The complete nucleotide sequence of the Vibrio harveyi bacteriophage VHML

Valp1, a Newly Identified Temperate Phage Facilitating Coexistence of Lysogenic and Non-Lysogenic Populations of Vibrio anguillarum

Vibrio anguillarum is a pathogen for several fish and shellfish species. Its ecology is influenced by diverse factors, including bacteriophages. Here, we identify and characterize a new temperate bacteriophage (Valp1) of V. anguillarum. Valp1 is a myovirus with a 60 nm head and a 90 nm contractile tail. Its double-stranded DNA genome of 42,988 bp contains 68 genes, including a protelomerase gene, typical of telomeric phages. Valp1 inhibits the growth of the virulent strain of V. anguillarum PF4, while the derived lysogenic strain P1.1 presents a slight reduction in its growth but is not affected by the presence of Valp1. Both strains present similar virulence in a larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) model, and only slight differences have been observed in their biochemical profile. Co-culture assays reveal that PF4 and P1.1 can coexist for 10 h in the presence of naturally induced Valp1, with the proportion of PF4 ranging between 28% and 1.6%. By the end of the assay, the phage reached a concentration of ~108 PFU/mL, and all the non-lysogenic PF4 strains were resistant to Valp1. This equilibrium was maintained even after five successive subcultures, suggesting the existence of a coexistence mechanism between the lysogenic and non-lysogenic populations of V. anguillarum in conjunction with the phage Valp1.

Genomic Analysis of Two Cold-Active Pseudoalteromonas Phages Isolated from the Continental Shelf in the Arctic Ocean

Cold-active bacteriophages are bacterial viruses that infect and replicate at low temperatures (≤4 °C). Understanding remains limited of how cold-active phage-host systems sustain high viral abundance despite the persistently low temperatures in pelagic sediments in polar seas. In this study, two Pseudoalteromonas phages, ACA1 and ACA2, were isolated from sediment core samples of the continental shelf in the western Arctic Ocean. These phages exhibited successful propagation at a low temperature of 1 °C and displayed typical myovirus morphology with isometric icosahedral heads and contractile tails. The complete genome sequences of phages ACA1 and ACA2 were 36,825 bp and 36,826 bp in size, respectively, sharing almost the same gene content. These are temperate phages encoding lysogeny-related proteins such as anti-repressor, immunity repressor and integrase. The absence of cross-infection between the host strains, which were genomically distinct Pseudoalteromonas species, can likely be attributed to heavy divergence in the anti-receptor apparently mediated by an associated diversity-generating retroelement. HHpred searching identified genes for all of the structural components of a P2-like phage (family Peduoviridae), although the whole of the Peduoviridae family appeared to be divided between two anciently diverged tail modules. In contrast, Blast matching and whole genome tree analysis are dominated by a nonstructural gene module sharing high similarity with Pseudoalteromonas phage C5a (founder of genus Catalunyavirus). This study expands the knowledge of diversity of P2-like phages known to inhabit Peudoalteromonas and demonstrates their presence in the Arctic niche.

Homologs of the Escherichia coli F Element Protein TraR, Including Phage Lambda Orf73, Directly Reprogram Host Transcription

Bacterial cells and their associated plasmids and bacteriophages encode numerous small proteins of unknown function. One example, the 73-amino-acid protein TraR, is encoded by the transfer operon of the conjugative F plasmid of Escherichia coli. TraR is a distant homolog of DksA, a protein found in almost all proteobacterial species that is required for ppGpp to regulate transcription during the stringent response. TraR and DksA increase or decrease transcription initiation depending on the kinetic features of the promoter by binding directly to RNA polymerase without binding to DNA. Unlike DksA, whose full activity requires ppGpp as a cofactor, TraR is fully active by itself and unaffected by ppGpp. TraR belongs to a family of divergent proteins encoded by proteobacterial bacteriophages and other mobile elements. Here, we experimentally addressed whether other members of the TraR family function like the F element-encoded TraR. Purified TraR and all 5 homologs that were examined bound to RNA polymerase, functioned at lower concentrations than DksA, and complemented a dksA-null strain for growth on minimal medium. One of the homologs, λ Orf73, encoded by bacteriophage lambda, was examined in greater detail. λ Orf73 slowed host growth and increased phage burst size. Mutational analysis suggested that λ Orf73 and TraR have a similar mechanism for inhibiting rRNA and r-protein promoters. We suggest that TraR and its homologs regulate host transcription to divert cellular resources to phage propagation or conjugation without induction of ppGpp and a stringent response.

Comparative genomic analysis of dwarf Vibrio myoviruses defines a conserved gene cluster for successful phage infection

Tailed bacteriophages have been at the center of attention, not only for their ability to infect and kill pathogenic bacteria but also due to their peculiar and intriguing complex contractile tail structure. Tailed bacteriophages with contractile tails are known to have a Myoviridae morphotype and are members of the order Caudovirales. Large bacteriophages with a genome larger than 150 kbp have been studied for their ability to use multiple infection and lysis strategies to replicate more efficiently. On the other hand, smaller bacteriophages with fewer genes are represented in the GenBank database in greater numbers, and have several genes with unknown function. Isolation and molecular characterization of a newly reported bacteriophage named Athena1 revealed that it is a strongly lytic bacteriophage with a genome size of 39,826 bp. This prompted us to perform a comparative genomic analysis of Vibrio myoviruses with a genome size of no more than 50 kbp. The results revealed a pattern of genomic organization that includes sets of genes responsible for virion morphogenesis, replication/recombination of DNA, and lysis/lysogeny switching. By studying phylogenetic gene markers, we were able to draw conclusions about evolutionary events that shaped the genomic mosaicism of these phages, pinpointing the importance of a conserved organization of the genomic region encoding the baseplate protein for successful infection of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, we propose the creation of new genera for dwarf Vibrio myoviruses. Comparative genomics of phages infecting aquatic bacteria could provide information that is useful for combating fish pathogens in aquaculture, using novel strategies.

Isolation, characterization and comparison of lytic Epseptimavirus phages targeting Salmonella

This study describes the characterization and genomic analysis of six lytic Salmonella phages. To examine the feasibility of using these phages as biocontrol agents, we analyzed their genomes and compared them to those of similar phages. These six phages belong to genus Epseptimavirus, family Demerecviridae. We identified the genes of these six phages by comparing their genomes with those of three type phages in subfamily Markadamsvirinae. All six phages examined in this study were obligately lytic and did not carry undesirable genes. Two phages (vB_SalS_1-23 and vB_SalS_3-29) were selected as the representative phages for general characterization and physiological tests. The biocontrol efficacy of the representative phages was determined by comparing the viable counts of recovered host Salmonella ser. Newlands ZC-S1 from treatment and phage-free control samples. The biocontrol experiment showed that the representative phages were able to reduce the counts of ZC-S1 to below 2 log₁₀ CFU/mL (~4.3 log₁₀ CFU/mL reduction) at 3 h post-infection at 37 °C. Furthermore, we investigated the application of these two phages in the control of ZC-S1 contamination in chicken products and on eggshells. When applied to the surfaces of the samples, the phage cocktail (MOI = 100) reduced the ZC-S1 count to below 2 log₁₀ CFU/mL on chicken skin and to undetectable levels (1 log₁₀ CFU/mL) in chicken breast meat, ground chicken meat and eggshell samples (p < 0.01). Compared to the initial experiment, the phage cocktail reduced the ZC-S1 count by 2-4.08 log₁₀ CFU/mL when applied at an MOI = 1 (except in the ground chicken meat group) and by 4.48-5.67 log₁₀ CFU/mL at an MOI = 100 after 7 h. In conclusion, these two phages with lytic effects show a high potential to inhibit the growth of Salmonella contaminants and can be used as candidate biocontrol agents.

Vibrio harveyi: a serious pathogen of fish and invertebrates in mariculture

Vibrio harveyi, which belongs to family Vibrionaceae of class Gammaproteobacteria, includes the species V. carchariae and V. trachuri as its junior synonyms. The organism is a well-recognized and serious bacterial pathogen of marine fish and invertebrates, including penaeid shrimp, in aquaculture. Diseased fish may exhibit a range of lesions, including eye lesions/blindness, gastro-enteritis, muscle necrosis, skin ulcers, and tail rot disease. In shrimp, V. harveyi is regarded as the etiological agent of luminous vibriosis in which affected animals glow in the dark. There is a second condition of shrimp known as Bolitas negricans where the digestive tract is filled with spheres of sloughed-off tissue. It is recognized that the pathogenicity mechanisms of V. harveyi may be different in fish and penaeid shrimp. In shrimp, the pathogenicity mechanisms involved the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide, and extracellular proteases, and interaction with bacteriophages. In fish, the pathogenicity mechanisms involved extracellular hemolysin (encoded by duplicate hemolysin genes), which was identified as a phospholipase B and could inactivate fish cells by apoptosis, via the caspase activation pathway. V. harveyi may enter the so-called viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state, and resuscitation of the VBNC cells may be an important reason for vibriosis outbreaks in aquaculture. Disease control measures center on dietary supplements (including probiotics), nonspecific immunostimulants, and vaccines and to a lesser extent antibiotics and other antimicrobial compounds.

Looking for the hidden: Characterization of lysogenic phages in potential pathogenic Vibrio species from the North Sea

The incidence of potentially pathogenic Vibrio species in the marine environment around Europe, is correlated with the increase of surface seawater temperature. Despite their importance, little is known about the trigger factors of potential outbreak-causing strains in this region. As prophages may compose a major reservoir of virulence traits in marine ecosystems, this study aims to identify and characterize the genomes of lysogenic Vibrio phages exemplarily from the North Sea. Therefore, 31 isolates from potentially pathogenic Vibrio species from the North Sea were screened for inducible prophages with mitomycin C. From them, one V. cholerae isolate and 40% V. parahaemolyticus isolates carried inducible prophages. Three lysogenic phages were selected for genomic characterization. The phage vB_VpaM_VP-3212 (unclassified Myoviridae) has a genome with a length of 36.81 Kbp and 55 CDS were identified. This lysogenic phage of V. parahaemolyticus contains genes related to replicative transposition mechanism, such as transposase and mobile elements similar to Mu-like viruses. The phage vB_VpaP_VP-3220 (Podoviridae, unclassified Nona33virus) has a genome length of 58,14 Kbp and contains 63 CDS. This V. parahaemolyticus phage probably uses a headful (pac) packaging replication mechanism. The phage vB_VchM_VP-3213 (unclassified Myoviridae) has a genome with a length of 41 Kbp and 63 CDS were identified, including integrase and Xer system for lysogenic recombination. This lysogenic phage of V. cholerae has similar genomic features as lambdoid phages. Although no pathogenicity genes were identified, their similarity among other phage genomes indicates that these phages can affect the development of pathogenic Vibrio strains in marine environments.

Characterization of a Highly Virulent Edwardsiella anguillarum Strain Isolated From Greek Aquaculture, and a Spontaneously Induced Prophage Therein

Edwardsiella-associated outbreaks are increasingly reported on both marine and freshwater aquaculture setups, accounting for severe financial and biomass losses. E. tarda, E. ictaluri, and E. hoshinae have been the traditional causative agents of edwardsiellosis in aquaculture, however, intensive studies due to the significance of the disease have just recently revealed two more species, E. piscicida and E. anguillarum. Whole genome sequencing that was conducted on the strain EA011113, isolated from farmed Diplodus puntazzo after an edwardsiellosis outbreak in Greece, confirmed it as a new clinical strain of E. anguillarum. Extensive phylogenetic analysis showed that this Greek strain is closely related to an Israeli E. piscicida-like clinical strain, isolated from diseased groupers, Epinephelus aeneus and E. marginatus in Red Sea. Bioinformatic analyses of E. anguillarum strain EA011113 unveiled a wide repertoire of potential virulence factors, the effect of which was corroborated by the mortalities that the strain induced in adult zebrafish, Danio rerio, under different levels of infection intensity (LD50 after 48 h: 1.85 × 104 cfu/fish). This strain was non-motile and according to electron microscopy lacked flagella, a fact that is not typical for E. anguillarum. Comparative genomic analysis revealed a deletion of 36 nt found in the flagellar biosynthetic gene (FlhB) that could explain that trait. Further in silico analysis revealed an intact prophage that was integrated in the bacterial genome. Following spontaneous induction, the phage was isolated, purified, characterized and independently sequenced, confirming its viability as a free, inducible virion as well. Separate genomic analysis of the prophage implies a plausible case of lysogenic conversion. Focusing on edwardsiellosis as a rapidly emerging aquaculture disease on a global scale, this work offers some insight into the virulence, fitness, and potential lysogenic conversion of a of a newly described, yet highly pathogenic, strain of E. anguillarum.

A diversity-generating retroelement encoded by a globally ubiquitous Bacteroides phage

BACKGROUND

Diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) are genetic cassettes that selectively mutate target genes to produce hypervariable proteins. First characterized in Bordetella bacteriophage BPP-1, the DGR creates a hypervariable phage tail fiber that enables host tropism switching. Subsequent surveys for DGRs conclude that the majority identified to date are bacterial or archaeal in origin. This work examines bacteriophage and bacterial genomes for novel phage-encoded DGRs.

RESULTS

This survey discovered 92 DGRs that were only found in phages exhibiting a temperate lifestyle. The majority of phage-encoded DGRs were identified as prophages in bacterial hosts from the phyla Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Firmicutes. Sequence reads from these previously unidentified prophages were present in viral metagenomes (viromes), indicating these prophages can produce functional viruses. Five phages possessed hypervariable proteins with structural similarity to the tail fiber of BPP-1, whereas the functions of the remaining DGR target proteins were unknown. A novel temperate phage that harbors a DGR cassette targeting a protein of unknown function was induced from Bacteroides dorei. This phage, here named Bacteroides dorei Hankyphage, lysogenizes 13 different Bacteroides species and was present in 34% and 21% of whole-community metagenomes and human-associated viromes, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, the number of known DGR-containing phages is increased from four to 92. All of these phages exhibit a temperate lifestyle, including a cosmopolitan human-associated phage. Targeted hypervariation by temperate phages may be a ubiquitous mechanism underlying phage-bacteria interaction in the human microbiome.

Viruses in Marine Ecosystems: From Open Waters to Coral Reefs

Viruses infect all kingdoms of marine life from bacteria to whales. Viruses in the world's oceans play important roles in the mortality of phytoplankton, and as drivers of evolution and biogeochemical cycling. They shape host population abundance and distribution and can lead to the termination of algal blooms. As discoveries about this huge reservoir of genetic and biological diversity grow, our understanding of the major influences viruses exert in the global marine environment continues to expand. This chapter discusses the key discoveries that have been made to date about marine viruses and the current direction of this field of research.

Bacteriophage Interactions with Marine Pathogenic Vibrios: Implications for Phage Therapy

A global distribution in marine, brackish, and freshwater ecosystems, in combination with high abundances and biomass, make vibrios key players in aquatic environments, as well as important pathogens for humans and marine animals. Incidents of Vibrio-associated diseases (vibriosis) in marine aquaculture are being increasingly reported on a global scale, due to the fast growth of the industry over the past few decades years. The administration of antibiotics has been the most commonly applied therapy used to control vibriosis outbreaks, giving rise to concerns about development and spreading of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment. Hence, the idea of using lytic bacteriophages as therapeutic agents against bacterial diseases has been revived during the last years. Bacteriophage therapy constitutes a promising alternative not only for treatment, but also for prevention of vibriosis in aquaculture. However, several scientific and technological challenges still need further investigation before reliable, reproducible treatments with commercial potential are available for the aquaculture industry. The potential and the challenges of phage-based alternatives to antibiotic treatment of vibriosis are addressed in this review.

Efficacy of potential phage cocktails against Vibrio harveyi and closely related Vibrio species isolated from shrimp aquaculture environment in the south east coast of India

A diverse set of novel phages infecting the marine pathogenic Vibrio harveyi was isolated from shrimp aquaculture environments in the south east coast of India. Based on initial screening, three phages with a broad host range revealed that the growth inhibition of phage is relatively specific to V. harveyi. They were also able to infect V. alginolyticus and V. parahemolyticus that belonged to the Harveyi clade species from shrimp pond and sea coast environment samples. However, the impact of these phages on their host bacterium are well understood; a one-step growth curve experiment and transmission electron microscope (TEM) revealed three phages grouped under the Myoviridae (VHM1 and VHM2); Siphoviridae (VHS1) family. These phages were further molecular characterized with respect to phage genomic DNA isolates. The randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) digestion with HindIII, and major structural proteins were distinguished by sodium-dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) clearly indicated that all the phage isolates were different, even when they came from the same source, giving an insight into the diversity of phages. Evaluation of microcosm studies of Penaeus monodon larvae infected with V. harveyi (105 CFU mL-1) showed that larvae survival after 96 h in the presence of phage treatment at 109 PFU mL-1 was enhanced when compared with the control. The resolution in over survival highly recommended that this study provides the phage-based therapy which could be an innovative and eco-friendly solution against Vibrio disease in shrimp aquaculture and in the natural environment.

Stumbling across the Same Phage: Comparative Genomics of Widespread Temperate Phages Infecting the Fish Pathogen Vibrio anguillarum

Nineteen Vibrio anguillarum-specific temperate bacteriophages isolated across Europe and Chile from aquaculture and environmental sites were genome sequenced and analyzed for host range, morphology and life cycle characteristics. The phages were classified as Siphoviridae with genome sizes between 46,006 and 54,201 bp. All 19 phages showed high genetic similarity, and 13 phages were genetically identical. Apart from sporadically distributed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), genetic diversifications were located in three variable regions (VR1, VR2 and VR3) in six of the phage genomes. Identification of specific genes, such as N6-adenine methyltransferase and lambda like repressor, as well as the presence of a tRNAArg, suggested a both mutualistic and parasitic interaction between phages and hosts. During short term phage exposure experiments, 28% of a V. anguillarum host population was lysogenized by the temperate phages and a genomic analysis of a collection of 31 virulent V. anguillarum showed that the isolated phages were present as prophages in >50% of the strains covering large geographical distances. Further, phage sequences were widely distributed among CRISPR-Cas arrays of publicly available sequenced Vibrios. The observed distribution of these specific temperate Vibriophages across large geographical scales may be explained by efficient dispersal of phages and bacteria in the marine environment combined with a mutualistic interaction between temperate phages and their hosts which selects for co-existence rather than arms race dynamics.

Insights into Bacteriophage Application in Controlling Vibrio Species

Bacterial infections from various organisms including Vibrio sp. pose a serious hazard to humans in many forms from clinical infection to affecting the yield of agriculture and aquaculture via infection of livestock. Vibrio sp. is one of the main foodborne pathogens causing human infection and is also a common cause of losses in the aquaculture industry. Prophylactic and therapeutic usage of antibiotics has become the mainstay of managing this problem, however, this in turn led to the emergence of multidrug resistant strains of bacteria in the environment; which has raised awareness of the critical need for alternative non-antibiotic based methods of preventing and treating bacterial infections. Bacteriophages - viruses that infect and result in the death of bacteria - are currently of great interest as a highly viable alternative to antibiotics. This article provides an insight into bacteriophage application in controlling Vibrio species as well underlining the advantages and drawbacks of phage therapy.

Marine phage genomics: the tip of the iceberg

Marine viruses are the most abundant biological entity in the oceans, the majority of which infect bacteria and are known as bacteriophages. Yet, the bulk of bacteriophages form part of the vast uncultured dark matter of the microbial biosphere. In spite of the paucity of cultured marine bacteriophages, it is known that marine bacteriophages have major impacts on microbial population structure and the biogeochemical cycling of key elements. Despite the ecological relevance of marine bacteriophages, there are relatively few isolates with complete genome sequences. This minireview focuses on knowledge gathered from these genomes put in the context of viral metagenomic data and highlights key advances in the field, particularly focusing on genome structure and auxiliary metabolic genes.

Only a tiny fraction of marine phages have been discovered, yet are known to have important roles in the ocean.

Two novel temperate bacteriophages co-existing in Aeromonas sp. ARM81 - characterization of their genomes, proteomes and DNA methyltransferases

Aeromonas species are causative agents of a wide spectrum of diseases in animals and humans. Although these bacteria are commonly found in various environments, little is known about their phages. Thus far, only one temperate Aeromonas phage has been characterized. Whole-genome sequencing of an Aeromonas sp. strain ARM81 revealed the presence of two prophage clusters. One of them is integrated into the chromosome and the other was maintained as an extrachromosomal, linear plasmid-like prophage encoding a protelomerase. Both prophages were artificially and spontaneously inducible. We separately isolated both phages and compared their genomes with other known viruses. The novel phages show no similarity to the previously characterized Aeromonas phages and might represent new evolutionary lineages of viruses infecting Aeromonadaceae. Apart from the comparative genomic analyses of these phages, complemented with their structural and molecular characterization, a functional analysis of four DNA methyltransferases encoded by these viruses was conducted. One of the investigated N6-adenine-modifying enzymes shares sequence specificity with a Dam-like methyltransferase of its bacterial host, while another one is non-specific, as it catalyzes adenine methylation in various sequence contexts. The presented results shed new light on the diversity of Aeromonas temperate phages.

Replication and Maintenance of Linear Phage-Plasmid N15

The lambdoid phage N15 of Escherichia coli is very unusual among temperate phages in that its prophage is not integrated into the chromosome but is a linear plasmid molecule with covalently closed ends (telomeres). Upon infection, the phage DNA circularizes via cohesive ends, and then a special phage enzyme of the tyrosine recombinase family, protelomerase, cuts at another site and joins the ends, forming hairpin telomeres of the linear plasmid prophage. Replication of the N15 prophage is initiated at an internally located ori site and proceeds bidirectionally, resulting in the formation of duplicated telomeres. The N15 protelomerase cuts them, generating two linear plasmid molecules with hairpin telomeres. Stable inheritance of the plasmid prophage is ensured by a partitioning operon similar to the F factor sop operon. Unlike the F centromere, the N15 centromere consists of four inverted repeats dispersed in the genome. The multiplicity and dispersion of centromeres are required for efficient partitioning of a linear plasmid. The centromeres are located in the N15 genome regions involved in phage replication and control of lytic development, and binding of partition proteins at these sites regulates these processes. The family of N15-like linear phage-plasmids includes lambdoid phages ɸKO2 and pY54, as well as Myoviridae phages ΦHAP-1, VHML, VP882, Vp58.5, and vB_VpaM_MAR of marine gamma-proteobacteria. The genomes of these phages contain similar protelomerase genes, lysogeny control modules, and replication genes, suggesting that these phages may belong to a group diverged from a common ancestor.

The diverse genetic switch of enterobacterial and marine telomere phages

Temperate bacteriophages possess a genetic switch which regulates the lytic and lysogenic cycle. The genomes of the enterobacterial telomere phages N15, PY54 and ϕKO2 harbor a primary immunity region (immB) comprising genes for the prophage repressor, the lytic repressor and a putative antiterminator, similar to CI, Cro and Q of lambda, respectively. Moreover, N15 and ϕKO2 contain 3 related operator (OR) sites between cI and cro, while only one site (OR3) has been detected in PY54. Marine telomere phages possess a putative cI gene but not a cro-like gene. Instead, a gene is located at the position of cro, whose product shows some similarity to the PY54 ORF42 product, the function of which is unknown. We have determined the transcription start sites of the predicted repressor genes of N15, PY54, ϕKO2 and of the marine telomere phage VP58.5. The influence of the genes on phage propagation was analyzed in E. coli, Y. enterocolitica and V.parahaemolyticus. We show that the repressors and antiterminators of N15, ϕKO2 and PY54 exerted their predicted activities. However, while the proteins of both N15 and ϕKO2 affected lysis and lysogeny by N15, they did not affect PY54 propagation. On the other hand, the respective PY54 proteins exclusively influenced the propagation of this phage. The immB region of VP58.5 contains 2 genes that revealed prophage repressor activity, while a lytic repressor gene could not be identified. The results indicate an unexpected diversity of the growth regulation mechanisms in these temperate phages.

Complete genome sequence analysis of two Pseudomonas plecoglossicida phages, potential therapeutic agents

Pseudomonas plecoglossicida is a lethal pathogen of ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) in Japan and is responsible for substantial economic costs to ayu culture. Previously, we demonstrated the efficacy of phage therapy against P. plecoglossicida infection using two lytic phages (PPpW-3 and PPpW-4) (S. C. Park, I. Shimamura, M. Fukunaga, K. Mori, and T. Nakai, Appl Environ Microbiol 66:1416-1422, 2000, http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.66.4.1416-1422.2000; S. C. Park and T. Nakai, Dis Aquat Org 53:33-39, 2003, http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao053033). In the present study, the complete genome sequences of these therapeutic P. plecoglossicida phages were determined and analyzed for deleterious factors as therapeutic agents. The genome of PPpW-3 (myovirus) consisted of 43,564 bp with a GC content of 61.1% and 66 predicted open reading frames (ORFs). Approximately half of the genes were similar to the genes of the Escherichia coli phage vB_EcoM_ECO1230-10 (myovirus). The genome of PPpW-4 (podovirus) consisted of 41,386 bp with a GC content of 56.8% and 50 predicted ORFs. More than 70% of the genes were similar to the genes of Pseudomonas fluorescens phage ϕIBB-PF7A and Pseudomonas putida phage ϕ15 (podoviruses). The whole-genome analysis revealed that no known virulence genes were present in PPpW-3 and PPpW-4. An integrase gene was found in PPpW-3, but other factors used for lysogeny were not confirmed. The PCR detection of phage genes in phage-resistant variants provided no evidence of lysogenic activity in PPpW-3 and PPpW-4. We conclude that these two lytic phages qualify as therapeutic agents.

Genomic characterization of a temperate phage of the psychrotolerant deep-sea bacterium Aurantimonas sp

A temperate phage (termed AmM-1) was identified from the psychrotolerant Rhizobiales bacterium Aurantimonas sp. C5-1, which was isolated from bathypelagic water (water depth = 1,500 m) in the northwest Pacific. The AmM-1 genome is 47,800 bp in length and contains 67 coding sequences. Although phage AmM-1 morphologically belongs to the family Myoviridae, its genomic structure, particularly modular genome organization, is similar to that of lambda-type phages of Siphoviridae. Genetic and phylogenetic analyses of the structural core genes also revealed that AmM-1 has a mosaic genomic structure that includes a lambda-like head (Siphoviridae) and P2-like tail (Myoviridae). The sequences of the structural core genes of AmM-1 are distinct from those of previously characterized phage groups but similar to those of recently identified one prophage element and one phage of marine Rhizobiales bacteria: a potential prophage element in the marine psychrotolerant Aureimonas ureilytica DSM 18598 genome and the temperate phage RR-1A infecting Rhizobium radiobacter P007 isolated from deep subseafloor sediment. The mosaic genome structure of AmM-1 suggests the occurrence of genetic exchange between distinct temperate phages in marine Rhizobiales populations.

Identification and characterization of ϕH111-1: A novel myovirus with broad activity against clinical isolates of Burkholderia cenocepacia

Characterization of prophages in sequenced bacterial genomes is important for virulence assessment, evolutionary analysis, and phage application development. The objective of this study was to identify complete, inducible prophages in the cystic fibrosis (CF) clinical isolate Burkholderia cenocepacia H111. Using the prophage-finding program PHAge Search Tool (PHAST), we identified three putative intact prophages in the H111 sequence. Virions were readily isolated from H111 culture supernatants following extended incubation. Using shotgun cloning and sequencing, one of these virions (designated ϕH111-1 [vB_BceM_ϕH111-1]) was identified as the infective particle of a PHAST-detected intact prophage. ϕH111-1 has an extremely broad host range with respect to B. cenocepacia strains and is predicted to use lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a receptor. Bioinformatics analysis indicates that the prophage is 42,972 base pairs in length, encodes 54 proteins, and shows relatedness to the virion morphogenesis modules of AcaML1 and "Vhmllikevirus" myoviruses. As ϕH111-1 is active against a broad panel of clinical strains and encodes no putative virulence factors, it may be therapeutically effective for Burkholderia infections.

Isolation and characterization of lytic vibriophage against Vibrio cholerae O1 from environmental water samples in Kelantan, Malaysia

Water samples from a variety of sources in Kelantan, Malaysia (lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches, fish farms, and sewage) were screened for the presence of bacteriophages infecting Vibrio cholerae. Ten strains of V. cholerae that appeared to be free of inducible prophages were used as the host strains. Eleven bacteriophage isolates were obtained by plaque assay, three of which were lytic and further characterized. The morphologies of the three lytic phages were similar with each having an icosahedral head (ca. 50-60 nm in diameter), a neck, and a sheathed tail (ca. 90-100 nm in length) characteristic of the family Myoviridae. The genomes of the lytic phages were indistinguishable in length (ca. 33.5 kb), nuclease sensitivity (digestible with DNase I, but not RNase A or S1 nuclease), and restriction enzyme sensitivity (identical banding patterns with HindIII, no digestion with seven other enzymes). Testing for infection against 46 strains of V. cholerae and 16 other species of enteric bacteria revealed that all three isolates had a narrow host range and were only capable of infecting V. cholerae O1 El Tor Inaba. The similar morphologies, indistinguishable genome characteristics, and identical host ranges of these lytic isolates suggests that they represent one phage, or several very closely related phages, present in different water sources. These isolates are good candidates for further bio-phage-control studies.

Novel bacteriophage therapy for controlling metallo-beta-lactamase producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in catfish

BACKGROUND

The bacteriophage therapy is an effective antimicrobial approach with potentially important applications in medicine and biotechnology which can be seen as an additional string in the bow. Emerging drug resistant bacteria in aquaculture industry due to unrestricted use of antibiotics warrants more sustainable and environmental friendly strategies for controlling fish infections.The isolated bacteria from fish lesions was characterised based on isolation on selective and differential medium like Pseudomonas agar, gram staining, biochemical tests and 16SrRNA sequencing. The metallo-beta-lactamase (MBL) producing bacterial isolate was evaluated using Imipenem - Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) disk method. The specific bacteriophage was isolated and concentrated using coal bed developed in our lab at CSIR-NEERI. The isolated and enriched bacteriophage was characterised by nucleotide sequencing and electron microscopy. The phage therapy was applied for treating ulcerative lesion in fish.

RESULTS

The pathogenic bacterium responsible for causing ulcerative lesions in catfish species (Clarias gariepinus) was identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. One out of twenty P. aeruginosa isolate showing multi drug resistance (MDR) was incidentally found to be MBL producing as determined by Imipenem-EDTA disk method. The phage therapy effectively cured the ulcerative lesions of the infected fish in 8-10 days of treatment, with a sevenfold reduction of the lesion with untreated infection control.

CONCLUSION

Bacteriophage therapy can have potential applications soon as an alternative or as a complement to antibiotic treatment in the aquaculture. We present bacteriophage therapy as a treatment method for controlling MDR P. aeruginosa infection in C. gariepinus. To the best of our knowledge this is a first report of application of phage therapy against MBL producing P. aeruginosa isolated from aquatic ecosystem.

An enzyme-catalyzed multistep DNA refolding mechanism in hairpin telomere formation

Crystal structures reveal catalysis of DNA refolding in the molecular mechanism underlying generation of bacterial hairpin telomeres.

Hairpin telomeres of bacterial linear chromosomes are generated by a DNA cutting–rejoining enzyme protelomerase. Protelomerase resolves a concatenated dimer of chromosomes as the last step of chromosome replication, converting a palindromic DNA sequence at the junctions between chromosomes into covalently closed hairpins. The mechanism by which protelomerase transforms a duplex DNA substrate into the hairpin telomeres remains largely unknown. We report here a series of crystal structures of the protelomerase TelA bound to DNA that represent distinct stages along the reaction pathway. The structures suggest that TelA converts a linear duplex substrate into hairpin turns via a transient strand-refolding intermediate that involves DNA-base flipping and wobble base-pairs. The extremely compact di-nucleotide hairpin structure of the product is fully stabilized by TelA prior to strand ligation, which drives the reaction to completion. The enzyme-catalyzed, multistep strand refolding is a novel mechanism in DNA rearrangement reactions.

Linear chromosomes capped by hairpin telomeres are widespread in prokaryotes and are found in important bacterial pathogens. However, three-dimensional structure of the hairpin telomere, as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying its generation, has remained poorly understood. In this work, we investigated how the enzyme responsible for generating the bacterial hairpin telomeres (protelomerase, also known as telomere resolvase) transforms a linear double-stranded DNA molecule into sharp hairpin turns. Our X-ray crystallographic and biochemical data collectively suggest that protelomerase employs a multistep DNA strand-refolding mechanism as described below. Protelomerase first cleaves both strands of a double-helical DNA substrate and reshapes the DNA strands into a transition state conformation (refolding intermediate) stabilized by specific protein–DNA and DNA–DNA interactions including noncanonical (non-Watson–Crick) base-pairs. The DNA strands are then refolded into extremely compact hairpin products, stabilized by a set of interactions distinct from those stabilizing the refolding intermediate. We believe that an enzyme “catalyzing” not only the chemical reactions of DNA strand cutting/rejoining but also the ordered transition between different DNA conformations to guide refolding of the DNA strand is a novel concept, and we suspect that similar mechanisms may be employed by other enzymes involved in conformational changes/refolding of biological macromolecules.

Complete genome sequence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus bacteriophage vB_VpaM_MAR

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major pathogen that is mainly associated with seafood and is a global food safety issue. Our objective was to isolate and completely sequence a specific phage against this bacterium. Phage vB_VpaM_MAR is able to lyse 76% of the V. parahaemolyticus strains tested. MAR belongs to the Myoviridae family and has a genome comprised of double-stranded DNA with a size of 41,351 bp, a G+C content of 51.3%, and 62 open reading frames (ORFs). Bioinformatic analysis showed that phage MAR is closely related to Vibrio phages VHML, VP58.5, and VP882 and Halomonas aquamarina phage ΦHAP-1.

Linear chromosome-generating system of Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58: protelomerase generates and protects hairpin ends

Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58, the pathogenic bacteria that causes crown gall disease in plants, harbors one circular and one linear chromosome and two circular plasmids. The telomeres of its unusual linear chromosome are covalently closed hairpins. The circular and linear chromosomes co-segregate and are stably maintained in the organism. We have determined the sequence of the two ends of the linear chromosome thus completing the previously published genome sequence of A. tumefaciens C58. We found that the telomeres carry nearly identical 25-bp sequences at the hairpin ends that are related by dyad symmetry. We further showed that its Atu2523 gene encodes a protelomerase (resolvase) and that the purified enzyme can generate the linear chromosomal closed hairpin ends in a sequence-specific manner. Agrobacterium protelomerase, whose presence is apparently limited to biovar 1 strains, acts via a cleavage-and-religation mechanism by making a pair of transient staggered nicks invariably at 6-bp spacing as the reaction intermediate. The enzyme can be significantly shortened at both the N and C termini and still maintain its enzymatic activity. Although the full-length enzyme can uniquely bind to its product telomeres, the N-terminal truncations cannot. The target site can also be shortened from the native 50-bp inverted repeat to 26 bp; thus, the Agrobacterium hairpin-generating system represents the most compact activity of all hairpin linear chromosome- and plasmid-generating systems to date. The biochemical analyses of the protelomerase reactions further revealed that the tip of the hairpin telomere may be unusually polymorphically capable of accommodating any nucleotide.

Complete genome sequence of virulence-enhancing Siphophage VHS1 from Vibrio harveyi

Vibrio harveyi siphophage 1 (VHS1) is a tailed phage with an icosahedral head of approximately 66 nm in diameter and an unornamented, flexible tail of approximately 153 nm in length. When Vibrio harveyi 1114GL is lysogenized with VHS1, its virulence for the black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) increases by more than 100 times, and this coincides with production of a toxin(s) associated with shrimp hemocyte agglutination. Curiously, the lysogen does not show increased virulence for the whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus [Litopenaeus] vannamei). Here we present and annotate the complete, circular genome of VHS1 (81,509 kbp; GenBank accession number JF713456). By software analysis, the genome contains 125 putative open reading frames (ORFs), all of which appear to be located on the same DNA strand, similar to the case for many other bacteriophages. Most of the putative ORFs show no significant homology to known sequences in GenBank. Notable exceptions are ORFs for a putative DNA polymerase and putative phage structural proteins, including a portal protein, a phage tail tape measure protein, and a phage head protein. The last protein was identified as a component of the species-specific toxin mixture described above as being associated with agglutination of hemocytes from P. monodon.

Marine viruses: truth or dare

Over the past two decades, marine virology has progressed from a curiosity to an intensely studied topic of critical importance to oceanography. At concentrations of approximately 10 million viruses per milliliter of surface seawater, viruses are the most abundant biological entities in the oceans. The majority of these viruses are phages (viruses that infect bacteria). Through lysing their bacterial hosts, marine phages control bacterial abundance, affect community composition, and impact global biogeochemical cycles. In addition, phages influence their hosts through selection for resistance, horizontal gene transfer, and manipulation of bacterial metabolism. Recent work has also demonstrated that marine phages are extremely diverse and can carry a variety of auxiliary metabolic genes encoding critical ecological functions. This review is structured as a scientific "truth or dare," revealing several well-established "truths" about marine viruses and presenting a few "dares" for the research community to undertake in future studies.

Characterization of four lytic transducing bacteriophages of luminescent Vibrio harveyi isolated from shrimp (Penaeus monodon) hatcheries

Four lytic bacteriophages designated as φVh1, φVh2, φVh3, and φVh4 were isolated from commercial shrimp hatcheries, possessing broad spectrum of infectivity against luminescent Vibrio harveyi isolates, considering their potential as biocontrol agent of luminescent bacterial disease in shrimp hatcheries, and were characterized by electron microscopy, genomic analysis, restriction enzyme analysis (REA), and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Three phages φVh1, φVh2, and φVh4 had an icosahedral head of 60-115 nm size with a long, noncontractile tail of 130-329 × 1-17 nm, belonged to the family Siphoviridae. φVh3 had an icosahedral head (72 ± 5 nm) with a short tail (27 × 12 nm) and belonged to Podoviridae. REA with DraI and PFGE of genomic DNA digested with ScaI and XbaI and cluster analysis of their banding patterns indicated that φVh3 was distinct from the other three siphophages. PFGE-based genome mean size of the four bacteriophages φVh1, φVh2, φVh3, and φVh4 was estimated to be about 85, 58, 64, and 107 kb, respectively. These phages had the property of generalized transduction as demonstrated by transduction with plasmid pHSG 396 with frequencies ranging from 4.1 × 10(-7) to 2 × 10(-9) per plaque-forming unit, suggesting a potential ecological role in gene transfer among aquatic vibrios.

Comparative genomic analysis of bacteriophages specific to the channel catfish pathogen Edwardsiella ictaluri

Background

The bacterial pathogen Edwardsiella ictaluri is a primary cause of mortality in channel catfish raised commercially in aquaculture farms. Additional treatment and diagnostic regimes are needed for this enteric pathogen, motivating the discovery and characterization of bacteriophages specific to E. ictaluri.

Results

The genomes of three Edwardsiella ictaluri-specific bacteriophages isolated from geographically distant aquaculture ponds, at different times, were sequenced and analyzed. The genomes for phages eiAU, eiDWF, and eiMSLS are 42.80 kbp, 42.12 kbp, and 42.69 kbp, respectively, and are greater than 95% identical to each other at the nucleotide level. Nucleotide differences were mostly observed in non-coding regions and in structural proteins, with significant variability in the sequences of putative tail fiber proteins. The genome organization of these phages exhibit a pattern shared by other Siphoviridae.

Conclusions

These E. ictaluri-specific phage genomes reveal considerable conservation of genomic architecture and sequence identity, even with considerable temporal and spatial divergence in their isolation. Their genomic homogeneity is similarly observed among E. ictaluri bacterial isolates. The genomic analysis of these phages supports the conclusion that these are virulent phages, lacking the capacity for lysogeny or expression of virulence genes. This study contributes to our knowledge of phage genomic diversity and facilitates studies on the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of these phages.

N15: the linear phage-plasmid

The lambdoid phage N15 of Escherichia coli is very unusual among temperate phages in that its prophage is not integrated into chromosome but is a linear plasmid molecule with covalently closed ends. Upon infection the phage DNA circularises via cohesive ends, then phage-encoded enzyme, protelomerase, cuts at an inverted repeat site and forms hairpin ends (telomeres) of the linear plasmid prophage. Replication of the N15 prophage is initiated at an internally located ori site and proceeds bidirectionally resulting in formation of duplicated telomeres. Then the N15 protelomerase cuts duplicated telomeres generating two linear plasmid molecules with hairpin telomeres. Stable inheritance of the plasmid prophage is ensured by partitioning operon similar to the F factor sop operon. Unlike F sop, the N15 centromere consists of four inverted repeats dispersed in the genome. The multiplicity and dispersion of centromeres are required for efficient partitioning of a linear plasmid. The centromeres are located in N15 genome regions involved in phage replication and control of lysogeny, and binding of partition proteins at these sites regulates these processes. Two N15-related lambdoid Siphoviridae phages, φKO2 in Klebsiella oxytoca and pY54 in Yersinia enterocolitica, also lysogenize their hosts as linear plasmids, as well as Myoviridae marine phages VP882 and VP58.5 in Vibrio parahaemolyticus and ΦHAP-1 in Halomonas aquamarina. The genomes of all these phages contain similar protelomerase genes, lysogeny modules and replication genes, as well as plasmid-partitioning genes, suggesting that these phages may belong to a group diverged from a common ancestor.

Analysis of high-throughput sequencing and annotation strategies for phage genomes

Background

Bacterial viruses (phages) play a critical role in shaping microbial populations as they influence both host mortality and horizontal gene transfer. As such, they have a significant impact on local and global ecosystem function and human health. Despite their importance, little is known about the genomic diversity harbored in phages, as methods to capture complete phage genomes have been hampered by the lack of knowledge about the target genomes, and difficulties in generating sufficient quantities of genomic DNA for sequencing. Of the approximately 550 phage genomes currently available in the public domain, fewer than 5% are marine phage.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To advance the study of phage biology through comparative genomic approaches we used marine cyanophage as a model system. We compared DNA preparation methodologies (DNA extraction directly from either phage lysates or CsCl purified phage particles), and sequencing strategies that utilize either Sanger sequencing of a linker amplification shotgun library (LASL) or of a whole genome shotgun library (WGSL), or 454 pyrosequencing methods. We demonstrate that genomic DNA sample preparation directly from a phage lysate, combined with 454 pyrosequencing, is best suited for phage genome sequencing at scale, as this method is capable of capturing complete continuous genomes with high accuracy. In addition, we describe an automated annotation informatics pipeline that delivers high-quality annotation and yields few false positives and negatives in ORF calling.

Conclusions/Significance

These DNA preparation, sequencing and annotation strategies enable a high-throughput approach to the burgeoning field of phage genomics.

A new group of cosmopolitan bacteriophages induce a carrier state in the pandemic strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus

A clonal population of pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3 : K6 serovar has spread in coastal waters, causing outbreaks worldwide since 1996. Bacteriophage infection is one of the main factors affecting bacterial strain concentration in the ocean. We studied the occurrence and properties of phages infecting this V. parahaemolyticus pandemic strain in coastal waters. Analysing 143 samples, phages were found in 13. All isolates clustered in a closely related group of podophages with at least 90% nucleotide sequence identity in three essential genes, despite distant geographical origins. These bacteriophages were able to multiply on the V. parahaemolyticus pandemic strain, but the impact on host concentration and subsequent growth was negligible. Infected bacteria continued producing the phage but were not lysogenized. The phage genome of prototype strain VP93 is 43 931 nucleotides and contains 337 bp direct terminal repeats at both ends. VP93 is the first non-Pseudomonas phage related to the PhiKMV-like subgroup of the T7 supergroup. The lack of a major effect on host growth suggests that these phages exert little control on the propagation of the pandemic strain in the environment. This form of phage growth can be modelled if phage-sensitive and -resistant cells that convert to each other with a high frequency are present in clonal cultures of pandemic V. parahaemolyticus.

Genome organisation of the marine Roseobacter clade member Marinovum algicola

The Roseobacter clade, belonging to the family Rhodobacteraceae of the class Alphaproteobacteria, is one of the major bacterial groups in marine environments. A remarkable wealth of diverse large plasmids has been detected in members of this lineage. Here, we analysed the genome structure and extrachromosomal DNA content of four strains of the roseobacter species Marinovum algicola by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. They were originally isolated from toxic dinoflagellates and possess multireplicon genomes with sizes between 5.20 and 5.35 Mb. In addition to the single circular chromosomes (3.60-3.74 Mb), whose organisation seem to be conserved, 9 to 12 extrachromosomal replicons have been detected for each strain. This number is unprecedented for roseobacters and proposes a sophisticated regulation of replication and partitioning to ensure stable maintenance. The plasmid lengths range from 7 to 477 kb and our analyses document a circular conformation for all but one of them, which might represent a linear plasmid-like prophage. In striking contrast to other roseobacters, up to one-third of the genomic information (1.75 Mb) is plasmid borne in Marinovum algicola. The plasmid patterns of some strains are conspicuously different, indicating that recombination and conjugative gene transfer are dominant mechanisms for microevolution within the Roseobacter clade.

Lysogeny and sporulation in Bacillus isolates from the Gulf of Mexico

Eleven Bacillus isolates from the surface and subsurface waters of the Gulf of Mexico were examined for their capacity to sporulate and harbor prophages. Occurrence of sporulation in each isolate was assessed through decoyinine induction, and putative lysogens were identified by prophage induction by mitomycin C treatment. No obvious correlation between ability to sporulate and prophage induction was found. Four strains that contained inducible virus-like particles (VLPs) were shown to sporulate. Four strains did not produce spores upon induction by decoyinine but contained inducible VLPs. Two of the strains did not produce virus-like particles or sporulate significantly upon induction. Isolate B14905 had a high level of virus-like particle production and a high occurrence of sporulation and was further examined by genomic sequencing in an attempt to shed light on the relationship between sporulation and lysogeny. In silico analysis of the B14905 genome revealed four prophage-like regions, one of which was independently sequenced from a mitomycin C-induced lysate. Based on PCR and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis of an induced phage lysate, one is a noninducible phage remnant, one may be a defective phage-like bacteriocin, and two were inducible prophages. One of the inducible phages contained four putative transcriptional regulators, one of which was a SinR-like regulator that may be involved in the regulation of host sporulation. Isolates that both possess the capacity to sporulate and contain temperate phage may be well adapted for survival in the oligotrophic ocean.

Classification of Myoviridae bacteriophages using protein sequence similarity

Background

We advocate unifying classical and genomic classification of bacteriophages by integration of proteomic data and physicochemical parameters. Our previous application of this approach to the entirely sequenced members of the Podoviridae fully supported the current phage classification of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). It appears that horizontal gene transfer generally does not totally obliterate evolutionary relationships between phages.

Results

CoreGenes/CoreExtractor proteome comparison techniques applied to 102 Myoviridae suggest the establishment of three subfamilies (Peduovirinae, Teequatrovirinae, the Spounavirinae) and eight new independent genera (Bcep781, BcepMu, FelixO1, HAP1, Bzx1, PB1, phiCD119, and phiKZ-like viruses). The Peduovirinae subfamily, derived from the P2-related phages, is composed of two distinct genera: the "P2-like viruses", and the "HP1-like viruses". At present, the more complex Teequatrovirinae subfamily has two genera, the "T4-like" and "KVP40-like viruses". In the genus "T4-like viruses" proper, four groups sharing >70% proteins are distinguished: T4-type, 44RR-type, RB43-type, and RB49-type viruses. The Spounavirinae contain the "SPO1-"and "Twort-like viruses."

Conclusion

The hierarchical clustering of these groupings provide biologically significant subdivisions, which are consistent with our previous analysis of the Podoviridae.

The genome and structural proteome of an ocean siphovirus: a new window into the cyanobacterial 'mobilome'

Prochlorococcus, an abundant phototroph in the oceans, are infected by members of three families of viruses: myo-, podo- and siphoviruses. Genomes of myo- and podoviruses isolated on Prochlorococcus contain DNA replication machinery and virion structural genes homologous to those from coliphages T4 and T7 respectively. They also contain a suite of genes of cyanobacterial origin, most notably photosynthesis genes, which are expressed during infection and appear integral to the evolutionary trajectory of both host and phage. Here we present the first genome of a cyanobacterial siphovirus, P-SS2, which was isolated from Atlantic slope waters using a Prochlorococcus host (MIT9313). The P-SS2 genome is larger than, and considerably divergent from, previously sequenced siphoviruses. It appears most closely related to lambdoid siphoviruses, with which it shares 13 functional homologues. The ∼108 kb P-SS2 genome encodes 131 predicted proteins and notably lacks photosynthesis genes which have consistently been found in other marine cyanophage, but does contain 14 other cyanobacterial homologues. While only six structural proteins were identified from the genome sequence, 35 proteins were detected experimentally; these mapped onto capsid and tail structural modules in the genome. P-SS2 is potentially capable of integration into its host as inferred from bioinformatically identified genetic machinery int, bet, exo and a 53 bp attachment site. The host attachment site appears to be a genomic island that is tied to insertion sequence (IS) activity that could facilitate mobility of a gene involved in the nitrogen-stress response. The homologous region and a secondary IS-element hot-spot in Synechococcus RS9917 are further evidence of IS-mediated genome evolution coincident with a probable relic prophage integration event. This siphovirus genome provides a glimpse into the biology of a deep-photic zone phage as well as the ocean cyanobacterial prophage and IS element ‘mobilome’.

Phage therapy and photodynamic therapy: low environmental impact approaches to inactivate microorganisms in fish farming plants

Owing to the increasing importance of aquaculture to compensate for the progressive worldwide reduction of natural fish and to the fact that several fish farming plants often suffer from heavy financial losses due to the development of infections caused by microbial pathogens, including multidrug resistant bacteria, more environmentally-friendly strategies to control fish infections are urgently needed to make the aquaculture industry more sustainable. The aim of this review is to briefly present the typical fish farming diseases and their threats and discuss the present state of chemotherapy to inactivate microorganisms in fish farming plants as well as to examine the new environmentally friendly approaches to control fish infection namely phage therapy and photodynamic antimicrobial therapy.

The linear plasmid prophage Vp58.5 of Vibrio parahaemolyticus is closely related to the integrating phage VHML and constitutes a new incompatibility group of telomere phages

Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 pandemic strains recovered in Chile frequently possess a 42-kb plasmid which is the prophage of a myovirus. We studied the prototype phage VP58.5 and show that it does not integrate into the host cell chromosome but replicates as a linear plasmid (Vp58.5) with covalently closed ends (telomeres). The Vp58.5 replicon coexists with other plasmid prophages (N15, PY54, and PhiKO2) in the same cell and thus belongs to a new incompatibility group of telomere phages. We determined the complete nucleotide sequence (42,612 nucleotides) of the VP58.5 phage DNA and compared it with that of the plasmid prophage. The two molecules share the same nucleotide sequence but are 35% circularly permuted to each other. In contrast to the hairpin ends of the plasmid, VP58.5 phage DNA contains 5'-protruding ends. The VP58.5 sequence is 92% identical to the sequence of phage VHML, which was reported to integrate into the host chromosome. However, the gene order and termini of the phage DNAs are different. The VHML genome exhibits the same gene order as does the Vp58.5 plasmid. VHML phage DNA has been reported to contain terminal inverted repeats. This repetitive sequence is similar to the telomere resolution site (telRL) of VP58.5 which, after processing by the phage protelomerase, forms the hairpin ends of the Vp58.5 prophage. It is discussed why these closely related phages may be so different in terms of their genome ends and their lifestyle.

Identification of the determinant conferring permissive substrate usage in the telomere resolvase, ResT

Linear genome stability requires specialized telomere replication and protection mechanisms. A common solution to this problem in non-eukaryotes is the formation of hairpin telomeres by telomere resolvases (also known as protelomerases). These enzymes perform a two-step transesterification on replication intermediates to generate hairpin telomeres using an active site similar to that of tyrosine recombinases and type IB topoisomerases. Unlike phage telomere resolvases, the telomere resolvase from the Lyme disease pathogen Borrelia burgdorferi (ResT) is a permissive enzyme that resolves several types of telomere in vitro. However, the ResT region and residues mediating permissive substrate usage have not been identified. The relapsing fever Borrelia hermsii ResT exhibits a more restricted substrate usage pattern than B. burgdorferi ResT and cannot efficiently resolve a Type 2 telomere. In this study, we determined that all relapsing fever ResTs process Type 2 telomeres inefficiently. Using a library of chimeric and mutant B. hermsii/B. burgdorferi ResTs, we mapped the determinants in B. burgdorferi ResT conferring the ability to resolve multiple Type 2 telomeres. Type 2 telomere resolution was dependent on a single proline in the ResT catalytic region that was conserved in all Lyme disease but not relapsing fever ResTs and that is part of a 2-amino acid insertion absent from phage telomere resolvase sequences. The identification of a permissive substrate usage determinant explains the ability of B. burgdorferi ResT to process the 19 unique telomeres found in its segmented genome and will aid further studies on the structure and function of this essential enzyme.

Characterization of a new plasmid-like prophage in a pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 strain

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a common food-borne pathogen that is normally associated with seafood. In 1996, a pandemic O3:K6 strain abruptly appeared and caused the first pandemic of this pathogen to spread throughout many Asian countries, America, Europe, and Africa. The role of temperate bacteriophages in the evolution of this pathogen is of great interest. In this work, a new temperate phage, VP882, from a pandemic O3:K6 strain of V. parahaemolyticus was purified and characterized after mitomycin C induction. VP882 was a Myoviridae bacteriophage with a polyhedral head and a long rigid tail with a sheath-like structure. It infected and lysed high proportions of V. parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, and Vibrio cholerae strains. The genome of phage VP882 was sequenced and was 38,197 bp long, and 71 putative open reading frames were identified, of which 27 were putative functional phage or bacterial genes. VP882 had a linear plasmid-like genome with a putative protelomerase gene and cohesive ends. The genome does not integrate into the host chromosome but was maintained as a plasmid in the lysogen. Analysis of the reaction sites of the protelomerases in different plasmid-like phages revealed that VP882 and PhiHAP-1 were highly similar, while N15, PhiKO2, and PY54 made up another closely related group. The presence of DNA adenine methylase and quorum-sensing transcriptional regulators in VP882 may play a specific role in this phage or regulate physiological or virulence-associated traits of the hosts. These genes may also be remnants from the bacterial chromosome following transduction.

Enhancement of UV light sensitivity of a Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 pandemic strain due to natural lysogenization by a telomeric phage

The Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 pandemic clonal strain was first observed in southern Chile in 2004 and has since caused approximately 8,000 seafood-related diarrhea cases in this region. The massive proliferation of the original clonal population offers a unique opportunity to study the evolution of a bacterial pathogen in its natural environment by detection and characterization of emerging bacterial variants. Here, we describe a group of pandemic variants characterized by the presence of a 42-kb extrachromosomal DNA that can be recovered by alkaline extraction. Upon treatment with mitomycin C, these variants lyse with production of a myovirus containing DNA of equal size to the plasmid but which cannot be recovered by alkaline extraction. Plasmid and phage DNAs show similar restriction patterns corresponding to enzyme sites in a circular permutation. Sequenced regions showed 81 to 99% nucleotide similarity to bacteriophage VHML of Vibrio harveyi. Altogether these observations indicate that the 42-kb plasmid corresponds to a prophage, consisting of a linear DNA with terminal hairpins of a telomeric temperate phage with a linear genome. Bacteria containing the prophage were 7 to 15 times more sensitive to UV radiation, likely due to phage induction by UV irradiation as plasmid curing restored the original sensitivity. The enhanced UV sensitivity could have a significant role in reducing the survival and propagation capability of the V. parahaemolyticus pandemic strain in the ocean.

Prophages in marine bacteria: dangerous molecular time bombs or the key to survival in the seas?

Bacteriophages are realized to be numerous and important components of oceanic food webs principally because of their lytic capabilities. The subtle changes that temperate phages impart to their hosts in the oceans are far less understood. Occurrences of lysogeny in the oceans correlate well with conditions unfavorable for rapid host growth. In coliphage lambda, phage encoded repressors have been shown to modulate host metabolic gene expression and phenotype, resulting in economizing host energy expenditure. Comparison of lysogenized marine bacteria to the uninfected hosts indicated that prophage acquisition is correlated with host metabolic gene suppression. Screening 113 marine bacterial genomes for prophages yielded 64 prophage-like elements, 21 of which strongly resembled gene transfer agents (GTAs). The remaining 39 putative prophages had a relatively high incidence of transcriptional regulatory and repressor-like proteins (approximately 2/40 kb prophage sequence) compared to lytic marine phages (approximately 0.25/40 kb phage sequence). Here, it has been hypothesized that marine prophages directly contribute to host survival in unfavorable environments by suppression of unneeded metabolic activities. It has been further suggested that such metabolic downshifts are the result of phage-encoded repressors and transcriptional regulators acting directly on host genes. Finally, the widespread occurrence of GTAs may be an efficient mechanism for horizontal gene transfer in the oceans.

The temperate marine phage PhiHAP-1 of Halomonas aquamarina possesses a linear plasmid-like prophage genome

A myovirus-like temperate phage, PhiHAP-1, was induced with mitomycin C from a Halomonas aquamarina strain isolated from surface waters in the Gulf of Mexico. The induced cultures produced significantly more virus-like particles (VLPs) (3.73 x 10(10) VLP ml(-1)) than control cultures (3.83 x 10(7) VLP ml(-1)) when observed with epifluorescence microscopy. The induced phage was sequenced by using linker-amplified shotgun libraries and contained a genome 39,245 nucleotides in length with a G+C content of 59%. The PhiHAP-1 genome contained 46 putative open reading frames (ORFs), with 76% sharing significant similarity (E value of <10(-3)) at the protein level with other sequences in GenBank. Putative functional gene assignments included small and large terminase subunits, capsid and tail genes, an N6-DNA adenine methyltransferase, and lysogeny-related genes. Although no integrase was found, the PhiHAP-1 genome contained ORFs similar to protelomerase and parA genes found in linear plasmid-like phages with telomeric ends. Southern probing and PCR analysis of host genomic, plasmid, and PhiHAP-1 DNA indicated a lack of integration of the prophage with the host chromosome and a difference in genome arrangement between the prophage and virion forms. The linear plasmid prophage form of PhiHAP-1 begins with the protelomerase gene, presumably due to the activity of the protelomerase, while the induced phage particle has a circularly permuted genome that begins with the terminase genes. The PhiHAP-1 genome shares synteny and gene similarity with coliphage N15 and vibriophages VP882 and VHML, suggesting an evolutionary heritage from an N15-like linear plasmid prophage ancestor.

Sequence characterization and comparative analysis of three plasmids isolated from environmental Vibrio spp

The horizontal transfer of genes by mobile genetic elements such as plasmids and phages can accelerate genome diversification of Vibrio spp., affecting their physiology, pathogenicity, and ecological character. In this study, sequence analysis of three plasmids from Vibrio spp. previously isolated from salt marsh sediment revealed the remarkable diversity of these elements. Plasmids p0908 (81.4 kb), p23023 (52.5 kb), and p09022 (31.0 kb) had a predicted 99, 64, and 32 protein-coding sequences and G+C contents of 49.2%, 44.7%, and 42.4%, respectively. A phylogenetic tree based on concatenation of the host 16S rRNA and rpoA nucleotide sequences indicated p23023 and p09022 were isolated from strains most closely related to V. mediterranei and V. campbellii, respectively, while the host of p0908 forms a clade with V. fluvialis and V. furnissii. Many predicted proteins had amino acid identities to proteins of previously characterized phages and plasmids (24 to 94%). Predicted proteins with similarity to chromosomally encoded proteins included RecA, a nucleoid-associated protein (NdpA), a type IV helicase (UvrD), and multiple hypothetical proteins. Plasmid p0908 had striking similarity to enterobacteria phage P1, sharing genetic organization and amino acid identity for 23 predicted proteins. This study provides evidence of genetic exchange between Vibrio plasmids, phages, and chromosomes among diverse Vibrio spp.

An interlocked dimer of the protelomerase TelK distorts DNA structure for the formation of hairpin telomeres

The termini of linear chromosomes are protected by specialized DNA structures known as telomeres that also facilitate the complete replication of DNA ends. The simplest type of telomere is a covalently closed DNA hairpin structure found in linear chromosomes of prokaryotes and viruses. Bidirectional replication of a chromosome with hairpin telomeres produces a catenated circular dimer that is subsequently resolved into unit-length chromosomes by a dedicated DNA cleavage-rejoining enzyme known as a hairpin telomere resolvase (protelomerase). Here we report a crystal structure of the protelomerase TelK from Klebsiella oxytoca phage varphiKO2, in complex with the palindromic target DNA. The structure shows the TelK dimer destabilizes base pairing interactions to promote the refolding of cleaved DNA ends into two hairpin ends. We propose that the hairpinning reaction is made effectively irreversible by a unique protein-induced distortion of the DNA substrate that prevents religation of the cleaved DNA substrate.

Curated list of prokaryote viruses with fully sequenced genomes

Genome sequencing is of enormous importance for classification of prokaryote viruses and for understanding the evolution of these viruses. This survey covers 284 sequenced viruses for which a full description has been published and for which the morphology is known. This corresponds to 219 (4%) of tailed and 75 (36%) of tailless viruses of prokaryotes. The number of sequenced tailless viruses almost doubles if viruses of unknown morphology are counted. The sequences are from representatives of 15 virus families and three groups without family status, including eight taxa of archaeal viruses. Tailed phages, especially those with large genomes and hosts other than enterobacteria or lactococci, mycobacteria and pseudomonads, are vastly under investigated.

Putative prophages related to lytic tailless marine dsDNA phage PM2 are widespread in the genomes of aquatic bacteria

Background

The origin and evolution of viruses is currently a heavily discussed issue. One element in this discussion is the innate viral "self" concept, which suggests that viral structures and functions can be divided into two categories. The first category consists of genetic determinants that are inherited from a viral ancestor and encode the viral "self". The second group consists of another set of structures and functions, the "nonself", which is interchangeable between different viruses and can be obtained via lateral gene transfer. Comparing the structures and sequences of the "self" elements, we have proposed that viruses can be grouped into lineages regardless of which domain of life (bacteria, archaea, eukarya) they infect. It has also been suggested that viruses are ancient and possibly predate modern cells.

Results

Here we identified thirteen putative prophages (viral genomes integrated into bacterial chromosome) closely related to the virulent icosahedral tailless lipid-containing bacteriophage PM2. Using the comparative genomics approach, we present evidence to support the viral "self" hypothesis and divide genes of the bacteriophage PM2 and related prophages into "self" and "nonself" categories.

Conclusion

We show here that the previously proposed most conserved viral "self" determinants, the major coat protein and the packaging ATPase, were the only proteins that could be recognized in all detected corticoviral elements. We also argue here that the genes needed for viral genome replication, as well as for host cell lysis, belong to the "nonself" category of genes.

Furthermore, we suggest that abundance of PM2-like viruses in the aquatic environment as well as their importance in the ecology of aquatic microorganisms might have been underestimated.