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Fischer A, De Vita N, Phillips Sproule S, Gries G. Starving infecund widow spiders maintain sexual attractiveness and trade off safety for enhanced prey capture. iScience 2024; 27:110722. [PMID: 39280632 PMCID: PMC11396026 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Starving animals must balance their resources between immediate survival and future reproduction. False widow spiders, Steatoda grossa, inhabit indoor settings with scarce prey. Here, we investigated the effects of lengthy starvation on the physiology, web architecture, sexual signaling, and reproductive success of S. grossa females. Compared to well-fed females, starving females (1) lost body mass faster, (2) had lower survival, (3) produced more silk for prey capture than for safety, and (4) deposited less contact pheromone components on their webs but accelerated their hydrolysis to mate-attractant components. As starving females became infecund - but still attracted and copulated with males - they misguided males that would gain reproductive fitness by selecting fecund females. Whether starving females store sperm and potentially regain fecundity upon feeding is still unknown. Our study shows how prey shortage shapes sexual signaling, predation, and reproductive behavior of S. grossa females that seem to engage in deceptive signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fischer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
- Department of General and Systematic Zoology, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Str. 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Natalie De Vita
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Sophia Phillips Sproule
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Gerhard Gries
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
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2
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Wilczek G, Surmiak-Stalmach K, Morenc M, Niemiec-Cyganek A, Rost-Roszkowska M, Karcz J, Skowronek M. The effect of ingested copper on the structural and cytotoxic properties of Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) spider silk. ZOOLOGY 2024; 162:126143. [PMID: 38218003 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2024.126143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Spiders, assigned to macroconcentrators of heavy metals, are particularly threatened by the toxic effects of these chemicals. Until now, it has not been specified to what extent metals alter the processes proceeding in silk glands and if such changes could consequently influence the chemical and structural properties of the spun web threads. In the present study selected biological properties of Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) silk yarn after nutritional exposure to copper at sublethal doses (0.234 mM CuSO4) were assessed. It was determined both changes in ultrastructure of ampullate glands and hunting web's architecture as well the cytotoxic effect in model cells (fibroblasts: line ATCC® CCL-1 NCTC clone 929), that were in contact with the analyzed biomaterial. The exposure of spiders to copper caused the occurrence of apoptotic cells in the ampullate glands as well as a significant reduction in the diameter of single fibers in double and multiple connection complexes as compared with control. At both 24 and 72 h of incubation, intensification of apoptotic and necrotic processes was observed in the fibroblast cultures that were remaining in indirect contact with the webs produced by copper-contaminated individuals. In the case of fibroblasts in direct contact with silk from the copper group, a clear cytotoxic effect resulting in an increased frequency of necrosis was observed after 72 h of incubation. The results indicated that copper may change the biological properties of spider silk and compromise its biomaterial properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grażyna Wilczek
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Kinga Surmiak-Stalmach
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Morenc
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland; Prof. Zbigniew Religa Foundation of Cardiac Surgery Development, Wolności 345a, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland
| | | | - Magdalena Rost-Roszkowska
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland
| | - Jagna Karcz
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland
| | - Magdalena Skowronek
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007 Katowice, Poland
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3
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Zhang H, Li G, Li C, Chen J, Zhao Z, Zhang S, Liu J. Feeding mediated web-building plasticity in a cobweb spider. Curr Zool 2023; 69:756-765. [PMID: 37876637 PMCID: PMC10591150 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral plasticity has been proposed as a means by which animals alter their phenotypes in response to changing conditions. Animals may display behavioral plasticity as a consequence of environmental variation. The detritus-based, bell-shaped cobweb spider Campanicola campanulata is an ideal model to study behavioral plasticity, because its web architecture is easy to be quantified, and the functions of different parts of the web are clear. Though the plasticity of cobweb architecture has been reported in a few species, retreats as important defensive structures have rarely been considered before because retreats in most cobwebs are relatively small compared with the web size. We studied the web-building behaviors of C. campanulata under different feeding regimes. We set up 3 spider treatments with different feeding conditions: marginally well fed, moderately well fed, and extremely well fed, and observed the differences in the web architecture among them. In addition, we measured the mechanical properties of anchor silk, and also calculated the foraging and defense investment of the spiders. The results showed that marginally well-fed spiders build cobwebs with significantly longer length of anchor silk, lower retreat to the ground, more number and longer gumfooted lines, and larger capture area, while extremely well-fed spiders build cobwebs with significantly bigger retreat volume and higher height of retreat to the ground. In addition, marginally well-fed spiders invest significantly less during cobweb construction. However, there was no significant difference between the breaking force and elongation at break in anchor silk among different treatments. These results demonstrated that marginally well-fed spiders invest more in foraging, and extremely well-fed spiders invest more in defense, and the spider made a balance between foraging and predator avoidance in response to changes in physiological state. Our study strengthens the current understanding of web construction in cobweb spiders, especially those facing high costs during retreat construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haixin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering & Centre for Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Gang Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Changchun Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Quality Control of Characteristic Fruits and Vegetables, College of Life Science and Technology, Hubei Engineering University, Xiaogan 432000, China
| | - Jian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering & Centre for Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Zeyu Zhao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Shichang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering & Centre for Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Jie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering & Centre for Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Regional Development and Environmental Response, Faculty of Resources and Environmental Science, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
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4
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Fischer A, Fernando Y, Preston A, Moniz-de-Sa S, Gries G. Widow spiders alter web architecture and attractiveness in response to same-sex competition for prey and mates, and predation risk. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1028. [PMID: 37821674 PMCID: PMC10567780 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05392-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Female-female competition in animals has rarely been studied. Responses of females that compete context-dependently for mates and prey, and seek safety from predators, are ideally studied with web-building spiders. Cobwebs possess unique sections for prey capture and safety, which can be quantified. We worked with Steaoda grossa females because their pheromone is known, and adjustments in response to mate competition could be measured. Females exposed to synthetic sex pheromone adjusted their webs, indicating a perception of intra-sexual competition via their sex pheromone. When females sequentially built their webs in settings of low and high intra-sexual competition, they adjusted their webs to increase prey capture and lower predation risk. In settings with strong mate competition, females deposited more contact pheromone components on their webs and accelerated their breakdown to mate-attractant pheromone components, essentially increasing their webs' attractiveness. We show that females respond to sexual, social and natural selection pressures originating from intra-sexual competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fischer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
| | - Yasasi Fernando
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - April Preston
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Sarah Moniz-de-Sa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Gerhard Gries
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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5
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Lu W, Lee NA, Buehler MJ. Modeling and design of heterogeneous hierarchical bioinspired spider web structures using deep learning and additive manufacturing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2305273120. [PMID: 37487072 PMCID: PMC10401013 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2305273120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Spider webs are incredible biological structures, comprising thin but strong silk filament and arranged into complex hierarchical architectures with striking mechanical properties (e.g., lightweight but high strength, achieving diverse mechanical responses). While simple 2D orb webs can easily be mimicked, the modeling and synthesis of 3D-based web structures remain challenging, partly due to the rich set of design features. Here, we provide a detailed analysis of the heterogeneous graph structures of spider webs and use deep learning as a way to model and then synthesize artificial, bioinspired 3D web structures. The generative models are conditioned based on key geometric parameters (including average edge length, number of nodes, average node degree, and others). To identify graph construction principles, we use inductive representation sampling of large experimentally determined spider web graphs, to yield a dataset that is used to train three conditional generative models: 1) an analog diffusion model inspired by nonequilibrium thermodynamics, with sparse neighbor representation; 2) a discrete diffusion model with full neighbor representation; and 3) an autoregressive transformer architecture with full neighbor representation. All three models are scalable, produce complex, de novo bioinspired spider web mimics, and successfully construct graphs that meet the design objectives. We further propose an algorithm that assembles web samples produced by the generative models into larger-scale structures based on a series of geometric design targets, including helical and parametric shapes, mimicking, and extending natural design principles toward integration with diverging engineering objectives. Several webs are manufactured using 3D printing and tested to assess mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lu
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
| | - Nic A. Lee
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
| | - Markus J. Buehler
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Center for Computational Science and Engineering, Schwarzman College of Computing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA02139
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6
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Krugner R, Espindola C, Justus N, Hatton RL. Web Vibrations in Intraspecific Contests of Female Black Widow Spiders, Latrodectus hesperus. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2023; 52:169-174. [PMID: 36727725 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvad003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Female black widow spiders, Latrodectus hesperus Chamberlin and Ivie (Araneae: Theridiidae), are solitary predators of arthropods with no tolerance for intruders on the webs. In California, L. hesperus are found in urban and agricultural settings and can be a phytosanitary pest in fresh produce. Spatial separation of L. hesperus webs could be determined by seasonal population densities, with territorial competition expected under high densities in the environment. However, little is known about female-female communication behaviors in this species. In 1-hr laboratory observations, displays of female-female rivalry included production of vibrational signals in a majority (20 of 30) of trials. The number of signals produced by both females was highest during the initial 10 min of trials, with signaling rate (time interval between signals) peaking during the 40-50 min observation period. The overall ratio of signals produced by the resident female and the introduced female was about 5:1, with the number of signals produced by the resident female higher than the number of signals produced by the introduced female. Analysis of rivalry signals showed a peak in magnitude (about 0.4 m/s) ranging from 6 to 23 Hz and smaller peaks at about 29, 38, and 47 Hz. Collectively, these results demonstrate that female L. hesperus exhibit territorial rivalry and that female-female rivalry is mediated by emission of vibrational signals through the web. Understanding the mechanisms of intraspecific competition in L. hesperus is required for elucidating interspecific interactions in the environment and may lead to development of novel methods to prevent spiders from colonizing crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Krugner
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, 9611 South Riverbend Avenue, Parlier, CA 93648, USA
| | - Crystal Espindola
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, 9611 South Riverbend Avenue, Parlier, CA 93648, USA
| | - Nathan Justus
- School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering, Collaborative Robotics and Intelligent Systems Institute, College of Engineering, Oregon State University, 101 Covell Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Ross L Hatton
- School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering, Collaborative Robotics and Intelligent Systems Institute, College of Engineering, Oregon State University, 101 Covell Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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7
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Hesselberg T, Boyd KM, Styrsky JD, Gálvez D. Host Plant Specificity in Web-Building Spiders. INSECTS 2023; 14:insects14030229. [PMID: 36975914 PMCID: PMC10051880 DOI: 10.3390/insects14030229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Spiders are ubiquitous generalist predators playing an important role in regulating insect populations in many ecosystems. Traditionally they have not been thought to have strong influences on, or interactions with plants. However, this is slowly changing as several species of cursorial spiders have been reported engaging in either herbivory or inhabiting only one, or a handful of related plant species. In this review paper, we focus on web-building spiders on which very little information is available. We only find well-documented evidence from studies of host plant specificity in orb spiders in the genus Eustala, which are associated with specific species of swollen thorn acacias. We review what little is known of this group in the context of spider-plant interactions generally, and focus on how these interactions are established and maintained while providing suggestions on how spiders may locate and identify specific species of plants. Finally, we suggest ideas for future fruitful research aimed at understanding how web-building spiders find and utilise specific plant hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hesselberg
- Department for Continuing Education, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JA, UK
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Kieran M. Boyd
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - John D. Styrsky
- Department of Biology, University of Lynchburg, Lynchburg, VA 24501, USA
| | - Dumas Gálvez
- Coiba Scientific Station, Panama City 0843-01853, Panama
- Programa Centroamericano de Maestría en Entomología, Universidad de Panamá, Panama City 0824, Panama
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City P.O. Box 0843-03092, Panama
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8
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Sergi C, Schlais A, Marshall M, Rodríguez RL. Western black widow spiders (
Latrodectus hesperus
) remember prey capture location and size, but only alter behavior for prey caught at particular sites. Ethology 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clint Sergi
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology group, Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Wisconsin USA
| | - Audrey Schlais
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology group, Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Wisconsin USA
| | - Martie Marshall
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology group, Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Wisconsin USA
| | - Rafael L. Rodríguez
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology group, Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Wisconsin USA
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9
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Toupin LP, Ratz T, Montiglio PO. Effects of resource availability on the web structure of female western black widows: is the web structure constrained by physiological trade-offs? Behav Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arac086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A major challenge of biological research is to understand what generates and maintains consistent behavioral variation among animals. Time and energy trade-offs, where expressing one behavior is achieved at the expense of another, are often suggested to favor the maintenance of behavioral differences between individuals. However, few studies have investigated how individuals adjust their allocation to different functions over time and depending on resource abundance. Black widow spiders of the genus Latrodectus build persistent webs that include structural threads which protect against predators and sticky trap threads to capture prey. Web structure consistently differs among individuals in the number of trap and structural threads. To quantify the intensity of a trade-off, we assessed the relationship between the number of structural and trap threads and tested whether varying food abundance affected individual differences in web structure. We further quantified how these individual differences change over time and with food abundance. We subjected spiders to three different levels of prey abundance and monitored the structure of their webs every twelve hours. We found no evidence for a trade-off between trap and structural threads. Instead, spiders that produced more structural threads also produced more trap threads, showing that spiders invested equally in both types of threads. Interestingly, the magnitude of individual differences in web structure was greatest when spiders were fed ad libitum and at the beginning of web construction. We suggest that variation in web structure between spiders could be the result of stable developmental differences in morphology or genetic differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Philippe Toupin
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal , CP-8888 Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P , Canada
| | - Tom Ratz
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal , CP-8888 Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P , Canada
- Behavioural Ecology, Department of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich (LMU) , Planegg-Martinsried , Germany
| | - Pierre-Olivier Montiglio
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal , CP-8888 Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P , Canada
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10
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Solano-Brenes D, Muniz DG, Sandoval L, Alvarado-Rodríguez O, Barrantes G. Web building behavior in a wall spider (Oecobiidae) suggests a close relationship with orb-weavers. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2021.2024264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Solano-Brenes
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San Pedro, Costa Rica
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Danilo G. Muniz
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Luis Sandoval
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San Pedro, Costa Rica
| | - Olman Alvarado-Rodríguez
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San Pedro, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación de Estructuras Microscópicas (CIEMic), Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica
| | - Gilbert Barrantes
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San Pedro, Costa Rica
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11
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Harvey JA. Prey availability affects developmental trade-offs and sexual-size dimorphism in the false widow spider, Steatoda grossa. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 136:104267. [PMID: 34153345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2021.104267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In many spiders, females are significantly larger than males. Several theories have been postulated to explain sexual size dimorphism (SSD), including differential predation risks experienced by each sex early in life (including female cannibalism of males), male-male competition, and the more costly production of eggs than sperm. However, there is considerable intraspecific variation in the relative size of males and females that is reflected in trade-offs on traits such as growth rate and body size. When SSD favors female size, the body mass ratios between the smallest and largest males is expected to be much greater than in females. Here, growth trajectories and body masses of the false widow spider, Steatoda grossa, were compared in male and female spiders fed continually or intermittently. Males provided with unlimited prey (fruit flies and house crickets) took about 15 weeks to attain full size and sexual maturity and grew to a mean of 25 mg. By contrast, males fed only once every three weeks took approximately 6 weeks longer to reach maturity but were only about half as large (mean 13 mg) as males fed constantly. Females fed intermittently took almost twice as long (45 weeks versus 24 weeks) as constantly-fed females to reach maturity, but were almost 90% as large when fully grown. These results reveal that, although both sexes trade-off development time and body size to achieve the optimal phenotype, rapid development is more important than larger body size in males whereas the opposite is true in females. This finding supports life-history theory underpinning sexual-size dimorphism in some spider lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Harvey
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Droevendaalsesteeg 10, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; VU University Amsterdam, Department of Ecological Sciences, Section Animal Ecology, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Straus S, González AL, Matthews P, Avilés L. Economies of scale shape energetics of solitary and group-living spiders and their webs. J Anim Ecol 2021; 91:255-265. [PMID: 34758114 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic scaling, whereby larger individuals use less energy per unit mass than smaller ones, may apply to the combined metabolic rate of group-living organisms as group size increases. Spiders that form groups in high disturbance environments can serve to test the hypothesis that economies of scale benefit social groups. Using solitary and group-living spiders, we tested the hypothesis that spiders exhibit negative allometry between body or colony mass and the standing mass of their webs and whether, and how, such a relationship may contribute to group-living benefits in a cooperative spider. Given the diverse architecture of spider webs-orb, tangle and sheet-and-tangle, and associated differences in silk content, we first assessed how standing web mass scales with spider mass as a function of web architecture and whether investment in silk differs among web types. As group-living spiders are predominantly found in clades that build the presumably costlier sheet-and-tangle webs, we then asked whether cost-sharing through cooperative web maintenance contributes to a positive energy budget in a social species. We found that larger spiders had a relatively smaller investment in silk per unit mass than smaller ones, but more complex sheet-and-tangle webs contained orders of magnitude more silk than simpler orb or tangle ones. In the group-living species, standing web mass per unit spider mass continued to decline as colony size increased with a similar slope as for unitary spiders. When web maintenance activities were considered, colonies also experienced reduced mass-specific energy expenditure with increasing colony size. Activity savings contributed to a net positive energy balance for medium and large colonies after inputs from the cooperative capture of large prey were accounted for. Economies of scale have been previously demonstrated in animal societies characterized by reproductive and worker castes, but not in relatively egalitarian societies as those of social spiders. Our findings illustrate the universality of scaling laws and how economies of scale may transcend hunting strategies and levels of organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Straus
- Department of Zoology & Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Angélica L González
- Biology Department & Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ, USA
| | - Philip Matthews
- Department of Zoology & Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Leticia Avilés
- Department of Zoology & Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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13
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Caruso MB, Lauria PSS, de Souza CMV, Casais-E-Silva LL, Zingali RB. Widow spiders in the New World: a review on Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (Theridiidae) and latrodectism in the Americas. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210011. [PMID: 34745240 PMCID: PMC8553018 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Humankind has always been fascinated by venomous animals, as their toxic substances have transformed them into symbols of power and mystery. Over the centuries, researchers have been trying to understand animal venoms, unveiling intricate mixtures of molecules and their biological effects. Among venomous animals, Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (widow spiders) have become feared in many cultures worldwide due to their extremely neurotoxic venom. The Latrodectus genus encompasses 32 species broadly spread around the globe, 14 of which occur in the Americas. Despite the high number of species found in the New World, the knowledge on these spiders is still scarce. This review covers the general knowledge on Latrodectus spp. from the Americas. We address widow spiders' taxonomy; geographical distribution and epidemiology; symptoms and treatments of envenomation (latrodectism); venom collection, experimental studies, proteome and transcriptome; and biotechnological studies on these Latrodectus spp. Moreover, we discuss the main challenges and limitations faced by researchers when trying to comprehend this neglected group of medically important spiders. We expect this review to help overcome the lack of information regarding widow spiders in the New World.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolly Brigido Caruso
- Laboratory of Hemostasis and Venoms, Leopoldo de Meis Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Pedro Santana Sales Lauria
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | | | - Luciana Lyra Casais-E-Silva
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology and Toxinology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Russolina Benedeta Zingali
- Laboratory of Hemostasis and Venoms, Leopoldo de Meis Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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14
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Zimny D, Patrzałek M, Kowalska T, Sajewicz M, Surmiak-Stalmach K, Wilczek G. Identification and quantification of fatty acids in hunting web of adult Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) female spiders. ACTA CHROMATOGR 2021. [DOI: 10.1556/1326.2020.00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
This is the first study on composition of fatty acids in hunting web of Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) spiders and one of only four similar studies ever made. Its main contribution is a discovery that fatty acids not only cover an outside of the web fibers, but they are even more abundantly represented in the fibers’ inner structure. Although little attention has been so far attributed to the contents of fatty acids in spider silks, one has to remember that their biocompatibility combined with an extraordinary tensile strength make them a worth investigating template for material bioengineering studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dżastin Zimny
- 1 Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | | | - Teresa Kowalska
- 1 Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | - Mieczysław Sajewicz
- 1 Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | - Kinga Surmiak-Stalmach
- 3 Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Grażyna Wilczek
- 3 Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
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15
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Abstract
Spiders are nature's engineers that build lightweight and high-performance web architectures often several times their size and with very few supports; however, little is known about web mechanics and geometries throughout construction, especially for three-dimensional (3D) spider webs. In this work, we investigate the structure and mechanics for a Tidarren sisyphoides spider web at varying stages of construction. This is accomplished by imaging, modeling, and simulations throughout the web-building process to capture changes in the natural web geometry and the mechanical properties. We show that the foundation of the web geometry, strength, and functionality is created during the first 2 d of construction, after which the spider reinforces the existing network with limited expansion of the structure within the frame. A better understanding of the biological and mechanical performance of the 3D spider web under construction could inspire sustainable robust and resilient fiber networks, complex materials, structures, scaffolding, and self-assembly strategies for hierarchical structures and inspire additive manufacturing methods such as 3D printing as well as inspire artistic and architectural and engineering applications.
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16
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Sergi CM, Antonopoulos T, Rodríguez RL. Black widow spiders use path integration on their webs. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03009-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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17
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Greco G, Pugno NM. How spiders hunt heavy prey: the tangle web as a pulley and spider's lifting mechanics observed and quantified in the laboratory. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20200907. [PMID: 33530858 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The spiders of Theridiidae's family display a peculiar behaviour when they hunt extremely large prey. They lift the quarry, making it unable to escape, by attaching pre-tensioned silk threads to it. In this work, we analysed for the first time in the laboratory the lifting hunting mechanism and, in order to quantify the phenomenon, we applied the lifting mechanics theory. The comparison between the experiments and the theory suggests that, during the process, spiders do not stretch the silk too much by keeping it in the linear elastic regime. We thus report here further evidence for the strong role of silk in spiders' evolution, especially how spiders can stretch and use it as an external tool to overcome their muscles' limits and capture prey with large mass, e.g. 50 times the spider's mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Greco
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta Materials and Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Nicola M Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio-inspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta Materials and Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.,School of Engineering and Material Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
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18
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Fisher DN, Pruitt JN, Yeager J. Orb-weaving spiders show a correlated syndrome of morphology and web structure in the wild. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Extended phenotypes are traits that exist outside the physical body of organisms. Despite their role in the lives of the organisms that express them and other organisms influenced by extended phenotypes, the consistency and covariance with morphological and behavioural traits of extended phenotypes has rarely been evaluated. We repeatedly measured an extended phenotype involved in prey acquisition (web structure) of wild orb-weaving spiders (Micrathena vigorsii), which re-build their webs daily. We related web structure to behaviours and spider body length. Web diameter and web density were repeatable among individuals, reaction to a predation threat was very marginally so, and response to a prey stimulus and web evenness were not repeatable. Larger spiders spun wider webs, had webs with increased thread spacing, and the spider possibly tended to react more slowly to a predation threat. When a spider built a relatively larger web it was also a relatively less dense and less even web. The repeatability of web construction and relationship with spider body size we found may be common features of intra-population variation in web structure in spiders. By estimating the consistency and covariances of extended phenotypes we can begin to evaluate what maintains their variation and how they might evolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Fisher
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, King’s College, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Jonathan N Pruitt
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Ecology, Evolution & Marine Biology, University of California - Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Justin Yeager
- Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Dirección General de Investigación, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
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19
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Abstract
Latrodectus geometricus, also known as the brown widow or brown button spider, is an unrenowned relative of the American black widow. While brown widow envenomation is generally thought of as mild, it does have the potential to lead to moderate or severe features similar to black widow bites. We report a case of brown widow envenomation that led to a moderate reaction including rash, local pain, pain radiating proximally in the extremity and nausea. Poison control was consulted for aid in spider identification. The patient was treated for pain control and muscle relaxation and monitored for eight hours. After proper tetanus prophylaxis, the patient was successfully discharged home with well-controlled, but continued mild symptoms. This case highlights a little-known, but clinically relevant species of widow spider with a wide distribution. Expeditious identification and treatment of brown widow bites can increase patient comfort, satisfaction, and discharge rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Earwood
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, USA
| | - Jay Ladde
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Orlando Regional Medical Center, Orlando, USA
| | - Philip A Giordano
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Orlando Regional Medical Center, Orlando, USA
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20
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The web architecture of Latrodectus hesperus black widow spiders (Araneae: Theridiidae) shows genetic variation and sexual dimorphism, but no plasticity according to the experience of the site of prey capture. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02867-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Thompson CH, Rodríguez RL, Sergi C. Repeatability but no short‐term plasticity in the web architecture of
Latrodectus hesperus
western black widow spiders (Araneae: Theridiidae). Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cory H. Thompson
- Behavioral & Molecular Ecology Group Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin‐Milwaukee Milwaukee WI USA
| | - Rafael L. Rodríguez
- Behavioral & Molecular Ecology Group Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin‐Milwaukee Milwaukee WI USA
| | - Clinton Sergi
- Behavioral & Molecular Ecology Group Department of Biological Sciences University of Wisconsin‐Milwaukee Milwaukee WI USA
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22
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Wilczek G, Surmiak K, Wawszczak B, Sajewicz M, Kowalska T, Sindera P, Wiśniewska K, Szulinska E. Effect of long-term cadmium and copper intoxication on the efficiency of ampullate silk glands in false black widow Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) spiders. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 224:108564. [PMID: 31276814 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2019.108564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to compare cellular effects of xenobiotic cadmium and biogenic copper in ampullate silk glands of false black widow Steatoda grossa spider after long-term exposure via ingestion under laboratory conditions. Both the level of selected detoxification parameters (glutathione S-transferase, catalase, and the level of total antioxidant capacity) and degree of genotoxic changes (comet assay) were determined in the silk glands. Additionally the contents of selected amino acids (L-Ala, L-Pro, L-His, L-Phe, DL-Ile, and DL-Asn) in the hunting webs produced by spiders of this species were assessed. The ability of S. grossa females to accumulate cadmium was higher than that for copper. Long-term exposure of spiders to copper did not change the level of detoxification parameters, and the level of DNA damage in the cells of ampullate silk glands was also low. Cadmium had a stronger prooxidative and genotoxic effect than copper in the cells of the analyzed silk glands. However, regardless of the type of metal used, no significant changes in the level of amino acids in silk were found. The obtained results confirmed the effectiveness of metal neutralization mechanisms in the body of the studied spider species, which results in the protection of the function of ampullate silk glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grażyna Wilczek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland.
| | - Kinga Surmiak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Beata Wawszczak
- Department of General Chemistry and Chromatography, Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | - Mieczysław Sajewicz
- Department of General Chemistry and Chromatography, Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | - Teresa Kowalska
- Department of General Chemistry and Chromatography, Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia, Szkolna 9, Katowice 40-006, Poland
| | - Piotr Sindera
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Kamila Wiśniewska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Szulinska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
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23
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Kwapich CL, Hölldobler B. Destruction of Spiderwebs and Rescue of Ensnared Nestmates by a Granivorous Desert Ant ( Veromessor pergandei). Am Nat 2019; 194:395-404. [PMID: 31553216 DOI: 10.1086/704338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Prey species rarely seek out and dismantle traps constructed by their predators. In the current study, we report an instance of targeted trap destruction by an invertebrate and a novel context for rescue behavior. We found that foragers of the granivorous desert ant (Veromessor pergandei) identify and cooperatively dismantle spiderwebs (Araneae: Theridiidae, Steatoda spp., and Asagena sp.) During group foraging, workers ensnared in webs are recovered by sisters, which transport them to the nest and groom away their silk bindings. The presence of an ensnared nestmate and chemical alarm signal significantly increased the probability of web removal and nestmate retrieval. A subset of larger-bodied foragers participated in web removal, and 6.3% became tangled or were captured by spiders. Most animals that perform rescue behavior live in small groups, but V. pergandei colonies include tens of thousands of short-lived workers. To maintain their size, large colonies must collect enough seeds to produce 650 new ants each day. We hypothesize that the removal of spiderwebs allows for an unimpeded income of seeds on a single foraging path during a brief daily temperature window. Despite the cost to individuals, webs are recognized and removed only when workers are captured in them.
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24
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Takasuka K, Matsumoto R, Maeto K. Oviposition behaviour by a spider‐ectoparasitoid,
Zatypota maculata
, exploits the specialized prey capture technique of its spider host. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Takasuka
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences Keio University Tsuruoka Japan
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science Kobe University Kobe Japan
| | | | - K. Maeto
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science Kobe University Kobe Japan
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25
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Wilczek G, Karcz J, Rost-Roszkowska M, Kędziorski A, Wilczek P, Skowronek M, Wiśniewska K, Kaszuba F, Surmiak K. Evaluation of selected biological properties of the hunting web spider (Steatoda grossa, Theridiidae) in the aspect of short- and long-term exposure to cadmium. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 656:297-306. [PMID: 30504028 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The study aimed at comparing the effects of short- and long-term exposure of Steatoda grossa female spiders to cadmium on the web's architecture, its energy content, and ultrastructure of ampullate glands. Simple food chain model (medium with 0.25 mM CdCl2 → Drosophila hydei flies → spider (for 4 weeks or 12 months) was used for the exposure. Analysis of Cd content provided evidence that silk fibers of the web are well protected against its incorporation irrespectively of the exposure period. Long-term exposure to cadmium resulted in the occurrence of numerous autophagosomes with degenerated organelles as well as apoptotic and necrotic cells in the ampullate glands. Concurrently, the individual silk fibers building double and multiple combination complexes were significantly thinner than in the control threads. Moreover, exposed spiders spun net with smaller mean calorific value than did the control individuals. Hence, evaluation of both the diameter of silk fibers and calorific value of the web can serve as biomarkers of the effects caused by exposure of these predators to cadmium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grażyna Wilczek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland.
| | - Jagna Karcz
- Laboratory of Scanning Electron Microscopy, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Jagiellońska 28, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Magdalena Rost-Roszkowska
- Department of Embriology and Histology of Animals, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Andrzej Kędziorski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Piotr Wilczek
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Heart Prosthesis Institute FRK, Wolności 345a, Zabrze 41-800, Poland
| | - Magdalena Skowronek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Kamila Wiśniewska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Florentyna Kaszuba
- Department of Embriology and Histology of Animals, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Kinga Surmiak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
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26
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Su I, Qin Z, Saraceno T, Krell A, Mühlethaler R, Bisshop A, Buehler MJ. Imaging and analysis of a three-dimensional spider web architecture. J R Soc Interface 2018; 15:20180193. [PMID: 30232240 PMCID: PMC6170774 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Spiders are abundantly found in nature and most ecosystems, making up more than 47 000 species. This ecological success is in part due to the exceptional mechanics of the spider web, with its strength, toughness, elasticity and robustness, which originate from its hierarchical structures all the way from sequence design to web architecture. It is a unique example in nature of high-performance material design. In particular, to survive in different environments, spiders have optimized and adapted their web architecture by providing housing, protection, and an efficient tool for catching prey. The most studied web in literature is the two-dimensional (2D) orb web, which is composed of radial and spiral threads. However, only 10% of spider species are orb-web weavers, and three-dimensional (3D) webs, such as funnel, sheet or cobwebs, are much more abundant in nature. The complex spatial network and microscale size of silk fibres are significant challenges towards determining the topology of 3D webs, and only a limited number of previous studies have attempted to quantify their structure and properties. Here, we focus on developing an innovative experimental method to directly capture the complete digital 3D spider web architecture with micron scale resolution. We built an automatic segmentation and scanning platform to obtain high-resolution 2D images of individual cross-sections of the web that were illuminated by a sheet laser. We then developed image processing algorithms to reconstruct the digital 3D fibrous network by analysing the 2D images. This digital network provides a model that contains all of the structural and topological features of the porous regions of a 3D web with high fidelity, and when combined with a mechanical model of silk materials, will allow us to directly simulate and predict the mechanical response of a realistic 3D web under mechanical loads. Our work provides a practical tool to capture the architecture of sophisticated 3D webs, and could lead to studies of the relation between architecture, material and biological functions for numerous 3D spider web applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Su
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics (LAMM), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Zhao Qin
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics (LAMM), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Tomás Saraceno
- Studio Tomás Saraceno, Hauptstrasse 11/12, 10317 Lichtenberg, Berlin, Germany
| | - Adrian Krell
- Studio Tomás Saraceno, Hauptstrasse 11/12, 10317 Lichtenberg, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland Mühlethaler
- Studio Tomás Saraceno, Hauptstrasse 11/12, 10317 Lichtenberg, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ally Bisshop
- Studio Tomás Saraceno, Hauptstrasse 11/12, 10317 Lichtenberg, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus J Buehler
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics (LAMM), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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27
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Fischer A, Lee Y, Stewart J, Gries G. Dodging sexual conflict?-Sub-adult females of a web-building spider stay cryptic to mate-seeking adult males. Ethology 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fischer
- Department of Biological Sciences; Simon Fraser University; Burnaby British Columbia Canada
| | - Yerin Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences; Simon Fraser University; Burnaby British Columbia Canada
- Department of Life Sciences; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Jordan Stewart
- Department of Biological Sciences; Simon Fraser University; Burnaby British Columbia Canada
| | - Gerhard Gries
- Department of Biological Sciences; Simon Fraser University; Burnaby British Columbia Canada
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28
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Wilczek G, Karcz J, Putko A, Kędziorski A, Wilczek P, Stalmach M, Szulińska E. The effect of ingested cadmium on the calorific value and structural properties of hunting webs produced by Steatoda grossa (Theridiidae) spiders. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 586:1298-1307. [PMID: 28237463 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The study aimed to assess whether cadmium administered via ingestion to Steatoda grossa cobweb spiders (Theridiidae) affects the energy content and selected structural properties of the produced hunting webs. Cadmium content in webs was assessed with AAS and SEM X-ray microanalysis, while the diameters of silk fibers were estimated with SEM. The energy content of samples was measured in an oxygen micro-bomb calorimeter. Females and males showed different reactions to cadmium supplied through food. In comparison to females, males displayed higher metal concentrations in their bodies and hunting webs, however their calorific values and structural features were not significantly changed. Cadmium-treated females spun webs with smaller single-strand diameters and more frequent multi-stranded threads and invested 47% less energy in web production than the control individuals. It cannot be excluded that such a reduction in energy expenditure for web building in females resulted from energetically costly detoxifying reactions triggered in response to direct and indirect effects of cadmium toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grażyna Wilczek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland.
| | - Jagna Karcz
- Laboratory of Scanning Electron Microscopy, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Jagiellońska 28, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Anna Putko
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Andrzej Kędziorski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Piotr Wilczek
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Heart Prosthesis Institute FRK, Wolności 345a, Zabrze 41-800, Poland
| | - Monika Stalmach
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Szulińska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, Katowice 40-007, Poland
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29
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Abstract
There is a tension between the conception of cognition as a central nervous system (CNS) process and a view of cognition as extending towards the body or the contiguous environment. The centralised conception requires large or complex nervous systems to cope with complex environments. Conversely, the extended conception involves the outsourcing of information processing to the body or environment, thus making fewer demands on the processing power of the CNS. The evolution of extended cognition should be particularly favoured among small, generalist predators such as spiders, and here, we review the literature to evaluate the fit of empirical data with these contrasting models of cognition. Spiders do not seem to be cognitively limited, displaying a large diversity of learning processes, from habituation to contextual learning, including a sense of numerosity. To tease apart the central from the extended cognition, we apply the mutual manipulability criterion, testing the existence of reciprocal causal links between the putative elements of the system. We conclude that the web threads and configurations are integral parts of the cognitive systems. The extension of cognition to the web helps to explain some puzzling features of spider behaviour and seems to promote evolvability within the group, enhancing innovation through cognitive connectivity to variable habitat features. Graded changes in relative brain size could also be explained by outsourcing information processing to environmental features. More generally, niche-constructed structures emerge as prime candidates for extending animal cognition, generating the selective pressures that help to shape the evolving cognitive system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilton F Japyassú
- Biology Institute, Federal University of Bahia, Rua Barão de Jeremoabo s/n, Campus de Ondina, Salvador, Bahia, 40170-115, Brazil.
- Centre for Biodiversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Harold Mitchell Building, St Andrews, Fife, UK, KY16 9TH.
| | - Kevin N Laland
- Centre for Biodiversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Harold Mitchell Building, St Andrews, Fife, UK, KY16 9TH
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30
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Montiglio PO, DiRienzo N. There’s no place like home: the contribution of direct and extended phenotypes on the expression of spider aggressiveness. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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31
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DiRienzo N, Montiglio PO. Linking consistent individual differences in web structure and behavior in black widow spiders. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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32
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Hormiga G, Griswold CE. Systematics, phylogeny, and evolution of orb-weaving spiders. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2013; 59:487-512. [PMID: 24160416 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The orb-weaving spiders (Orbiculariae) comprise more than 25% of the approximately 44,000 known living spider species and produce a remarkable variety of webs. The wheel-shaped orb web is primitive to this clade, but most Orbiculariae make webs hardly recognizable as orbs. Orb-weavers date at least to the Jurassic. With no evidence for convergence of the orb web, the monophyly of the two typical orb web taxa, the cribellate Deinopoidea and ecribellate Araneoidea, remains problematic, supported only weakly by molecular studies. The sister group of the Orbiculariae also remains elusive. Despite more than 15 years of phylogenetic scrutiny, a fully resolved cladogram of the Orbiculariae families is not yet possible. More comprehensive taxon sampling, comparative morphology, and new molecular markers are required for a better understanding of orb-weaver evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Hormiga
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052;
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Dimitrov D, Lopardo L, Giribet G, Arnedo MA, Alvarez-Padilla F, Hormiga G. Tangled in a sparse spider web: single origin of orb weavers and their spinning work unravelled by denser taxonomic sampling. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:1341-50. [PMID: 22048955 PMCID: PMC3282380 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to study the tempo and the mode of spider orb web evolution and diversification, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis using six genetic markers along with a comprehensive taxon sample. The present analyses are the first to recover the monophyly of orb-weaving spiders based solely on DNA sequence data and an extensive taxon sample. We present the first dated orb weaver phylogeny. Our results suggest that orb weavers appeared by the Middle Triassic and underwent a rapid diversification during the end of the Triassic and Early Jurassic. By the second half of the Jurassic, most of the extant orb-weaving families and web designs were already present. The processes that may have given origin to this diversification of lineages and web architectures are discussed. A combination of biotic factors, such as key innovations in web design and silk composition, as well as abiotic environmental changes, may have played important roles in the diversification of orb weavers. Our analyses also show that increased taxon sampling density in both ingroups and outgroups greatly improves phylogenetic accuracy even when extensive data are missing. This effect is particularly important when addition of character data improves gene overlap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitar Dimitrov
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Stenchly K, Clough Y, Buchori D, Tscharntke T. Spider web guilds in cacao agroforestry - comparing tree, plot and landscape-scale management. DIVERS DISTRIB 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00774.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Takasuka K, Matsumoto R. Infanticide by a solitary koinobiont ichneumonid ectoparasitoid of spiders. Naturwissenschaften 2011; 98:529-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-011-0797-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Revised: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 04/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
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Takasuka K, Matsumoto R. Lying on the dorsum: unique host-attacking behaviour of Zatypota albicoxa (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae). J ETHOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-010-0263-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Harmer AMT, Blackledge TA, Madin JS, Herberstein ME. High-performance spider webs: integrating biomechanics, ecology and behaviour. J R Soc Interface 2010; 8:457-71. [PMID: 21036911 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2010.0454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider silks exhibit remarkable properties, surpassing most natural and synthetic materials in both strength and toughness. Orb-web spider dragline silk is the focus of intense research by material scientists attempting to mimic these naturally produced fibres. However, biomechanical research on spider silks is often removed from the context of web ecology and spider foraging behaviour. Similarly, evolutionary and ecological research on spiders rarely considers the significance of silk properties. Here, we highlight the critical need to integrate biomechanical and ecological perspectives on spider silks to generate a better understanding of (i) how silk biomechanics and web architectures interacted to influence spider web evolution along different structural pathways, and (ii) how silks function in an ecological context, which may identify novel silk applications. An integrative, mechanistic approach to understanding silk and web function, as well as the selective pressures driving their evolution, will help uncover the potential impacts of environmental change and species invasions (of both spiders and prey) on spider success. Integrating these fields will also allow us to take advantage of the remarkable properties of spider silks, expanding the range of possible silk applications from single threads to two- and three-dimensional thread networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M T Harmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia.
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KUNTNER MATJAŽ, KRALJ-FIŠER SIMONA, GREGORIČ MATJAŽ. Ladder webs in orb-web spiders: ontogenetic and evolutionary patterns in Nephilidae. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01414.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Clotuche G, Le Goff G, Mailleux AC, Deneubourg JL, Detrain C, Hance T. How to visualize the spider mite silk? Microsc Res Tech 2009; 72:659-64. [PMID: 19322898 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.20712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a phytophagous mite that forms colonies of several thousand individuals. Like spiders, every individual produces abundant silk strands and is able to construct a common web for the entire colony. Despite the importance of this silk for the biology of this worldwide species, only one previous study suggested how to visualize it. To analyze the web structuration, we developed a simple technique to dye T. urticae'silk on both inert and living substrates. Fluorescent brightener 28 (FB) (Sigma F3543) diluted in different solvents at different concentrations regarding the substrate was used to observe single strands of silk. On glass lenses, a 0.5% dimethyl sulfoxide solution was used and on bean leaves, a 0.1% aqueous solution. A difference of silk deposit was observed depending the substrate: rectilinear threads on glass lenses and more sinuous ones on bean leaves. This visualizing technique will help to carry out future studies about the web architecture and silk used by T. urticae. It might also be useful for the study of other silk-spinning arthropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Clotuche
- Unité d'Ecologie et de Biogéographie, Centre de Recherche sur la Biodiversité, Université Catholique de Louvain, 4-5 Place Croix du sud, b-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique
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Boutry C, Blackledge TA. Biomechanical variation of silk links spinning plasticity to spider web function. ZOOLOGY 2009; 112:451-60. [PMID: 19720511 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2009.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Spider silk is renowned for its high tensile strength, extensibility and toughness. However, the variability of these material properties has largely been ignored, especially at the intra-specific level. Yet, this variation could help us understand the function of spider webs. It may also point to the mechanisms used by spiders to control their silk production, which could be exploited to expand the potential range of applications for silk. In this study, we focus on variation of silk properties within different regions of cobwebs spun by the common house spider, Achaearanea tepidariorum. The cobweb is composed of supporting threads that function to maintain the web shape and hold spiders and prey, and of sticky gumfooted threads that adhere to insects during prey capture. Overall, structural properties, especially thread diameter, are more variable than intrinsic material properties, which may reflect past directional selection on certain silk performance. Supporting threads are thicker and able to bear higher loads, both before deforming permanently and before breaking, compared with sticky gumfooted threads. This may facilitate the function of supporting threads through sustained periods of time. In contrast, sticky gumfooted threads are more elastic, which may reduce the forces that prey apply to webs and allow them to contact multiple sticky capture threads. Therefore, our study suggests that spiders actively modify silk material properties during spinning in ways that enhance web function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Boutry
- Department of Biology and Integrated Bioscience Program, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA.
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Web forms and the phylogeny of theridiid spiders (Araneae: Theridiidae): Chaos from order. SYST BIODIVERS 2008. [DOI: 10.1017/s1477200008002855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Boutry C, Blackledge TA. The common house spider alters the material and mechanical properties of cobweb silk in response to different prey. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 309:542-52. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Fine dining or fortress? Functional shifts in spider web architecture by the western black widow Latrodectus hesperus. Anim Behav 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Lopardo L, Hormiga G. Phylogenetic placement of the Tasmanian spider Acrobleps hygrophilus (Araneae, Anapidae) with comments on the evolution of the capture web in Araneoidea. Cladistics 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Vollrath F, Selden P. The Role of Behavior in the Evolution of Spiders, Silks, and Webs. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2007. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Vollrath
- Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3PS, United Kingdom;
| | - Paul Selden
- The Paleontological Institute, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, and Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom;
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HORMIGA GUSTAVO, ALVAREZ-PADILLA FERNANDO, BENJAMIN SURESHP. First Records of Extant Hispaniolan Spiders of the Families Mysmenidae, Symphytognathidae, and Ochyroceratidae (Araneae), Including a New Species of Ochyrocera. AMERICAN MUSEUM NOVITATES 2007. [DOI: 10.1206/0003-0082(2007)3577[1:froehs]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Blackledge TA, Zevenbergen JM. Condition-dependent spider web architecture in the western black widow, Latrodectus hesperus. Anim Behav 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Western black widow spiders express state-dependent web-building strategies tailored to the presence of neighbours. Anim Behav 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Knoflach B, Van Harten A. The one‐palped spider generaTidarrenandEchinotheridionin the Old World (Araneae, Theridiidae), with comparative remarks onTidarrenfrom America. J NAT HIST 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/00222930600940993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Zschokke S, Hénaut Y, Benjamin SP, García-Ballinas JA. Prey-capture strategies in sympatric web-building spiders. CAN J ZOOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1139/z06-074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Arthropods in several orders use traps to capture prey. Such trap-building predators expend most of their foraging energy prior to any prey contact. Nevertheless, relative investments in trap construction and actual prey capture may vary among trap builders, and they are likely to face a trade-off between building very effective but energetically costly traps and building less effective traps requiring faster reaction times when attacking prey. We analysed this trade-off in a field experiment by comparing the prey capture behaviour of four different sympatric web-building spiders (Araneae: Araneidae, Nephilidae, Tetragnathidae, Theridiidae) with the retention times of five different prey types in the webs of these spiders. Retention times differed greatly among webs and among prey types. The vertical orb webs retained prey longer than the horizontal orb web and the sheet web, and active prey escaped more quickly than less active prey. Among spiders with orb webs, the spider with the web that retained prey for the shortest time was the fastest to capture prey, thus confirming the expected trade-off between building long-retaining webs and attacking slowly versus building short-retaining webs and attacking more rapidly. The sheet web, however, neither retained prey for an appreciable period of time nor facilitated rapid prey capture. We suggest that this low capture effectiveness of sheet webs is compensated by their lower maintenance costs.
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