Hippocampus and homing in pigeons: left and right hemispheric differences in navigational map learning

Sleep pressure causes birds to trade asymmetric sleep for symmetric sleep

Sleep is a dangerous part of an animal's life.1,2,3 Nonetheless, following sleep loss, mammals and birds sleep longer and deeper, as reflected by increased electroencephalogram (EEG) slow-wave activity (SWA; ≈1-5 Hz spectral power) during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep.4,5 Stimulating a brain region during wakefulness also causes that region to sleep deeper afterwards,6,7,8,9 indicating that NREM sleep is a local, homeostatically regulated process.10,11 Birds and some marine mammals can keep one eye open during NREM sleep,12,13 a behavior associated with lighter sleep or wakefulness in the hemisphere opposite the open eye-states called asymmetric and unihemispheric NREM sleep, respectively.13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23 Closure of both eyes is associated with symmetric NREM or REM sleep. Birds rely on asymmetric and unihemispheric sleep to stay safe.17,24,25 However, as sleeping deeply with only one hemisphere at a time increases the time required for both hemispheres to fulfill their need for NREM sleep, increased sleep pressure might cause birds to engage in symmetric sleep at the expense of asymmetric sleep.26,27 Using high-density EEG recordings of European jackdaws (Coloeus monedula), we investigated intra- and inter-hemispheric asymmetries during normal sleep and following sleep deprivation (SD). The proportion of asymmetric sleep was lower early in the sleep period and following SD-periods of increased sleep pressure. Our findings demonstrate a trade-off between the benefits of sleep and vigilance and indicate that a bird's utilization of asymmetric sleep is constrained by temporal dynamics in their need for sleep.

Investigating the impact of nutritional insufficiency on parahippocampal neurons in domestic chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus

Over time, scientists have been fascinated by the complex connections among nutrition, brain development, and behavior. It's been well understood that the brain's peak performance relies on having the right nutrients available. Thus, nutritional insufficiency, where an organism lacks vital nutrients crucial for optimal growth and function, can upset the body's balance, potentially triggering stress responses. However, our grasp of how the brain reacts to insufficient nutrition, particularly in avian species like domestic chickens, has shown inconsistencies in our understanding. Domestic chickens have frequently served as subjects for studying memory and learning, primarily focusing on the hippocampus-a region highly responsive to environmental changes. Yet, another critical brain region, the parahippocampal region, integral to memory and spatial cognition, had received relatively little attention concerning the consequences of inadequate nutrition and hydration. To address this knowledge gap, our study sought to investigate the impact of stress induced by nutritional insufficiency on the neuronal cells within the region parahippocampalis in two distinct age groups of domestic chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus: fifteen and thirty days old. We employed the Golgi-Cox-Impregnation technique to explore whether the structural characteristics of neuronal cells, specifically the dendritic spines, underwent changes under transient stressful conditions during these crucial developmental stages. The results were intriguing. Stress evidently induced observable alterations in the dendritic spines of the parahippocampal neuronal cells, with the extent of these changes being age-dependent. In fifteen-day-old chickens, stress prompted substantial modifications in the dendritic spines of parahippocampal multipolar and pyramidal neurons. In contrast, among thirty-day-old chickens, the response to stress was less comprehensive, with only specific parahippocampal multipolar neurons displaying such alterations. These findings underscored the influential role of stress in reshaping the structure of parahippocampal neurons and emphasized the importance of considering age when studying the impact of stress on the brain. Through this research, we aim to enhance our understanding of the intricate interplay between stress, brain structure, and the critical role of adequate nutrition, especially during pivotal developmental stages. Our future research objectives include a deeper investigation into the intracellular events including cellular and molecular mechanisms precipitating these changes and determining whether these alterations have downstream effects on crucial brain functions like learning and memory.

Use of the sun compass by monocularly occluded homing pigeons in a food localisation task in an outdoor arena

Functional asymmetries of the avian visual system can be studied in monocularly occluded birds, as their hemispheres are largely independent. Right and left monocularly occluded homing pigeons and control birds under binocular view have been trained in a food localisation task in an octagonal outdoor arena provided with one coloured beacon on each wall. The three groups were tested after the removal of the visual beacons, so to assess their sun compass learning abilities. Pigeons using the left eye/right hemisphere system exhibited slower learning compared to the other monocular group. During the test in the arena void of visual beacons, the three groups of birds, regardless of their visual condition, were generally able to identify the training sector by exclusively relying on sun compass information. However, the directional choices of the pigeons with the left eye/right hemisphere in use were significantly affected by the removal of the beacons, while both control pigeons and birds with the right eye/left hemisphere in use displayed unaltered performances during the test. A subsample of pigeons of each group were re-trained in the octagonal arena with visual beacons present and tested after the removal of visual beacons after a 6 h fast clock-shift treatment. All birds displayed the expected deflection consistent to the sun compass use. While birds using either the left or the right visual systems were equally able to learn a sun compass-mediated spatial task, the left eye/right hemisphere visual system displayed an advantage in relying on visual beacons.

Spatial cognition and the avian hippocampus: Research in domestic chicks

In this review, we discuss the functional equivalence of the avian and mammalian hippocampus, based mostly on our own research in domestic chicks, which provide an important developmental model (most research on spatial cognition in other birds relies on adult animals). In birds, like in mammals, the hippocampus plays a central role in processing spatial information. However, the structure of this homolog area shows remarkable differences between birds and mammals. To understand the evolutionary origin of the neural mechanisms for spatial navigation, it is important to test how far theories developed for the mammalian hippocampus can also be applied to the avian hippocampal formation. To address this issue, we present a brief overview of studies carried out in domestic chicks, investigating the direct involvement of chicks' hippocampus homolog in spatial navigation.

Selective activation of the right hippocampus during navigation by spatial cues in domestic chicks (Gallus gallus)

In different vertebrate species, hippocampus plays a crucial role for spatial orientation. However, even though cognitive lateralization is widespread in the animal kingdom, the lateralization of this hippocampal function has been poorly studied. The aim of the present study was to investigate the lateralization of hippocampal activation in domestic chicks, during spatial navigation in relation to free-standing objects. Two groups of chicks were trained to find food in one of the feeders located in a large circular arena. Chicks of one group solved the task using the relational spatial information provided by free-standing objects present in the arena, while the other group used the local appearance of the baited feeder as a beacon. The immediate early gene product c-Fos was employed to map neural activation of hippocampus and medial striatum of both hemispheres. Chicks that used spatial cues for navigation showed higher activation of the right hippocampus compared to chicks that oriented by local features and compared to the left hippocampus. Such differences between the two groups were not present in the left hippocampus or in the medial striatum. Relational spatial information seems thus to be selectively processed by the right hippocampus in domestic chicks. The results are discussed in light of existing evidence of hippocampal lateralization of spatial processing in chicks, with particular attention to the contrasting evidence found in pigeons.

Is There Visual Lateralisation of the Sun Compass in Homing Pigeons?

Functional lateralisation in the avian visual system can be easily studied by testing monocularly occluded birds. The sun compass is a critical source of navigational information in birds, but studies of visual asymmetry have focussed on cues in a laboratory rather than a natural setting. We investigate functional lateralisation of sun compass use in the visual system of homing pigeons trained to locate food in an outdoor octagonal arena, with a coloured beacon in each sector and a view of the sun. The arena was rotated to introduce a cue conflict, and the experimental groups, a binocular treatment and two monocular treatments, were tested for their directional choice. We found no significant difference in test orientation between the treatments, with all groups showing evidence of both sun compass and beacon use, suggesting no complete functional lateralisation of sun compass use within the visual system. However, reduced directional consistency of binocular vs. monocular birds may reveal a conflict between the two hemispheres in a cue conflict condition. Birds using the right hemisphere were more likely to choose the intermediate sector between the training sector and the shifted training beacon, suggesting a possible asymmetry in favour of the left eye/right hemisphere (LE/RH) when integrating different cues.

c-Fos revealed lower hippocampal participation in older homing pigeons when challenged with a spatial memory task

Homing pigeons experience age-related spatial-cognitive decline similar to that seen in mammals. In contrast to mammals, however, previous studies have shown the hippocampal formation (HF) of old, cognitively impaired pigeons to be greater in volume and neuron number compared with young pigeons. As a partial explanation of the cognitive decline in older birds, it was hypothesized that older pigeons have reduced HF activation during spatial learning. The present study compared HF activation (via the activity-dependent expression of the immediate early gene c-Fos) between younger and older pigeons during learning of a spatial, delayed nonmatch-to-sample task. On the last day of training, c-Fos activation significantly correlated with behavioral performance in the young, but not old, pigeons suggesting more HF engagement by the young pigeons in solving the task. The behavioral correlation was additionally associated with consistently higher, but insignificant c-Fos activation across practically every HF subdivision in the young compared with the old pigeons. In sum, the results of the present study are consistent with the hypothesis that age-related decline in the spatial cognitive ability of homing pigeons is in part a result of an older HF being less responsive to the processing of spatial information. However, alternative interpretations of the data are discussed.

The orientation of homing pigeons (Columba livia f.d.) with and without navigational experience in a two-dimensional environment

Homing pigeons are known for their excellent homing ability, and their brains seem to be functionally adapted to homing. It is known that pigeons with navigational experience show a larger hippocampus and also a more lateralised brain than pigeons without navigational experience. So we hypothesized that experience may have an influence also on orientation ability. We examined two groups of pigeons (11 with navigational experience and 17 without) in a standard operant chamber with a touch screen monitor showing a 2-D schematic of a rectangular environment (as “geometric” information) and one uniquely shaped and colored feature in each corner (as “landmark” information). Pigeons were trained first for pecking on one of these features and then we examined their ability to encode geometric and landmark information in four tests by modifying the rectangular environment. All tests were done under binocular and monocular viewing to test hemispheric dominance. The number of pecks was counted for analysis. Results show that generally both groups orientate on the basis of landmarks and the geometry of environment, but landmark information was preferred. Pigeons with navigational experience did not perform better on the tests but showed a better conjunction of the different kinds of information. Significant differences between monocular and binocular viewing were detected particularly in pigeons without navigational experience on two tests with reduced information. Our data suggest that the conjunction of geometric and landmark information might be integrated after processing separately in each hemisphere and that this process is influenced by experience.

Asymmetric visual input and route recapitulation in homing pigeons

Pigeons (Columba livia) display reliable homing behaviour, but their homing routes from familiar release points are individually idiosyncratic and tightly recapitulated, suggesting that learning plays a role in route establishment. In light of the fact that routes are learned, and that both ascending and descending visual pathways share visual inputs from each eye asymmetrically to the brain hemispheres, we investigated how information from each eye contributes to route establishment, and how information input is shared between left and right neural systems. Using on-board global positioning system loggers, we tested 12 pigeons' route fidelity when switching from learning a route with one eye to homing with the other, and back, in an A-B-A design. Two groups of birds, trained first with the left or first with the right eye, formed new idiosyncratic routes after switching eyes, but those that flew first with the left eye formed these routes nearer to their original routes. This confirms that vision plays a major role in homing from familiar sites and exposes a behavioural consequence of neuroanatomical asymmetry whose ontogeny is better understood than its functional significance.

Development of lateralization of the magnetic compass in a migratory bird

The magnetic compass of a migratory bird, the European robin (Erithacus rubecula), was shown to be lateralized in favour of the right eye/left brain hemisphere. However, this seems to be a property of the avian magnetic compass that is not present from the beginning, but develops only as the birds grow older. During first migration in autumn, juvenile robins can orient by their magnetic compass with their right as well as with their left eye. In the following spring, however, the magnetic compass is already lateralized, but this lateralization is still flexible: it could be removed by covering the right eye for 6 h. During the following autumn migration, the lateralization becomes more strongly fixed, with a 6 h occlusion of the right eye no longer having an effect. This change from a bilateral to a lateralized magnetic compass appears to be a maturation process, the first such case known so far in birds. Because both eyes mediate identical information about the geomagnetic field, brain asymmetry for the magnetic compass could increase efficiency by setting the other hemisphere free for other processes.

Olfactory lateralization in homing pigeons: a GPS study on birds released with unilateral olfactory inputs

A large body of evidence has shown that pigeons rely on an olfactory-based navigational map when homing from unfamiliar locations. Previous studies on pigeons released with one nostril occluded highlighted an asymmetry in favour of the right nostril, particularly concerning the initial orientation performance of naïve birds. Nevertheless, all pigeons experiencing only unilateral olfactory input showed impaired homing, regardless of the side of the occluded nostril. So far this phenomenon has been documented only by observing the birds' vanishing bearings. In the present work we recorded the flight tracks of pigeons with previous homing experience equipped with a GPS data logger and released from an unfamiliar location with the right or the left nostril occluded. The analysis of the tracks revealed that the flight path of the birds with the right nostril occluded was more tortuous than that of unmanipulated controls. Moreover, the pigeons smelling with the left nostril interrupted their journey significantly more frequently and displayed more exploratory activity than the control birds, e.g. during flights around a stopover site. These data suggest a more important involvement of the right olfactory system in processing the olfactory information needed for the operation of the navigational map.

Asymmetry of different brain structures in homing pigeons with and without navigational experience

Homing pigeons (Columba livia f.d.) are well-known for their homing abilities, and their brains seem to be functionally adapted to homing as exemplified, e.g. by their larger hippocampi and olfactory bulbs. Their hippocampus size is influenced by navigational experience, and, as in other birds, functional specialisation of the left and right hemispheres (‘lateralisation’) occurs in homing pigeons. To show in what way lateralisation is reflected in brain structure volume, and whether some lateralisation or asymmetry in homing pigeons is caused by experience, we compared brains of homing pigeons with and without navigational experience referring to this. Fourteen homing pigeons were raised under identical constraints. After fledging, seven of them were allowed to fly around the loft and participated successfully in races. The other seven stayed permanently in the loft and thus did not share the navigational experiences of the first group. After reaching sexual maturity, all individuals were killed and morphometric analyses were carried out to measure the volumes of five basic brain parts and eight telencephalic brain parts. Measurements of telencephalic brain parts and optic tectum were done separately for the left and right hemispheres. The comparison of left/right quotients of both groups reveal that pigeons with navigational experience show a smaller left mesopallium in comparison with the right mesopallium and pigeons without navigational experience a larger left mesopallium in comparison with the right one. Additionally, there are significant differences between left and right brain subdivisions within the two pigeon groups, namely a larger left hyperpallium apicale in both pigeon groups and a larger right nidopallium, left hippocampus and right optic tectum in pigeons with navigational experience. Pigeons without navigational experience did not show more significant differences between their left and right brain subdivisions. The results of our study confirm that the brain of homing pigeons is an example for mosaic evolution and indicates that lateralisation is correlated with individual life history (experience) and not exclusively based on heritable traits.

Navigation-induced ZENK expression in the olfactory system of pigeons (Columba livia)

A large body of evidence indicates that pigeons use olfactory cues to navigate over unfamiliar areas with a differential contribution of the left and right hemispheres. In particular, the right nostril/olfactory bulb (OB) and left piriform cortex (Cpi) have been demonstrated to be crucially involved in navigation. In this study we analysed behaviour-induced activation of the olfactory system, indicated by the expression of the immediate early gene ZENK, under different homing conditions. One experimental group was released from an unfamiliar site, the second group was transported to the unfamiliar site and back to the loft, and the third group was released in front of the loft. To evaluate the differential contribution of the left and/or right olfactory input, the nostrils of the pigeons were either occluded unilaterally or not. Released pigeons revealed the highest ZENK cell density in the OB and Cpi, indicating that the olfactory system is activated during navigation from an unfamiliar site. The groups with no plug showed the highest ZENK cell density, supporting the activation of the olfactory system probably being due to sensory input. Moreover, both Cpis seem to contribute differently to the navigation process. Only occlusion of the right OB resulted in a decreased ZENK cell expression in the Cpi, whereas occlusion of the left nostril had no effect. This is the first study to reveal neuronal activation patterns in the olfactory system during homing. Our data show that lateralized processing of olfactory cues is indeed involved in navigation over unfamiliar areas.

Lateralization of magnetic compass orientation in pigeons

The aim of our study was to test for lateralization of magnetic compass orientation in pigeons. Having shown that pigeons are capable of learning magnetic compass directions in an operant task, we wanted to know whether the brain hemispheres contribute differently and how the lateralization pattern relates to findings in other avian species. Birds that had learnt to locate food in an operant chamber by means of magnetic directions were tested for lateralization of magnetic compass orientation by temporarily covering one eye. Successful orientation occurred under all conditions of viewing. Thus, pigeons can perceive and process magnetic compass directions with the right eye and left brain hemisphere as well as the left eye and right brain hemisphere. However, while the right brain hemisphere tended to confuse the learned direction with its opposite (axial response), the left brain hemisphere specifically preferred the correct direction. Our findings demonstrate bilateral processing of magnetic information, but also suggest qualitative differences in how the left and the right brain deal with magnetic cues.

Neurobiology of the homing pigeon--a review

Homing pigeons are well known as good homers, and the knowledge of principal parameters determining their homing behaviour and the neurological basis for this have been elucidated in the last decades. Several orientation mechanisms and parameters-sun compass, earth's magnetic field, olfactory cues, visual cues-are known to be involved in homing behaviour, whereas there are still controversial discussions about their detailed function and their importance. This paper attempts to review and summarise the present knowledge about pigeon homing by describing the known orientation mechanisms and factors, including their pros and cons. Additionally, behavioural features like motivation, experience, and track preferences are discussed. All behaviour has its origin in the brain and the neuronal basis of homing and the neuroanatomical particularities of homing pigeons are a main topic of this review. Homing pigeons have larger brains in comparison to other non-homing pigeon breeds and particularly show increased size of the hippocampus. This underlines our hypothesis that there is a relationship between hippocampus size and spatial ability. The role of the hippocampus in homing and its plasticity in response to navigational experience are discussed in support of this hypothesis.

Epigenesis of behavioural lateralization in humans and other animals

Despite several decades of research, the epigenesis of behavioural and brain lateralization is still elusive, although its knowledge is important in understanding developmental plasticity, function and evolution of lateralization, and its relationship with developmental disorders. Over the last decades, it has become clear that behavioural lateralization is not restricted to humans, but a fundamental principle in the organization of behaviour in vertebrates. This has opened the possibility of extending descriptive studies on human lateralization with descriptive and experimental studies on other vertebrate species. In this review, we therefore explore the evidence for the role of genes and environment on behavioural lateralization in humans and other animals. First, we discuss the predominant genetic models for human handedness, and conclude that their explanatory power alone is not sufficient, leaving, together with ambiguous results from adoption studies and selection experiments in animals, ample opportunity for a role of environmental factors. Next, we discuss the potential influence of such factors, including perinatal asymmetrical perception induced by asymmetrical head position or parental care, and social modulation, both in humans and other vertebrates, presenting some evidence from our own work on the domestic chick. We conclude that both perinatal asymmetrical perception and later social modulation are likely candidates in influencing the degree or strength of lateralization in both humans and other vertebrates. However, in most cases unequivocal evidence for this is lacking and we will point out further avenues for research.

Evolution of hemispheric specialisation of antagonistic systems of management of the body's energy resources

Excellent and rich reviews of lateralised behaviour in animals have recently been published indexing renewed interest in biological theorising about hemispheric specialisation and yielding rich theory. The present review proposes a new account of the evolution of hemispheric specialisation, a primitive system of "management of the body's energy resources". This model is distinct from traditionally evoked cognitive science categories such as verbal/spatial, analytic/holistic, etc., or the current dominant neuroethological model proposing that the key is approach/avoidance behaviour. Specifically, I show that autonomic, immune, psychomotor, motivational, perceptual, and memory systems are similarly and coherently specialised in the brain hemispheres in rodents and man. This energy resource management model, extended to human neuropsychology, is termed here the "psychic tonus" model of hemispheric specialisation.

Olfactory lateralization in homing pigeons: initial orientation of birds receiving a unilateral olfactory input

It has been shown that homing pigeons (Columba livia) rely on olfactory cues to navigate from unfamiliar locations. In fact, the integrity of the olfactory system, from the olfactory mucosa to the piriform cortex, is required for pigeons to navigate over unfamiliar areas. Recently it has been shown that there is a functional asymmetry in the piriform cortex, with the left piriform cortex more involved in the use of the olfactory navigational map than the right piriform cortex. To investigate further the lateralization of the olfactory system in relation to navigational processes in carrier pigeons, we compared their homing performance after either their left or the right nostril was plugged. Contrary to our expectations, we observed an impairment in the initial orientation of the pigeons with their right nostril plugged. However, both groups released with one nostril plugged tended to be poorer than control pigeons in their homing performance. The observed asymmetry in favour of the right nostril might be due to projections from the olfactory bulbs to the contralateral globus pallidum, a structure involved in motor responses.

Finding home: the final step of the pigeons' homing process studied with a GPS data logger

Experiments have shown that homing pigeons are able to develop navigational abilities even if reared and kept confined in an aviary, provided that they are exposed to natural winds. These and other experiments performed on inexperienced birds have shown that previous homing experiences are not necessary to determine the direction of displacement. While the cues used in the map process for orienting at the release site have been extensively investigated, the final step of the homing process has received little attention by researchers. Although there is general agreement on the relevance of visual cues in navigation within the home area, there is a lack of clear evidence. In order to investigate the final step of the homing process, we released pigeons raised under confined conditions and others that had been allowed to fly freely around the loft and compared their flight paths recorded with a Global-Positioning-System logger. Our data show that a limited view of the home area impairs the pigeons' ability to relocate the loft at their first homing flight, suggesting that the final step of the homing process is mediated via recognition of familiar visual landmarks in the home area.

Asymmetrical participation of the left and right hippocampus for representing environmental geometry in homing pigeons

Control, right and left HF lesioned homing pigeons (Columba livia) were trained to locate a goal in one corner of a rectangular enclosure with a distinctive feature cue. Probe tests revealed that all groups were able to encode in parallel geometric (enclosure shape) and feature information, and in the absence of one of them, they could us the other to locate the goal. However, left HF lesioned pigeons learned the task at a faster rate, and when the geometric and feature information were set in conflict, they relied more on the feature cue compared to control and right HF lesioned pigeons. It was also found that pigeons, independent of group, trained to a goal adjacent to the feature cue learned the task in fewer sessions and relied more on feature information compared to pigeons trained to a goal opposite the feature cue. The latter group relied more on geometric information. The results support the hypothesis that the left HF plays a more important role in the representation of a goal location with respect to environmental shape/geometry. We further propose that the observed functional asymmetry can be explained by the lateralized properties of the pigeon tectofugal visual system.

Lateralized functional components of spatial cognition in the avian hippocampal formation: evidence from single-unit recordings in freely moving homing pigeons

Previous research has revealed that the functional components of spatial cognition are lateralized in the forebrain of birds, including the hippocampal formation (HF). To investigate how HF cells in the left and right avian brain may differentially participate in representations of space, we recorded single-units from the HF of homing pigeons as they ran a plus maze for food. The rate maps of left HF cells often displayed elongated regions of increased activity in the center of the maze and along the maze corridors, whereas right HF cells tended to display patches at the ends of maze arms at/near goal locations. Left HF cells displayed a higher degree of spatial-specificity compared with right HF cells, including higher patch-specificity, higher reliability, and a higher incidence of location-correlated activity. Analysis of speed-correlated and trajectory-dependent activity also revealed significant HF-lateralized differences. Right HF cells tended to display significant negative correlations between spike rate and speed, although speed-dependent rate maps indicate that this relationship did not explain their space-specific activity. Left HF cells displayed a significantly higher incidence of trajectory-dependent space-specific activity than was observed in the right HF, suggesting that left HF cells may participate in navigating among goal locations. Differences in the correlates of left and right pigeon HF cells are consistent with unilateral HF-lesion data suggesting that the functional components of spatial cognition are lateralized in the avian brain, and furthermore, provide a basis for hypotheses regarding how the left and right HF support different aspects of spatial cognition.

Passive avoidance training decreases synapse density in the hippocampus of the domestic chick

The bird hippocampus (Hp), although lacking the cellular lamination of the mammalian Hp, possesses comparable roles in spatial orientation and is implicated in passive avoidance learning. As in rodents it can be divided into dorsal and ventral regions based on immunocytochemical, tracing and electrophysiological studies. To study the effects of passive avoidance learning on synapse morphometry in the Hp, spine and shaft synapse densities of 1-day-old domestic chicks were determined in dorsal and ventral Hp of each hemisphere by electron microscopy, 6 and 24 h following training to avoid pecking at a bead coated with a bitter-tasting substance, methyl anthranilate (MeA). The density of asymmetric spine and shaft synapses in MeA-trained birds at 6 h post-training was significantly lower in the dorsal and ventral Hp of the right hemisphere relative to control (untrained) chicks, but by 24 h this difference was absent. A hemispheric asymmetry was apparent in the ventral Hp where the water-trained group showed enhanced shaft and spine synapse density in the left hemisphere, whilst in the MeA-trained group only asymmetric shaft synapses follow the same pattern in relation to the right hemisphere. There were no differences in asymmetric shaft synapses in the dorsal Hp at 6 h post-training, but at 24 h post-training there was a reduction in the density of shaft synapses in the right hemisphere in MeA compared with control birds. These data are discussed in relation to the pruning effects of stress and learning on synapse density in chick Hp.

Lateralized fish perform better than nonlateralized fish in spatial reorientation tasks

Lines of fish (Girardinus falcatus) obtained through selective breeding showing different degree and direction of behavioural lateralization in a variety of tasks were tested for their ability for spatial reorientation. In the first experiment, fish were required to reorient themselves after passive disorientation in a rectangular tank in the presence of a salient feature (a blue wall). Lateralized fish proved to be better than nonlateralized fish at using the geometric cues provided by the shape of the tank in order to disambiguate between corners with similar featural information. In the second experiment fish were tested in a square-shaped tank (in order to eliminate any geometric cues) in the presence of salient features (panels) located at the corners. Lateralized fish proved better than nonlateralized fish in using featural cues to reorient themselves. These findings suggest that lateralization may confer advantages in spatial reorientation based on the use of geometric and nongeometric cues.

Target-cell-specific left-right asymmetry of NMDA receptor content in schaffer collateral synapses in epsilon1/NR2A knock-out mice

Input-dependent left-right asymmetry of NMDA receptor epsilon2 (NR2B) subunit allocation was discovered in hippocampal Schaffer collateral (Sch) and commissural fiber pyramidal cell synapses (Kawakami et al., 2003). To investigate whether this asymmetrical epsilon2 allocation is also related to the types of the postsynaptic cells, we compared postembedding immunogold labeling for epsilon2 in left and right Sch synapses on pyramidal cells and interneurons. To facilitate the detection of epsilon2 density difference, we used epsilon1 (NR2A) knock-out (KO) mice, which have a simplified NMDA receptor subunit composition. The labeling density for epsilon2 but not zeta1 (NR1) and subtype 2/3 glutamate receptor (GluR2/3) in Sch-CA1 pyramidal cell synapses was significantly different between the left and right hippocampus with opposite directions in strata oriens and radiatum; the left to right ratio of epsilon2 labeling density was 1:1.50 in stratum oriens and 1.44:1 in stratum radiatum. No significant difference, however, was detected in CA1 stratum radiatum between the left and right Sch-GluR4-positive (mostly parvalbumin-positive) and Sch-GluR4-negative interneuron synapses. Consistent with the anatomical asymmetry, the amplitude ratio of NMDA EPSCs to non-NMDA EPSCs in pyramidal cells was approximately two times larger in right than left stratum radiatum and vice versa in stratum oriens of epsilon1 KO mice. Moreover, the amplitude of long-term potentiation in the Sch-CA1 synapses of left stratum radiatum was significantly larger than that in the right corresponding synapses. These results indicate that the asymmetry of epsilon2 distribution is target cell specific, resulting in the left-right difference in NMDA receptor content and plasticity in Sch-CA1 pyramidal cell synapses in epsilon1 KO mice.

A lateralized avian hippocampus: preferential role of the left hippocampal formation in homing pigeon sun compass-based spatial learning

The hippocampal formation (HF) plays a crucial role in amniote spatial cognition. There are also indications of functional lateralization in the contribution of the left and right HF in processes that enable birds to navigate space. The experiments described in this study were designed to examine left and right HF differences in a task of sun compass-based spatial learning in homing pigeons (Columba livia). Control, left (HFL) and right (HFR) HF lesioned pigeons were trained in an outdoor arena to locate a food reward using their sun compass in the presence or absence of alternative feature cues. Subsequent to training, the pigeons were subjected to test sessions to determine if they learned to represent the goal location with their sun compass and the relative importance of the sun compass vs. feature cues. Under all test conditions, the control pigeons demonstrated preferential use of the sun compass in locating the goal. By contrast, the HFL pigeons demonstrated no ability to locate the goal by the sun compass but an ability to use the feature cues. The behaviour of the HFR pigeons demonstrated that an intact left HF is sufficient to support sun compass-based learning, but in conflict situations and in contrast to controls, they often relied on feature cues. In conclusion, only the left HF is capable of supporting sun compass-based learning. However, preferential use of the sun compass for learning requires an intact right HF. The data support the hypothesis that the left and right HF make different but complementary contributions toward avian spatial cognition.

Functional asymmetry of left and right avian piriform cortex in homing pigeons' navigation

It has been shown that homing pigeons rely on olfactory cues to navigate over unfamiliar areas and that any kind of olfactory impairment produces a dramatic reduction of navigational performance from unfamiliar sites. The avian piriform cortex is the main projection field of olfactory bulbs and it is supposed to process olfactory information; not surprisingly bilateral lesions to this telencephalic region disrupt homing pigeon navigation. In the present study, we attempted to assess whether the left and right piriform cortex are differentially involved in the use of the olfactory navigational map. Therefore, we released from unfamiliar locations pigeons subjected, when adult, to unilateral ablation of the piriform cortex. After being released, the pigeons lesioned to the right piriform cortex orientated similarly to the intact controls. On the contrary, the left lesioned birds were significantly more scattered than controls, showing a crucial role of the left piriform cortex in processing the olfactory cues needed for determining the direction of displacement. However, both lesioned groups were significantly slower than controls in flying back to the home loft, showing that the integrity of both sides of the piriform cortex is necessary to accomplish the whole homing process.

Working memory in the chick: parallel and lateralized mechanisms for encoding of object- and position-specific information

Working memory of chicks was probed in a delayed-response task, with either object- or position-specific information available in order to locate a goal that had disappeared behind one of two screens in a test arena. When the position of the correct screen was the only available cue (i.e., the two screens were identical) binocular and monocular chicks could easily locate the goal, and the same occurred when the visual characteristics of the screens (no matter what their spatial position) were the only relevant information available and when object- and position-specific cues were both available and in agreement (i.e., the two screens were different and maintained fixed spatial locations). In contrast, when object- and position-specific cues were available but were put in conflict (the two screens were different and were swapped during the delay time) left-eyed and binocular chicks went to the correct position, whereas right-eyed chicks seemed to choose both the correct spatial position and the correct object cue to the same degree. When during the delay the correct screen was substituted by an entirely novel screen, no left-right asymmetry associated with response to novelty was observed; monocular chicks preferentially approached the novel screen in the correct position, whereas binocular chicks did not show any clear choice. The results suggest that both object- and position-specific information is available to the two cerebral hemispheres in working memory tasks; however, when a conflict between cues arises, the right hemisphere preferentially attends to position-specific cues, whereas the left hemisphere tends to attend to object-specific cues.

Factors reducing the expected deflection in initial orientation in clock-shifted homing pigeons

To orient from familiar sites, homing pigeons can rely on both an olfactory map and visual familiar landmarks. The latter can in principle be used in two different ways: either within a topographical map exploited for piloting or in a so-called mosaic map associated with a compass bearing. One way to investigate the matter is to put the compass and the topographical information in conflict by releasing clock-shifted pigeons from familiar locations. Although the compass orientation is in general dominant over a piloting strategy, a stronger or weaker tendency to correct towards the home direction by clock-shifted pigeons released from very familiar sites has often been observed. To investigate which factors are involved in the reduction of the deviation due to clock-shift, we performed a series of releases with intact and anosmic pigeons from familiar sites in unshifted and clock-shifted conditions and a series of releases from the same sites with naive clock-shifted birds. Our data suggest that the following factors have a role in reducing deviation due to the clock-shift: familiarity with the release site, the lack of olfactory information and some unknown site-dependent features.

Afferent and efferent connections of the dorsolateral corticoid area and a comparison with connections of the temporo-parieto-occipital area in the pigeon (Columba livia)

The dorsolateral corticoid area (CDL) in the pigeon telencephalon is a thin, superficial part of the caudal pallium adjoining the medially situated hippocampal formation. To determine the connectivity of CDL, and to distinguish CDL from the rostrally adjacent temporo-parieto-occipital area (TPO), injections of neural tracers were made into the caudal superficial pallium at various rostrocaudal levels. The results showed that injections caudal to A 6.75 (Karten and Hodos [1967] Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) gave rise to reciprocal connections with subdivisions of the hippocampal formation, TPO, piriform cortex, posterior pallial amygdala, caudoventral nidopallium, densocellular part of the hyperpallium, lateral hyperpallium, frontolateral nidopallium, and lateral intermediate nidopallium. Of these, the hippocampal formation showed very strong connectivity with CDL, and projection fibers from CDL clearly separated the dorsomedial region of the hippocampal formation into lateral and medial portions. CDL projected directly to the olfactory bulb, but did not receive projections from it. In the diencephalon, CDL received efferents from a dorsal region of the medial part of the anterior dorsolateral nucleus of the thalamus, subrotundal nucleus, and internal paramedian nucleus of the thalamus. These findings suggest that CDL in the pigeon belongs to the limbic pallium and that in some respects it may be comparable to the mammalian cingulate cortex. In contrast, injections of tracers into the pallial surface at or rostral to A 7.00 showed marked differences in the pattern of both anterograde and retrograde labeling from that resulting from injections caudal to A 6.50, thereby indicating the approximate level of transition from CDL to TPO.

Visual lateralization and homing in pigeons

The aim of our study was to analyse the components of visual lateralization in pigeon homing, a large-scale spatial task. In a series of 13 releases, birds were tested as binocular controls or monocularly with the right or left-eye covered. Occlusion of either eye had a significant effect on initial orientation and homing performance. Vanishing bearings were deflected to the side of the open eye, vanishing intervals were longer, and homing speed was reduced. These parameters were affected to a different degree. Initial orientation was markedly lateralized, with birds using their right-eye deviating less from the mean of control birds and showing significantly less variance. One minute after release, the deviation and variance were similarly large in both monocular groups. However, while the right-eyed birds improved their performance until leaving the release site, the left-eyed birds failed to do so. Vanishing intervals were similar in both monocular groups, but homing speed was reduced to a lesser extent in pigeons using the right-eye. The degree of lateralization varied across different releases, but superiority of the right-eye/left hemisphere prevailed. Lateralization did not depend on familiarity with the release site. This suggests that the crucial processes involved the eyes, but did not depend on visual memory of landscape features at the release site. Results reveal, for the first time, asymmetries of directional orientation as an essential component of lateralized homing performance. As likely mechanisms we suggest hemispheric differences in magnetic compass orientation and in the adjustment to optic flow.

What Does a Pigeon (Columba livia) Brain Look Like During Homing? Selective Examination of ZENK Expression

Lesion studies have shown that the avian hippocampus plays a crucial role in homing pigeon (Columba livia) navigation. Using the expression of the immediate early gene protein ZENK in intact pigeons, the authors found regional variation in hippocampal activation as a consequence of homing and, necessarily, the behavior and internal states that accompany it. Specifically, pigeons that homed displayed a significant increase in the number of ZENK-labeled cells in the lateral hippocampal formation compared with pigeons that did not home, whereas no difference was seen in the medial hippocampus. Significant changes in ZENK expression were also found in the medial striatum, which resembles the mammalian ventral striatum. The results identify portions of the hippocampal formation and the medial striatum as sites of plasticity associated with homing.

Lateralization of Spatial Learning in the Avian Hippocampal Formation

The authors investigated lateralization of spatial learning within the avian hippocampal formation (HF). In Experiment 1, homing pigeons (Columba livia) with unilateral lesions of the right or left HF were trained to locate a goal in a square room containing local landmarks and global room cues. All groups learned the task. During probe trials, when landmarks were rotated or removed, intact pigeons and left HF-lesioned pigeons relied exclusively on global room cues to locate the food goal. Pigeons with right HF lesions were the only group to demonstrably use the landmarks. The results suggest that the right HF is preferentially involved in the representation of global environmental space, whereas only the left HF may be sensitive to local landmarks for navigation.

The homing pigeon hippocampus and space: in search of adaptive specialization

The hippocampus (HF) of birds and mammals is essential for the map-like representation of environmental landmarks used for navigation. However, species with contrasting spatial behaviors and evolutionary histories are likely to display differences, or 'adaptive specializations', in HF organization reflective of those contrasts. In the search for HF specialization in homing pigeons, we are investigating the spatial response properties of isolated HF neurons and possible right-left HF differences in the representation of space. The most notable result from the recording work is that we have yet to find neurons in the homing pigeon HF that display spatial response properties similar to HF 'place cells' of rats. Of interest is the suggestion of neurons that show higher levels of activity when pigeons are near goal locations and neurons that show higher levels of activity when pigeons are in a holding area prior to be being placed in an experimental environment. In contrast to the rat, the homing pigeon HF appears to be functionally lateralized. Results from a current lesion study demonstrate that only the left HF is sensitive to landmarks that are located within the boundaries of an experimental environment, whereas the right HF is indifferent to such landmarks but sensitive to global environmental features (e.g., geometry) of the experimental space. The preliminary electrophysiological and lateralization results offer interesting departure points for better understanding possible HF specialization in homing pigeons. However, the pigeon and rat HF reside in different forebrain environments characterized by a wulst and neocortex, respectively. Differences in the forebrain organization of pigeons and rats, and birds and mammals in general, must be considered in making sense of possible species differences in how HF participates in the representation of space.

Small-scale pattern formation in a cortical area of the embryonic chicken telencephalon

The parahippocampal area is a cortical region of the avian dorsomedial telencephalon. In the chicken embryo, it contains discrete clusters of cadherin-7-positive cells, which are embedded in a cadherin-7-negative matrix. In the present work, the development and spatial distribution of these clusters is studied in whole-mount specimens. The clusters form a complex, coherent pattern of patches of variable size, spacing, and staining intensity. The pattern is especially prominent and regularly spaced in the rostral part of the caudolateral parahippocampal area. Here, it consists of stripes and connecting bridges with an average periodicity of approximately 0.3 mm. This pattern vaguely resembles some animal fur patterns and the ocular dominance domain of the mammalian visual cortex. The cadherin-7-positive patches also differ from their surrounding area by their cytoarchitecture and their increased acetylcholinesterase activity, suggesting that they represent functionally specialized subregions within the parahippocampal area. During development, the patchiness is first observed between 9 and 10 days of incubation and gradually becomes more prominent until 15 days of incubation. Our results indicate that the patchy organization of cortical gray matter on a small scale of periodicity (below 1 mm), which is well studied in the mammalian neocortex, is also found in the avian telencephalon.

Maps in birds: representational mechanisms and neural bases

The often extraordinary navigational behavior of birds is based in part on their ability to learn map-like representations of the heterogeneous distribution of environmental stimuli in space. Whether navigating small-scale laboratory environments or large-scale field environments, birds appear to be reliant on a directional framework, for example that provided by the sun, to learn how stimuli are distributed in space and to represent them as a map. The avian hippocampus plays a critical role in some aspects of map learning. Recent results from electrophysiological studies hint at the possibility that different aspects of space may be represented in the activity of different neuronal types in the avian hippocampus.

Bilateral participation of the hippocampus in familiar landmark navigation by homing pigeons

Recent findings indicate a different role of the left and right hippocampal formation (RHF) in homing pigeon navigational map learning. However, it remains uncertain whether the left or the RHF may play a more important role in navigation based on familiar landmarks. In the present study, we attempted to answer this question by experimentally releasing control and left and right hippocampal ablated pigeons from familiar training sites under anosmia, to render their navigational map dysfunctional, and after a phase-shift of the light-dark cycle, to place into conflict a pilotage-like landmark navigational strategy and a site-specific compass orientation landmark navigational strategy. Both left and right hippocampal ablated birds succeeded in learning to navigate by familiar landmarks, and both preferentially relied on sun-compass based, site-specific compass orientation to home. Like bilateral hippocampal lesioned birds, and in contrast to intact controls, neither ablation group adopted a pilotage-like strategy. We conclude that both the left and RHF are necessary if pilotage-like, familiar landmark navigation is to be learned or preferentially used for navigation.

Estimation of numerical density and mean synaptic height in chick hippocampus 24 and 48 hours after passive avoidance training

The effects of passive avoidance learning on synaptic morphology and number in the dorsolateral hippocampus of chick were investigated at 24 and 48 h after training. Chicks of both sexes were used. The numerical density of synapses and mean synaptic height were determined using design-based quantitative electron microscopic techniques. Our results suggest that after training there is a significant increase in synaptic density in the dorsolateral hippocampus of chicks at both 24 and 48 h, and also that the mean synaptic height was significantly different between trained and control groups. The increase in synaptic density was due to shaft (type II) synapses. It is known that during synaptogenesis, shaft synapses are formed first and are then converted to spine synapses. The only hemispheric asymmetry was found in the 24 h water-trained (W-trained) males where the numerical density of spine synapses was significantly higher in the left hippocampus. No significant differences due to gender in either numerical synaptic density or synapse height were observed at either 24 and 48 h. Comparison of the 24 h with 48 h groups showed an increase in shaft synaptic density over time in the W-trained groups, and an increased density of both shaft and spine synapses with time in methylanthranilate-trained (MeA-trained) chicks. These results demonstrate that the dorsolateral hippocampus of the chick shows synaptic changes at both 24 and 48 h after training and implicates this region in the long-term memory process.

Orientation and lateralized cue use in pigeons navigating a large indoor environment

The pigeon's use of different visuo-spatial cues was studied under controlled laboratory conditions that simulated analogous aspects of a homing situation. The birds first learned the route to a goal that was not visible from the starting location, but became visible as it was approached. Birds could orientate within a mainly geometric global reference frame, using prominent landmarks within their range, or by `piloting' along local cues. After learning the route, the birds were tested from familiar and unfamiliar release points, and several aspects of the available cues were varied systematically. The study explored the contribution of the left and right brain hemispheres by performing tests with the right or left eye occluded. The results show that pigeons can establish accurate bearings towards a non-visible goal by using a global reference frame only. Furthermore, there was a peak of searching activity at the location predicted by the global reference frame. Search at this location and directedness of the bearings were equally high with both right and left eye, suggesting that both brain hemispheres have the same competence level for these components of the task. A lateralization effect occurred when prominent landmarks were removed or translated. While the right brain hemisphere completely ignored such changes,the left brain hemisphere was distracted by removal of landmarks. After translation of landmarks, the left but not the right brain hemisphere allocated part of the searching activity to the site predicted by the new landmark position. The results show that a mainly geometric global visual reference frame is sufficient to determine exact bearings from familiar and unfamiliar release points. Overall, the results suggest a model of brain lateralization with a well-developed global spatial reference system in either hemisphere and an extra capacity for the processing of object features in the left brain.

Participation of the homing pigeon thalamofugal visual pathway in sun-compass associative learning

The ascending thalamofugal visual pathway in pigeons (Columba livia) terminates in the telencephalic wulst. Characterizing the role of this pathway in visually guided behaviour has remained a challenge. To determine whether this pathway, and in particular the wulst, may participate in sun-compass-guided behaviour in homing pigeons, intact, ectostriatum-lesioned or wulst-lesioned pigeons were trained to use their sun compass to locate the direction of a food reward in an outdoor, octagonal arena. Control and ectostriatum-lesioned pigeons learned the task well, and orientated appropriately during the first trial of the last three training sessions and after a phase-shift manipulation. In contrast, the wulst-lesioned pigeons learned the task but they took more sessions to learn, and their directional choices were more scattered during the first trial of the last three training sessions and after the phase-shift manipulation. A subsequent regression analysis indicated that deeper layers of the wulst might have made more of a contribution to the observed behavioural impairments. The data indicate that the homing pigeon wulst participates in visually guided behaviour when the sun compass is used to learn the directional location of a goal.

Lateralization of response to social stimuli in fishes: a comparison between different methods and species

We measured the time spent in monocular viewing during inspection of their own mirror images in females of three species of fish (Xenotoca eiseni, Gambusia holbrooki and Xenopoecilus sarasinorum) using a rectangular tank in which animals could observe their own reflections in two mirrors positioned along the major walls, and in females of five species of fish (X. eiseni, G. holbrooki, X. sarasinorum, Danio rerio and Gnatonemus petersii) using a quasi-circular tank in which fish could rotate clockwise or anticlockwise and observe their own reflections in a mirror positioned along the outer wall. Results revealed a consistent left-eye preference during initial sustained fixation in all species irrespective of the apparatus. However, in the quasi-circular tank, fish showed more variability of response. The asymmetry was apparent during the first 5 min of observation and tended to fade thereafter, probably as a result of habituation. These findings add to current evidence for a quite invariant pattern in the direction of lateralization in similar tasks in a variety of vertebrate species, with a preferential involvement of structures located to the right side of the brain in response to the viewing of images of conspecifics.