains, indicating that they were already dissociated by calcium. The reaction volume was about -150 ml mol-1 for both isoforms, and the dissociation constants at atmospheric pressure are approximately 10-12 M and 10-15 M for mu- and m-calpains, respectively. This result indicates a tighter interaction in the isoform that requires higher calcium concentration for activity.

Structure of the mouse calpain small subunit gene

The calpains comprise a family of heterodimeric (80+28 kDa) Ca2+-dependent cysteine proteases, probably having roles in signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodelling. We describe cloning and sequencing of the 28 kDa calpain subunit cDNA from mouse (coding for 268 amino acids), and characterization of its gene. The gene spans 7 kb and contains 11 exons. The promoter region, like those of other calpain genes, lacks an obvious TATA box, but contains several Sp1 binding sites.

m-Calpain subunits remain associated in the presence of calcium

The hypothesis that calpain subunits dissociate in the presence of Ca2+ has been tested by methods which avoid interference by Ca2+-induced aggregation and large subunit autolysis. Inactive Cys105Ser-m-calpain, bound either to Ni-NTA-agarose or to immobilized casein, after incubation with Ca2+, could be recovered in high yield as a heterodimer. Natural bovine m-calpain, after irreversible inhibition with Z-LLY-CHN2, also bound to immobilized casein and was eluted as a heterodimer. The Ca2+ requirements of calpain containing a small subunit with EF-hand mutations were higher, both before and after autolysis, than those of wild-type calpain. In mixtures of wild-type and mutant enzymes, subunit exchange did not occur in the presence of Ca2+. The results demonstrate that the subunits in both natural and recombinant m-calpain, in the given experimental conditions, remain associated in the presence of Ca2+ both before and after autolysis.

Mechanism of action of a new component of the Ca(2+)-dependent proteolytic system in rat brain: the calpain activator

Rat brain contains a calpain activator specific for the mu-form of the proteinase. We now report that this protein factor binds to the catalytic 80 kDa calpain subunit, promoting the dissociation of the heterodimer structure of the proteinase. The successive steps of the activation process, namely the two autoproteolytic steps producing the 78 kDa and the 75 kDa calpain forms, result in a 100 times faster rate. The activator competes with calpastatin and associates with the inner surface of plasma membranes. Based on its properties, the calpain activator can be visualised as the molecule indicating the sites for calpain activation at which the proteinase can also elude the negative control exerted by calpastatin.

A novel aspect of calpain activation

Calpain, a Ca2+-dependent biomodulator, alters the properties of substrate proteins by cleaving them at a limited number of specific sites. Recent studies of the structure-function relationship of calpain and X-ray analysis of its Ca2+-binding domain have revealed hitherto unknown features of the regulation of calpain activity. A novel dissociation/autolysis mechanism for the activation of calpain at the membrane is proposed, which incorporates recent findings from structure-function studies of calpain, and its implications are discussed.

Intracellular proteinases of invertebrates: calcium-dependent and proteasome/ubiquitin-dependent systems

Cytosolic proteinases carry out a variety of regulatory functions by controlling protein levels and/or activities within cells. Calcium-dependent and ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent pathways are common to all eukaryotes. The former pathway consists of a diverse group of Ca(2+)-dependent cysteine proteinases (CDPs; calpains in vertebrate tissues). The latter pathway is highly conserved and consists of ubiquitin, ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, deubiquitinases, and the proteasome. This review summarizes the biochemical properties and genetics of invertebrate CDPs and proteasomes and their roles in programmed cell death, stress responses (heat shock and anoxia), skeletal muscle atrophy, gametogenesis and fertilization, development and pattern formation, cell-cell recognition, signal transduction and learning, and photoreceptor light adaptation. These pathways carry out bulk protein degradation in the programmed death of the intersegmental and flight muscles of insects and of individuals in a colonial ascidian; molt-induced atrophy of crustacean claw muscle; and responses of brine shrimp, mussels, and insects to environmental stress. Selective proteolysis occurs in response to specific signals, such as in modulating protein kinase A activity in sea hare and fruit fly associated with learning; gametogenesis, differentiation, and development in sponge, echinoderms, nematode, ascidian, and insects; and in light adaptation of photoreceptors in the eyes of squid, insects, and crustaceans. Proteolytic activities and specificities are regulated through proteinase gene expression (CDP isozymes and proteasomal subunits), allosteric regulators, and posttranslational modifications, as well as through specific targeting of protein substrates by a diverse assemblage of ubiquitin-conjugases and deubiquitinases. Thus, the regulation of intracellular proteolysis approaches the complexity and versatility of transcriptional and translational mechanisms.

Structure and physiology of calpain, an enigmatic protease

Calpain is one of the most extensively studied proteinases (1). Although its enzymatic and structural properties have been well characterized, neither the structure-function relationship nor physiological functions are completely understood. In recent years, increasing numbers of molecules showing sequence similarity to calpain have been identified and the concept of a "calpain super family" has become general (2, 3). The term "calpain" originally meant a Ca(2+)-activated, neutral, and intracellular cysteine proteinase, although a proteinase domain similar to that of calpain is a prerequisite for a member of the "calpain super family" (4, 5). The molecular diversity of calpain has attracted interest to its structural and functional transition during evolution. Here we describe the state of current knowledge, progress, and clues to the next phase of calpain research.