A preliminary examination of vocabulary and word learning in African American toddlers from middle and low socioeconomic status homes

The Growth of Complex Syntax in School-Age African American Children Who Speak African American English

PURPOSE

Syntax provides critical support for both academic success and linguistic growth, yet it has not been a focus of language research in school-age African American children. This study examines complex syntax performance of African American children in second through fifth grades.

METHOD

The current study explores the syntactic performances of African American children (N = 513) in Grades 2-5 on the Test of Language Development-Intermediate who speak African American English. Multilevel modeling was used to evaluate the growth and associated changes between dialect density and syntax. Analyzed data were compared both to the normative sample and within the recruited sample.

RESULTS

The results suggest that dialect density exerted its impact early but did not continue to influence syntactic growth over time. Additionally, it was not until dialect density was accounted for in growth models that African American children's syntactic growth resembled normative expectations of a standardized language instrument.

CONCLUSION

The current study suggests that failure to consider cultural language differences obscures our understanding of African American students' linguistic competence on standardized language assessments.

The Impact of SES on Language Domain in Kindergartners' Quick Interactive Language Screener (QUILS) Performance

METHOD

To explore the relationship between SES and language domain (vocabulary, syntax, process), the QUILS was administered to 212 kindergartners.

RESULTS

Children from very-high poverty schools performed significantly below children from high poverty and mid-low poverty schools.

IMPLICATIONS

SES impacts language-learning processes (i.e., fast mapping) in addition to language products (i.e., vocabulary, syntax).

Assessing Language Skills in Bilingual Children: Current Trends in Research and Practice

A continuously challenging issue in the field of speech–language pathology is accurately identifying and diagnosing a language disorder in school-aged (pre-kindergarten through 5th grade) bilingual children, as bilingual children are disproportionately under- and overidentified with a language disorder. The current review focuses on the assessment of bilingual children in pre-kindergarten through fifth grade, aimed to inform teachers, pediatricians, parents, and other relevant professionals of issues surrounding assessment of these dual-language learners. We examine the barriers to assessing bilingual children for language disorders, such as the lack of availability of bilingual tests, underinformative current best practice guidelines, lack of speech–language pathologist (SLP) training/knowledge of bilingualism, and use of interpreters. We discuss the necessary considerations when SLPs use norm-referenced tests with bilingual children, such as norming samples, accurate identification of a language disorder, reliability and validity, test administration, and potential solutions to using otherwise poorly suited norm-referenced tests. We also consider research on several alternative measures to norm-referenced assessments, including dynamic assessment, nonword repetition, language sampling, nonlinguistic cognition, and parent report. We conclude by synthesizing the information in this review to offer six principles of best practices for bilingual assessment.

Fast mapping of verbs in Afrikaans-speaking children from low and mid socioeconomic backgrounds and children with language impairment

Children with LI are at a disadvantage because they typically have smaller vocabularies than their TD peers. However, children from low-SES households often also have smaller vocabularies and can thus be misdiagnosed with LI. The purpose of this study was to compare the fast-mapping (FM) skills of 3 groups of 4- to 9-year-olds: typically developing (TD) children with low socioeconomic status (SES) and mid SES, and mid-SES children with language impairment (LI), to ascertain whether FM is affected by SES. The FM items of the Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation were administered to 253 TD mid-SES children, 75 TD low-SES children, and 36 children with LI. On FM with novel verbs, the TD groups differed significantly (p = .001) as did the TD mid-SES and LI groups (p = .046), but not the TD low-SES and LI groups (p = 1.00). On a comparable task with real verbs, the TD mid-SES group also differed significantly from the TD low-SES (p < .001) and LI group (p = .018), with no significant difference between the latter two groups (p = 1.00). FM has been proposed as a non-SES-sensitive measure but, unlike previous studies, we found FM to be affected by SES, rendering it an insufficiently unbiased measure for our sample of children. Further thought should be given to measures that can successfully differentiate between children with LI, and children from low-SES backgrounds, possibly rendering scores adjusted for SES, so that targeted intervention can be offered.

Bilingual Supports for Clinicians: Where Do We Go From Here?

Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify and define the support needs of bilingual speech-language pathologists working in one urban school district and to investigate the experiences of the clinicians engaged in a professional learning community (PLC) format within their public school system. Method Twenty-three bilingual speech-language pathologists met in a PLC over the course of 5 months, with a total of four sessions that were a mix of in person and virtual. The participants engaged in group discussions and activities alongside their peers to address self-identified areas of support and need. Additionally, initial and final focus group and exit slip data following the PLC were collected to inform the discussion topics of the PLC and gather final impressions. Constant comparative analysis was utilized to analyze focus group and exit slip data. Results When looking across the experiences of the clinicians in the district, the three themes that emerged from the data were systemic obstacles, professional obstacles, and supports. The three themes that emerged from the speech-language pathologists' experiences in the PLC included their positive experiences, the challenges with participation, and the positive outcomes from exposure to new techniques and earning platforms. Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that bilingual clinicians benefit from a PLC model when addressing specific areas of need.

Development and evaluation of the Ingwavuma receptive vocabulary test: A tool for assessing receptive vocabulary in isiZulu-speaking preschool children

BACKGROUND

This study used local resources- community members, photographer and speech therapists to develop a new test for screening receptive language skills and sought to determine its feasibility for use with a larger population in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to develop a one-word receptive vocabulary test appropriate for screening and diagnosis of isiZulu-speaking preschool-aged children. The objectives were (1) to determine sensitivity and specificity of the Ingwavuma Receptive Vocabulary Test (IRVT) and (2) to determine the relationship of IRVT scores with age, gender, time and the confounding variables of stunting and school.

METHOD

The study was quantitative, cross-sectional and descriptive in nature. The IRVT was piloted before being administered to 51 children (4-6 years old). Statistical analysis of test item prevalence, correlations to confounding variables and validity measurements were conducted using Statistical Package for Social Scientists version 25 (SPSS 25).

RESULTS

The IRVT was able to profile the receptive skills for the preschool children in Ingwavuma. The mean raw score for boys was 35, and 32 for girls. There was a significant Pearson correlation between test scores and age (0.028, p 0.05) with a high effect size (Cohen's d = 0. 949), gender (r = -0.032, p 0.05) with a medium effect size (Cohen's d = 0.521) and school (r = 0.033, p 0.05) with a small effect size (Cohen's d = 0.353). The sensitivity and specificity values were 66.7% and 33%, respectively. The test reliability (Cronbach's alpha) was 0.739, with a good test-retest reliability.

CONCLUSION

The IRVT has potential as a screening test for isiZulu receptive vocabulary skills amongst preschool children. This study contributes to a development of clinical and research resources for assessing language abilities.

Early word-learning skills: A missing link in understanding the vocabulary gap?

Socioeconomic status (SES) has been repeatedly linked to the developmental trajectory of vocabulary acquisition in young children. However, the nature of this relationship remains underspecified. In particular, despite an extensive literature documenting young children's reliance on a host of skills and strategies to learn new words, little attention has been paid to whether and how these skills relate to measures of SES and vocabulary acquisition. To evaluate these relationships, we conducted two studies. In Study 1, 205 2.5- to 3.5-year-old children from widely varying socioeconomic backgrounds were tested on a broad range of word-learning skills that tap their ability to resolve cases of ambiguous reference and to extend words appropriately. Children's executive functioning and phonological memory skills were also assessed. In Study 2, 77 of those children returned for a follow-up session several months later, at which time two additional measures of vocabulary were obtained. Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and multivariate regression, we provide evidence of the mediating role of word-learning skills on the relationship between SES and vocabulary skill over the course of early development.

The School-Based Speech-Language Pathologist's Role in Diverting the School-to-Confinement Pipeline for Youth With Communication Disorders

Purpose

The overarching aim of this article is to discuss the intersectionality of the school-to-confinement pipeline and its detrimental effect on the societal and academic success of youth with communication disorders. Communication disorders in youth with behavior concerns or placed at risk for delinquency that is not adequately addressed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) can increase the youth's involvement with the school-to-confinement pipeline, resulting in a dire need for the intervention of the SLP to intervene on the language-based needs of this population. However, the role of the United States—based SLPs in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline has not yet been clearly defined and recognized.

Method

This article will (a) discuss why the role of the SLP providing language intervention for youth placed at risk for delinquency or involved with the criminal justice system is necessary, (b) discuss the definition of the school-to-confinement pipeline, (c) examine the impact of the school-to-confinement pipeline on youth with communication disorders, and (d) highlight a framework for cognitive and language-based intervention that may promote positive outcomes.

Results

The SLP's role in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline is vital to providing and increasing the societal and academic success of youth with communication disorders placed at risk for delinquency and should consider multiple factors such as (a) SLPs becoming an active and integral member of the individualized education plan team, (b) SLPs advocating for opportunities to collaborate and interact with the youth as an integral member of the individualized education plan team, and (c) SLPs creating consistent and streamlined opportunities for culturally relevant goals and intervention that increase the student's academic and societal success.

Conclusion

There are many reasons why the SLPs' role in interrupting the school-to-confinement pipeline cannot be ignored or overlooked. As a profession in the United States, speech-language pathology is in the early stages of developing a stronger stance for advocacy and understanding the communication needs of youth on the SLP's caseload who are at risk for the school-to-confinement pipeline. Nonetheless, increasing how SLPs approach and intervene on behalf of students with communication disorders may produce better outcomes for youth-at-risk for the school-to-confinement pipeline.

An examination of cultural-linguistic influences on PPVT-4 performance in African American and Hispanic preschoolers from low-income communities

In this study, we examined potential influences of cultural and linguistic background on PPVT-4 performance in a community sample of preschool-age children from low-SES households. We did this by evaluating PPVT-4 item-level performance across African American and Hispanic children from low-income families. We compared PPVT-4 item-level performance for 332 Hispanic and African American children (M_age = 48 months) using Wald chi-square tests of independence. There were clinically significant differences in accuracy on 14 PPVT-4 test items with most favouring the African American group. We then looked at the relationship between African American English use and PPVT-4 scores for a subset of 113 African American children (M_age = 49.9 months). A correlational analysis with PPVT-4 standard scores and a dialect density measure (DDM) in narratives revealed no association between these measures. We concluded that there were potential cultural-linguistic biases in PPVT-4 items that were not explained by income alone for the young Hispanic children.

Modeling Floor Effects in Standardized Vocabulary Test Scores in a Sample of Low SES Hispanic Preschool Children under the Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling Framework

Researchers and practitioners often use standardized vocabulary tests such as the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-4 (PPVT-4; Dunn and Dunn, 2007) and its companion, the Expressive Vocabulary Test-2 (EVT-2; Williams, 2007), to assess English vocabulary skills as an indicator of children's school readiness. Despite their psychometric excellence in the norm sample, issues arise when standardized vocabulary tests are used to asses children from culturally, linguistically and ethnically diverse backgrounds (e.g., Spanish-speaking English language learners) or delayed in some manner. One of the biggest challenges is establishing the appropriateness of these measures with non-English or non-standard English speaking children as often they score one to two standard deviations below expected levels (e.g., Lonigan et al., 2013). This study re-examines the issues in analyzing the PPVT-4 and EVT-2 scores in a sample of 4-to-5-year-old low SES Hispanic preschool children who were part of a larger randomized clinical trial on the effects of a supplemental English shared-reading vocabulary curriculum (Pollard-Durodola et al., 2016). It was found that data exhibited strong floor effects and the presence of floor effects made it difficult to differentiate the invention group and the control group on their vocabulary growth in the intervention. A simulation study is then presented under the multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) framework and results revealed that in regular multilevel data analysis, ignoring floor effects in the outcome variables led to biased results in parameter estimates, standard error estimates, and significance tests. Our findings suggest caution in analyzing and interpreting scores of ethnically and culturally diverse children on standardized vocabulary tests (e.g., floor effects). It is recommended appropriate analytical methods that take into account floor effects in outcome variables should be considered.

Shape up: An eye-tracking study of preschoolers' shape name processing and spatial development

Learning the names of geometric shapes is at the intersection of early spatial, mathematical, and language skills, all important for school-readiness and predictors of later abilities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). We investigated whether socioeconomic status (SES) influenced children's processing of shape names and whether differences in processing were predictive of later spatial skills. Three-year-olds (N = 79) with mothers of varying education levels participated in an eye-tracking task that required them to look at named shapes. Lower SES children took longer to fixate target shapes and spent less time looking at them than higher SES children. Gaze variables measured at age 3 were predictive of spatial skills measured at age 5 even though the spatial measures did not require shape-related vocabulary. Early efficiency in the processing of shape names may contribute to the development of a foundation for spatial learning in the preschool years. (PsycINFO Database Record

Measuring Explicit Word Learning of Preschool Children: A Development Study

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article is to present preliminary results related to the development of a new measure of explicit word learning. The measure incorporated elements of explicit vocabulary instruction and dynamic assessment and was designed to be sensitive to differences in word learning skill and to be feasible for use in clinical settings.

METHOD

The explicit word learning measure included brief teaching trials and repeated fine-grained measurement of semantic knowledge and production of 3 novel words (2 verbs and 1 adjective). Preschool children (N = 23) completed the measure of explicit word learning; standardized, norm-referenced measures of expressive and receptive vocabulary; and an incidental word learning task.

RESULTS

The measure of explicit word learning provided meaningful information about word learning. Performance on the explicit measure was related to existing vocabulary knowledge and incidental word learning.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this development study indicate that further examination of the measure of explicit word learning is warranted. The measure may have the potential to identify children who are poor word learners.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5170738.

Reporting of Socioeconomic Status in Pediatric Language Research

PURPOSE

This study examined language-focused research articles published in 3 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association journals to: (a) determine the proportion that reported the socioeconomic status (SES) of pediatric participants and (b) identify the indicators used to represent SES in these articles.

METHOD

Researchers reviewed articles published from 2000-2015 in Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, the American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, and the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research (language section) that involved pediatric participants and focused on language development, as well as on assessment and intervention for language disorders.

RESULTS

For the 3 journals combined, 417 out of the total 652 (64%) pediatric language articles reported SES of the participants. Over the 16-year period there was an increase in SES reporting of 31.8% (55.6% to 73.3%). The types of SES indicators used represented education, income, and occupation.

CONCLUSION

Although SES reporting for pediatric participants in language-based studies increased over the 16-year period examined, over 1 quarter of studies published in the 3 journals combined still do not report SES. This is a concern. When determining the generalizability of research findings to specific children, it is important for speech-language pathologists to be able to identify the SES background of research participants.

Interactive Book Reading to Accelerate Word Learning by Kindergarten Children With Specific Language Impairment: Identifying an Adequate Intensity and Variation in Treatment Response

Purpose

This study sought to identify an adequate intensity of interactive book reading for new word learning by children with specific language impairment (SLI) and to examine variability in treatment response.

Method

An escalation design adapted from nontoxic drug trials (Hunsberger, Rubinstein, Dancey, & Korn, 2005) was used in this Phase I/II preliminary clinical trial. A total of 27 kindergarten children with SLI were randomized to 1 of 4 intensities of interactive book reading: 12, 24, 36, or 48 exposures. Word learning was monitored through a definition task and a naming task. An intensity response curve was examined to identify the adequate intensity. Correlations and classification accuracy were used to examine variation in response to treatment relative to pretreatment and early treatment measures.

Results

Response to treatment improved as intensity increased from 12 to 24 to 36 exposures, and then no further improvements were observed as intensity increased to 48 exposures. There was variability in treatment response: Children with poor phonological awareness, low vocabulary, and/or poor nonword repetition were less likely to respond to treatment.

Conclusion

The adequate intensity for this version of interactive book reading was 36 exposures, but further development of the treatment is needed to increase the benefit for children with SLI.

Language Variation and Theory of Mind in Typical Development: An Exploratory Study of School-Age African American Narrators

PURPOSE

The intent of this study was to explore the relation between language variation and theory of mind (ToM) in African American child narrators.

METHOD

Fifty children produced a narrative on the basis of the wordless book, Frog, Where Are You? ToM was assessed by children's internal-state words and false-belief mentioning in the book's narratives as well as their performance on the Reading the Eyes in the Mind Test (Baron-Cohen, Joliffe, Mortimore, & Robertson, 1997). Correlation and linear regression analyses were performed to determine the relationship between narrative language ability and ToM indices. Relationships between language variation, ToM indices, and socioeconomic status were also explored.

RESULTS

There was no correlation between language variation and the 3 ToM indicators. False-belief mentioning accounted for the most variance in children's narrative language. Language variation scores and ToM performance were both unrelated to children's socioeconomic backgrounds.

CONCLUSION

ToM indicators, such as false-belief mentioning, provide information about African American children's narrative ability and appear to be dialect-neutral.

Comparison of African American Children's Performances on a Minimal Competence Core for Morphosyntax and the Index of Productive Syntax

PURPOSE

This study is a response to the need for evidence-based measures of spontaneous oral language to assess African American children under the age of 4 years. We determined if pass/fail status on a minimal competence core for morphosyntax (MCC-MS) was more highly related to scores on the Index of Productive Syntax (IPSyn)-the measure of convergent criterion validity-than to scores on 3 measures of divergent validity: number of different words (Watkins, Kelly, Harbers, & Hollis, 1995), Percentage of Consonants Correct-Revised (Shriberg, Austin, Lewis, McSweeney, & Wilson, 1997), and the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Roid & Miller, 1997).

METHOD

Archival language samples for 68 African American 3-year-olds were analyzed to determine MCC-MS pass/fail status and the scores on measures of convergent and divergent validity.

RESULTS

Higher IPSyn scores were observed for 60 children who passed the MCC-MS than for 8 children who did not. A significant positive correlation, rpb = .73, between MCC-MS pass/fail status and IPSyn scores was observed. This coefficient was higher than MCC-MS correlations with measures of divergent validity: rpb = .13 (Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised), rpb = .42 (number of different words in 100 utterances), and rpb = .46 (Percentage of Consonants Correct-Revised).

CONCLUSION

The MCC-MS has convergent criterion validity with the IPSyn. Although more research is warranted, both measures can be potentially used in oral language assessments of African American 3-year-olds.

Learning word meanings during reading: effects of phonological and semantic cues on children with language impairment

Phonological and semantic deficits in spoken word learning have been documented in children with language impairment (LI), and cues that address these deficits have been shown to improve their word learning performance. However, the effects of such cues on word learning during reading remain largely unexplored. This study investigated whether (a) control, (b) phonological, (c) semantic, and (d) combined phonological-semantic conditions affected semantic word learning during reading in 9- to 11-year-old children with LI (n = 12) and with typical language (TL, n = 11) from low-income backgrounds. Children were exposed to 20 novel words across these four conditions prior to reading passages containing the novel words. After reading, a dynamic semantic assessment was given, which included oral definitions, contextual clues, and multiple choices. Results indicated that the LI group performed more poorly than the TL group in phonological and combined conditions, but not in the control or semantic conditions. Also, a similar trend for both groups was suggested, with improved performance in the semantic and combined conditions relative to the control and phonological conditions. Clinical implications include a continued need for explicit instruction in semantic properties of novel words to facilitate semantic word learning during reading in children with LI.

Socio-economic status and language acquisition: children's performance on the new Reynell Developmental Language Scales

BACKGROUND

Several studies in recent years have indicated a link between socio-economic status (SES) of families and children's language development, including studies that have measured children's language through formal standardized test procedures. High numbers of children with low performance have been found in lower socio-economic groups in some studies. This has proved a cause for concern for both clinicians and educationalists.

AIMS

To investigate the relationship between maternal education and postcode-related indicators of SES, and children's performance on the New Reynell Developmental Scales (NRDLS).

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Participants were 1266 children aged between 2;00 and 7;06 years who were recruited for the standardization of a new assessment procedure (NRDLS). Children were divided into four groups reflecting years of maternal education, and five groups reflecting SES Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) quintiles for the location of participating schools and nurseries. Groups were compared using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with age as a covariate, in order to identify which might be affected by the two SES variables. Where relationships were found between SES and performance on the scales, individual children's standard scores were looked at to determine numbers potentially at risk for language delay.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

An effect of years of maternal education on performance was found such that children whose mothers had minimum years performed less well than other children in the study, this effect being stronger for younger children. Children attending schools or nurseries in IMD quintile 1 areas performed less well in language production. Higher than expected numbers with language delay were found for younger children whose mothers had minimum years of education, and for children in quintile 1 schools and nurseries; however, numbers were not as high as noted in some other studies.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Characteristics of the participant sample and measures used for language and SES may explain these results and are important considerations when interpreting results of studies or developing policies for intervention. The usefulness of commonly used categories of language delay is questioned.

Assessing bilingual Chinese-English young children in Malaysia using language sample measures

One reason why specific language impairment (SLI) is grossly under-identified in Malaysia is the absence of locally- developed norm-referenced language assessment tools for its multilingual and multicultural population. Spontaneous language samples provide quantitative information for language assessment, and useful descriptive information on child language development in complex language and cultural environments. This research consisted of two studies and investigated the use of measures obtained from English conversational samples among bilingual Chinese-English Malaysian preschoolers. The research found that the language sample measures were sensitive to developmental changes in this population and could identify SLI. The first study examined the relationship between age and mean length of utterance (MLU(w)), lexical diversity (D), and the index of productive syntax (IPSyn) among 52 typically-developing (TD) children aged between 3;4-6;9. Analyses showed a significant linear relationship between age and D (r = .450), the IPsyn (r = .441), and MLU(w) (r = .318). The second study compared the same measures obtained from 10 children with SLI, aged between 3;8-5;11, and their age-matched controls. The children with SLI had significantly shorter MLU(w) and lower IPSyn scores than the TD children. These findings suggest that utterance length and syntax production can be potential clinical markers of SLI in Chinese-English Malaysian children.

An examination of fast mapping skills in preschool children from families with low socioeconomic status

Researchers consistently report that children from low socioeconomic status (SES) families have, on average, smaller vocabularies as assessed by measures of existing vocabulary knowledge than children from higher SES families. Yet, few studies have examined the word-learning process of children from low SES families. The present study was an examination of fast mapping by preschoolers from low SES families. The study also examined the relation between measures of existing vocabulary and performance on the fast mapping task. Forty-six preschoolers (mean age: 4;6, range: 3;11-5;3) from low SES families completed a part-term fast mapping task and two measures of existing vocabulary knowledge. On the fast mapping task, children demonstrated the use of three sources of information (familiar whole objects, possessive syntax and whole-part juxtaposition). Measures of existing vocabulary did not correlate with performance on the fast mapping task. Findings suggest that children from low SES families use multiple sources of information in linguistic input to learn words.

Metalinguistics, stress accuracy, and word reading: does dialect matter?

PURPOSE

The authors examined the influence of demographic variables on nonmainstream American English (NMAE) use; the differences between NMAE speakers and mainstream American English (MAE) speakers on measures of metalinguistics, single-word reading, and a new measure of morphophonology; and the differences between the 2 groups in the relationships among the measures.

METHOD

Participants were typically developing 3rd graders from Memphis, TN, including 21 MAE and 21 NMAE speakers. Children received a battery of tests measuring phonological and morphological awareness (PA and MA), morphophonology (i.e., accurately produced lexical stress in derived words), decoding, and word identification (WID).

RESULTS

Controlling for socioeconomic status, measures of PA, decoding, and WID were higher for MAE than for NMAE speakers. There was no difference in stress accuracy between the dialect groups. Only for the NMAE group were PA and MA significantly related to decoding and WID. Stress accuracy was correlated with word reading for the NMAE speakers and with all measures for the MAE speakers.

CONCLUSION

Stress accuracy was consistently related to reading measures, even when PA and MA were not. Morphophonology involving suprasegmental factors may be an area of convergence between language varieties because of its consistent relationship to word reading.

Dynamic Assessment of Word Learning Skills: Identifying Language Impairment in Bilingual Children

Purpose

Bilingual children are often diagnosed with language impairment, although they may simply have fewer opportunities to learn English than English-speaking monolingual children. This study examined whether dynamic assessment (DA) of word learning skills is an effective method for identifying bilingual children with primary language impairment (PLI).

Method

Fifteen 4- and 5-year-old predominantly Spanish-speaking children with typical language development (TLD) and 13 with PLI each participated in a 30- to 40-min session of DA of word learning skills following a pretest–teach–posttest design.

Results

Results indicated that TLD children made associations between the phonological and semantic representations of the new words faster than children with PLI did, showing greater modifiability. Further, a combination of word learning in the receptive modality and the Learning Strategies Checklist (Lidz, 1991; Peña, 1993) provided the best accuracy in identifying PLI in these children.

Conclusion

Findings suggest that a brief DA is a promising method for accurately differentiating children with TLD from children with PLI.

Maternal Sensitivity and Language in Early Childhood: A Test of the Transactional Model

This study examined the relation between mothers' sensitive responsiveness to their children and the children's expressive language skills during early childhood. Reciprocal effects were tested with dyads of mothers and their children participating in the National Institute of Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Sensitive maternal interactions positively affected children's later expressive language in the second and third years of life. Although maternal sensitivity predicted later language skills in children, children's language did not affect later maternal sensitivity as indicated in a structural equation model. These results do not support the 1975 transactional model of child development of Sameroff and Chandler. A consistent pattern of sensitivity throughout infancy and early childhood indicates the importance of fostering maternal sensitivity in infancy for prevention or remediation of expressive language problems in young children.

Production and maternal report of 16- and 18-month-olds' vocabulary in low- and middle-income families

PURPOSE

To compare maternal report of children's vocabularies on the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories Words and Gestures form (CDI:WG; Fenson et al., 1993) with spontaneous production data in both low- and middle-income families.

METHOD

As part of a longitudinal investigation, language samples were gathered from 23 mother-child dyads based on Stoel-Gammon's (1987) protocol for the Language Production Scale when the children were 16 and 18 months of age. The mothers also completed the CDI:WG at both visits. The words that the children produced were compared with those the mothers reported on the vocabulary checklist, with family income and vocabulary size as grouping factors.

RESULTS

Maternal reporting did not differ as a function of socioeconomic status but did increase from 16 to 18 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The vocabulary differences observed on the CDI:WG for children from low-income families do not appear to be a reflection of inaccurate maternal reporting. Further research is needed to determine whether these findings will generalize more broadly.

Language development and everyday functioning of children with hearing loss assessed at 3 years of age

This paper reports language ability and everyday functioning of 133 children with hearing impairment who were evaluated at 3 years of age, as part of the Longitudinal Outcomes of Children with Hearing Impairment (LOCHI) study. The language abilities of children were evaluated using the Preschool Language Scale (PLS-4), Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology (DEAP) and Child Development Inventory (CDI). Everyday functioning of children was evaluated by interviewing parents using the Parents' Evaluation of Aural/oral performance of Children (PEACH) questionnaire. There were significant correlations among language measures, and also between the standardized language measures and the PEACH. On average, children who had language deficits exhibited difficulties in everyday functioning. The evidence lends support to a systematic use of parents' observations to evaluate communicative functioning of children in real life. On average, children's language attainment decreased as hearing loss increased, more so for children of less highly educated parents. Factors that were not significantly associated with speech and language outcomes at 3 years were age of amplification and socioeconomic status. As multiple factors affect children's outcomes, it will be possible to examine their effects on outcomes of children when all data in the LOCHI study are available.

Language Sample Analysis With Children Who Speak Non-Mainstream Dialects of English

The following article provides an overview of the benefits of using Language Sample Analysis (LSA) for assessing language performance in non-mainstream dialect speakers, addresses the importance of establishing community reference databases for these speakers, and describes a set of strategies that can be useful for developing reference databases in local school districts.

The Academic and Functional Academic Skills of Youth Who Are at Risk for Language Impairment in Residential Care

Purpose

Undiagnosed language impairment (LI) for youth in residential care is a concern as similar populations have shown elevated levels of language delays. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to identify the percentage of youth in residential care who are at risk for LI and to compare the demographic, academic achievement, and functional academic skills of youth with or without possible LI.

Method

Participants were 80 youth in residential care. Risk for LI was determined using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals—4 Screening Test (E. Semel, E. H. Wiig, & W. A. Secord, 2004). Independent-samples t tests and chi-square analyses were conducted to assess the differences between groups. Measures used included the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement (R. W. Woodcock, K. S. McGrew, & N. Mather, 2001) and the Kaufman Functional Academic Skills Test (A. S. Kaufman & N. L. Kaufman, 1994).

Results

More than half of the sample (54%) were identified as being at risk for LI. Statistically significant differences between youth with and without LI were found on academic variables. Specifically, youth who were at risk for LI presented academic achievement and functional academic scores in the low to low-average ranges.

Conclusion

Findings suggest that there is a need to screen youth entering residential programs for possible LI. Implications for treatment and program planning are discussed.

A Review of Developmental and Applied Language Research on African American Children: From a Deficit to Difference Perspective on Dialect Differences

Purpose

The contemporary practices of delivering speech, language, and hearing services in schools reflect palpable gains in professional sensitivity to linguistic and cultural diversity.

Method

This article reviews the dominant research themes on the oral language of African American preschoolers who contribute to such diversity in the United States. Specifically, it contrasts the historical and current frameworks that have guided studies of (a) such children’s acquisition and use of English and (b) the strategies used to assess and modify their language.

Conclusion

Research initiatives that can expand knowledge about this group are proposed.

Morphological Awareness Skills of Fourth-Grade African American Students

Purpose

We examined the morphological awareness skills of fourth-grade African American children and the association between degree of African American English (AAE) use and performance on written measures of morphological awareness. Additional purposes were to determine whether performance on the morphological awareness tasks (a) was affected by the transparency of morphologically related words and the type of task administered, (b) was associated with other literacy and literacy-related skills, and (c) explained unique variance on these latter abilities.

Method

Thirty fourth-grade African American children from low-income backgrounds were administered 2 morphological awareness tasks and completed norm-referenced measures of word-level reading, reading comprehension, spelling, phonemic awareness, and receptive vocabulary.

Results

The degree of AAE use was not associated with students' performance on the morphological awareness tasks. On these tasks, significantly higher scores were obtained on items that represented a transparent relationship between a base word and its derived form. The students' performance on the morphological awareness tasks was significantly and moderately related to their performance on the word-level reading, spelling, and receptive vocabulary measures. Morphological awareness scores explained significant unique variance on measures of word-level reading and spelling, above that predicted by performance on measures of phonemic awareness and vocabulary.

Conclusion

As shown in previous investigations of Caucasian children’s morphological awareness skills, fourth-grade African American students' morphological awareness abilities are associated with select language and literacy skills. Professionals should capitalize on students' intact capabilities in morphological awareness during literacy instruction in an effort to maximize language and literacy performance for African American students.

Establishing a pedagogical framework for the multicultural course in communication sciences and disorders

PURPOSE

To provide an overview of a model for teaching a foundational course in multicultural (MC) issues and to demonstrate how it can be modified for use in communication sciences and disorders (CSD) by integrating 3 primary dimensions of cultural competence: awareness, knowledge, and skills.

METHOD

This tutorial begins by establishing the need for a basic foundational course in MC issues for CSD. Next, the authors describe a framework for MC instruction developed in the field of clinical counseling. Finally, the framework is modified and applied to the implementation of an MC course in CSD.

CONCLUSION

The MC course in CSD can provide a useful foundation for facilitating the cultural competence of students in university training programs that have infused MC material across the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's 9 content areas.