Acute cholinergic rescue of synaptic plasticity in the neurodegenerating cortex of anti-nerve-growth-factor mice

Targeting the Cation-Chloride Co-Transporter NKCC1 to Re-Establish GABAergic Inhibition and an Appropriate Excitatory/Inhibitory Balance in Selective Neuronal Circuits: A Novel Approach for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult brain, depolarizes and excites immature neurons because of an initially higher intracellular chloride concentration [Cl-]i due to the delayed expression of the chloride exporter KCC2 at birth. Depolarization-induced calcium rise via NMDA receptors and voltage-dependent calcium channels is instrumental in shaping neuronal circuits and in controlling the excitatory (E)/inhibitory (I) balance in selective brain areas. An E/I imbalance accounts for cognitive impairment observed in several neuropsychiatric disorders. The aim of this review is to summarize recent data on the mechanisms by which alterations of GABAergic signaling alter the E/I balance in cortical and hippocampal neurons in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the role of cation-chloride co-transporters in this process. In particular, we discuss the NGF and AD relationship and how mice engineered to express recombinant neutralizing anti-NGF antibodies (AD11 mice), which develop a neurodegenerative pathology reminiscent of that observed in AD patients, exhibit a depolarizing action of GABA due to KCC2 impairment. Treating AD and other forms of dementia with bumetanide, a selective KCC2 antagonist, contributes to re-establishing a proper E/I balance in selective brain areas, leading to amelioration of AD symptoms and the slowing down of disease progression.

ApoE4 activates C/EBPβ/δ-secretase with 27-hydroxycholesterol, driving the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

ApoE4, an apolipoprotein implicated in cholesterol transport and amyloid-β (Aβ) metabolism, is a major genetic risk determinant for Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and drives its pathogenesis via Aβ-dependent and -independent pathways. C/EBPβ, a proinflammatory cytokines-activated transcription factor, is upregulated in AD and mediates cytokines and δ-secretase expression. However, how ApoE4 contributes to AD pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Here we show that ApoE4 and 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-OHC) co-activate C/EBPβ/δ-secretase signaling in neurons, mediating AD pathogenesis, and this effect is dependent on neuronal secreted Aβ and inflammatory cytokines. Inhibition of cholesterol metabolism with lovastatin diminishes neuronal ApoE4's stimulatory effects. Furthermore, ApoE4 and 27-OHC also mediate lysosomal δ-secretase leakage, activation, secretion and endocytosis. Notably, 27-OHC strongly activates C/EBPβ/δ-secretase pathway in human ApoE4-TR mice and triggers AD pathologies and cognitive deficits, which is blocked by C/EBPβ depletion. Hence, our findings demonstrate that ApoE4 and 27-OHC additively trigger AD pathogenesis via activating C/EBPβ/δ-secretase pathway. Lowering cholesterol levels with statins should benefit the ApoE4 AD carriers.

Nerve Growth Factor Neutralization Promotes Oligodendrogenesis by Increasing miR-219a-5p Levels

In the brain, the neurotrophin Nerve growth factor (NGF) regulates not only neuronal survival and differentiation, but also glial and microglial functions and neuroinflammation. NGF is known to regulate oligodendrogenesis, reducing myelination in the central nervous system (CNS). In this study, we found that NGF controls oligodendrogenesis by modulating the levels of miR-219a-5p, a well-known positive regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation. We exploited an NGF-deprivation mouse model, the AD11 mice, in which the postnatal expression of an anti-NGF antibody leads to NGF neutralization and progressive neurodegeneration. Notably, we found that these mice also display increased myelination. A microRNA profiling of AD11 brain samples and qRT-PCR analyses revealed that NGF deprivation leads to an increase of miR-219a-5p levels in hippocampus and cortex and a corresponding down-regulation of its predicted targets. Neurospheres isolated from the hippocampus of AD11 mice give rise to more oligodendrocytes and this process is dependent on miR-219a-5p, as shown by decoy-mediated inhibition of this microRNA. Moreover, treatment of AD11 neurospheres with NGF inhibits miR-219a-5p up-regulation and, consequently, oligodendrocyte differentiation, while anti-NGF treatment of wild type (WT) oligodendrocyte progenitors increases miR-219a-5p expression and the number of mature cells. Overall, this study indicates that NGF inhibits oligodendrogenesis and myelination by down-regulating miR-219a-5p levels, suggesting a novel molecular circuitry that can be exploited for the discovery of new effectors for remyelination in human demyelinating diseases, such as Multiple Sclerosis.

Histone Deacetylases Inhibitors in Neurodegenerative Diseases, Neuroprotection and Neuronal Differentiation

Histone deacetylases (HADC) are the enzymes that remove acetyl group from lysine residue of histones and non-histone proteins and regulate the process of transcription by binding to transcription factors and regulating fundamental cellular process such as cellular proliferation, differentiation and development. In neurodegenerative diseases, the histone acetylation homeostasis is greatly impaired, shifting towards a state of hypoacetylation. The histone hyperacetylation produced by direct inhibition of HDACs leads to neuroprotective actions. This review attempts to elaborate on role of small molecule inhibitors of HDACs on neuronal differentiation and throws light on the potential of HDAC inhibitors as therapeutic agents for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. The role of HDACs in neuronal cellular and disease models and their modulation with HDAC inhibitors are also discussed. Significance of these HDAC inhibitors has been reviewed on the process of neuronal differentiation, neurite outgrowth and neuroprotection regarding their potential therapeutic application for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Regulation of cholinergic basal forebrain development, connectivity, and function by neurotrophin receptors

Cholinergic basal forebrain (cBF) neurons are defined by their expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) and tropomyosin-related kinase (Trk) neurotrophin receptors in addition to cholinergic markers. It is known that the neurotrophins, particularly nerve growth factor (NGF), mediate cholinergic neuronal development and maintenance. However, the role of neurotrophin signalling in regulating adult cBF function is less clear, although in dementia, trophic signalling is reduced and p75NTR mediates neurodegeneration of cBF neurons. Here we review the current understanding of how cBF neurons are regulated by neurotrophins which activate p75NTR and TrkA, B or C to influence the critical role that these neurons play in normal cortical function, particularly higher order cognition. Specifically, we describe the current evidence that neurotrophins regulate the development of basal forebrain neurons and their role in maintaining and modifying mature basal forebrain synaptic and cortical microcircuit connectivity. Understanding the role neurotrophin signalling plays in regulating the precision of cholinergic connectivity will contribute to the understanding of normal cognitive processes and will likely provide additional ideas for designing improved therapies for the treatment of neurological disease in which cholinergic dysfunction has been demonstrated.

The chemokine CXCL12 mediates the anti-amyloidogenic action of painless human nerve growth factor

Nerve growth factor is a therapeutic candidate for Alzheimer’s disease. Due to its pain-inducing activity, in current clinical trials nerve growth factor is delivered locally into the brain by neurosurgery, but data on the efficacy of local nerve growth factor delivery in decreasing amyloid-β deposition are not available. To reduce the nerve growth factor pain-inducing side effects, thus avoiding the need for local brain injection, we developed human painless nerve growth factor (hNGFp), inspired by the human genetic disease hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type V. hNGFp has identical neurotrophic potency as wild-type human nerve growth factor, but a 10-fold lower pain sensitizing activity. In this study we first mimicked, in the 5xFAD mouse model, the intraparenchymal delivery of hNGFp used in clinical trials and found it to be ineffective in decreasing amyloid-β plaque load. On the contrary, the same dose of hNGFp delivered intranasally, which was widely biodistributed in the brain and did not induce pain, showed a potent anti-amyloidogenic action and rescued synaptic plasticity and memory deficits. We found that hNGFp acts on glial cells, modulating inflammatory proteins such as the soluble TNFα receptor II and the chemokine CXCL12. We further established that the rescuing effect by hNGFp is mediated by CXCL12, as pharmacological inhibition of CXCL12 receptor CXCR4 occludes most of hNGFp effects. These findings have significant therapeutic implications: (i) we established that a widespread exposure of the brain is required for nerve growth factor to fully exert its neuroprotective actions; and (ii) we have identified a new anti-neurodegenerative pathway as a broad target for new therapeutic opportunities for neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuroprotective activity of hydroponic Teucrium polium following bilateral ovariectomy

Ovariectomy is known as "surgical menopause" with decreased levels of estrogen in female rodents. Its reported risks and adverse effects include cognitive impairment. The action of hydroponic Teucrium polium on nucleus basalis of Meynert (bnM) neurons following 6 weeks of ovariectomy was carried out. The analysis of spike activity was observed by on-line selection and the use of a software package. Early and late tetanic, - posttetanic potentiation and depression of neurons to high frequency stimulation of hippocampus were studied. The complex averaged peri-event time and frequency histograms were constructed. The histochemical study of the activity of Са(2+)-dependent acid phosphatase was observed. In conditions of hydroponic Teucrium polium administration, positive changes in neurons and gain of metabolism leading to cellular survival were revealed. The administration of Teucrium polium elicited neurodegenerative changes in bnM.

The role of bioactive compounds on the promotion of neurite outgrowth

Neurite loss is one of the cardinal features of neuronal injury. Apart from neuroprotection, reorganization of the lost neuronal network in the injured brain is necessary for the restoration of normal physiological functions. Neuritogenic activity of endogenous molecules in the brain such as nerve growth factor is well documented and supported by scientific studies which show innumerable compounds having neurite outgrowth activity from natural sources. Since the damaged brain lacks the reconstructive capacity, more efforts in research are focused on the identification of compounds that promote the reformation of neuronal networks. An abundancy of natural resources along with the corresponding activity profiles have shown promising results in the field of neuroscience. Recently, importance has also been placed on understanding neurite formation by natural products in relation to neuronal injury. Arrays of natural herbal products having plentiful active constituents have been found to enhance neurite outgrowth. They act synergistically with neurotrophic factors to promote neuritogenesis in the diseased brain. Therefore use of natural products for neuroregeneration provides new insights in drug development for treating neuronal injury. In this study, various compounds from natural sources with potential neurite outgrowth activity are reviewed in experimental models.

Synaptic deficits are rescued in the p25/Cdk5 model of neurodegeneration by the reduction of β-secretase (BACE1)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, and is characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline, as well as amyloid β (Aβ) accumulation, and progressive neurodegeneration. Cdk5 is a proline-directed serine/threonine kinase whose activation by the p25 protein has been implicated in a number of neurodegenerative disorders. The CK-p25 inducible mouse model exhibits progressive neuronal death, elevated Aβ, reduced synaptic plasticity, and impaired learning following p25 overexpression in forebrain neurons. Levels of Aβ, as well as the APP processing enzyme, β-secretase (BACE1), are also increased in CK-p25 mice. It is unknown what role increased Aβ plays in the cognitive and neurodegenerative phenotype of the CK-p25 mouse. In the current work, we restored Aβ levels in the CK-p25 mouse to those of wild-type mice via the partial genetic deletion of BACE1, allowing us to examine the Aβ-independent phenotype of this mouse model. We show that, in the CK-p25 mouse, normalization of Aβ levels led to a rescue of synaptic and cognitive deficits. Conversely, neuronal loss was not ameliorated. Our findings indicate that increases in p25/Cdk5 activity may mediate cognitive and synaptic impairment via an Aβ-dependent pathway in the CK-p25 mouse. These findings explore the impact of targeting Aβ production in a mouse model of neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment, and how this may translate into therapeutic approaches for sporadic AD.

Focal adhesion kinase regulates neuronal growth, synaptic plasticity and hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory

The focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase abundantly expressed in the mammalian brain and highly enriched in neuronal growth cones. Inhibitory and facilitatory activities of FAK on neuronal growth have been reported and its role in neuritic outgrowth remains controversial. Unlike other tyrosine kinases, such as the neurotrophin receptors regulating neuronal growth and plasticity, the relevance of FAK for learning and memory in vivo has not been clearly defined yet. A comprehensive study aimed at determining the role of FAK in neuronal growth, neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity in hippocampal neurons and in hippocampus-dependent learning and memory was therefore undertaken using the mouse model. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments indicated that FAK is a critical regulator of hippocampal cell morphology. FAK mediated neurotrophin-induced neuritic outgrowth and FAK inhibition affected both miniature excitatory postsynaptic potentials and activity-dependent hippocampal long-term potentiation prompting us to explore the possible role of FAK in spatial learning and memory in vivo. Our data indicate that FAK has a growth-promoting effect, is importantly involved in the regulation of the synaptic function and mediates in vivo hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory.

Neurogenesis in Alzheimer´s disease: a realistic alternative to neuronal degeneration?

Neural stem cells (NSC) are cells that have the capacity to generate multiple types of differentiated brain cells. In conditions in which there is a loss of key functional cell groups, such as neurons, inducing or introducing neural stem cells to replace the function of those cells that were lost during the disease has the greatest potential therapeutic applications. Indeed, the achievement of one of the main objectives of various investigations is already on the horizon for some conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease. It is not known whether impaired neurogenesis contributes to neuronal depletion and cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The results of the different investigations are controversial; some studies have found that neurogenesis is increased in AD brains, but others have not.

Microglial receptor for advanced glycation end product-dependent signal pathway drives beta-amyloid-induced synaptic depression and long-term depression impairment in entorhinal cortex

Overproduction of beta-amyloid (Abeta) is a pathologic feature of Alzheimer's disease, leading to cognitive impairment. Here, we investigated the impact of cell-specific receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) on Abeta-induced entorhinal cortex (EC) synaptic dysfunction. We found both a transient depression of basal synaptic transmission and inhibition of long-term depression (LTD) after the application of Abeta in EC slices. Synaptic depression and LTD impairment induced by Abeta were rescued by functional suppression of RAGE. Remarkably, the rescue was only observed in slices from mice expressing a defective form of RAGE targeted to microglia, but not in slices from mice expressing defective RAGE targeted to neurons. Moreover, we found that the inflammatory cytokine IL-1beta (interleukin-1beta) and stress-activated kinases [p38 MAPK (p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase) and JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase)] were significantly altered and involved in RAGE signaling pathways depending on RAGE expression in neuron or microglia. These findings suggest a prominent role of microglial RAGE signaling in Abeta-induced EC synaptic dysfunction.

Nerve growth factor as a paradigm of neurotrophins related to Alzheimer's disease

Converging lines of evidence on the possible connection between NGF signaling and Alzheimer's diseases (AD) are unraveling new facets which could depict this neurotrophin (NTF) in a more central role. AD animal models have provided evidence that a shortage of NGF supply may induce an AD-like syndrome. In vitro experiments, moreover, are delineating a possible temporal and causal link between APP amiloydogenic processing and altered post-translational tau modifications. After NGF signaling interruption, the pivotal upstream players of the amyloid cascade (APP, beta-secretase, and active form of gamma-secretase) are up-regulated, leading to an increased production of amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) and to its intracellular aggregation in molecular species of different sizes. Contextually, the Abeta released pool generates an autocrine toxic loop in the same healthy neurons. At the same time tau protein undergoes anomalous, GSKbeta-mediated, phosphorylation at specific pathogenetic sites (Ser262 and Thr 231), caspase(s) and calpain- I- mediated truncation, detachment from microtubules with consequent cytoskeleton collapse and axonal transport impairment. All these events are inhibited when the amyloidogenic processing is reduced by beta and gamma secretase inhibitors or anti-Abeta antibodies and appear to be causally correlated to TrkA, p75CTF, Abeta, and PS1 molecular association in an Abeta-mediated fashion. In this scenario, the so-called trophic action exerted by NGF (and possibly also by other neurotrophins) in these targets neurons is actually the result of an anti-amyloidogenic activity.

In the adult hippocampus, chronic nerve growth factor deprivation shifts GABAergic signaling from the hyperpolarizing to the depolarizing direction

GABA, the main inhibitory transmitter in adulthood, early in postnatal development exerts a depolarizing and excitatory action. This effect, which results from a high intracellular chloride concentration ([Cl(-)](i)), promotes neuronal growth and synaptogenesis. During the second postnatal week, the developmental regulated expression of the cation-chloride cotransporter KCC2 accounts for the shift of GABA from the depolarizing to the hyperpolarizing direction. Changes in chloride homeostasis associated with high [Cl(-)](i) have been found in several neurological disorders, including temporal lobe epilepsy. Here, we report that, in adult transgenic mice engineered to express recombinant neutralizing anti-nerve growth factor antibodies (AD11 mice), GABA became depolarizing and excitatory. AD11 mice exhibit a severe deficit of the cholinergic function associated with an age-dependent progressive neurodegenerative pathology resembling that observed in Alzheimer patients. Thus, in hippocampal slices obtained from 6-month-old AD11 (but not wild-type) mice, the GABA(A) agonist isoguvacine significantly increased the firing of CA1 principal cells and, at the network level, the frequency of multiunit activity recorded with extracellular electrodes. In addition, in AD11 mice, the reversal of GABA(A)-mediated postsynaptic currents and of GABA-evoked single-channel currents were positive with respect to the resting membrane potential as estimated in perforated patch and cell attached recordings, respectively. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and immunocytochemical experiments revealed a reduced expression of mRNA encoding for Kcc2 and of the respective protein. This novel mechanism may represent a homeostatic response that counterbalances within the hippocampal network the Alzheimer-like neurodegenerative pathology found in AD11 mice.

The history of the cholinergic hypothesis

The cholinergic hypothesis of cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease has been for decades a "polar star" for studies on dementia and neurodegenerative diseases. Aim of the present article is to briefly summarize its birth and its evolution throughout years and discoveries. Putting the cholinergic hypothesis in an historical perspective, allows to appreciate the enormous amount of experimental and clinical research that it has stimulated over years and the impressive extent of knowledge generated by this research. While some of the assumptions at the basis of its original formulation are disputable in the light of recent developments, the cholinergic hypothesis has, however, constituted an invaluable stimulus to better understand not only the anatomy and the biochemistry of the cholinergic systems of brain connections but also its developmental biology, its complex relationships with trophic factors, its role in cognitive functions. Thus, rather than being consigned to history, the cholinergic hypothesis will likely contribute to further understanding dementia and neurodegenerative diseases and will hopefully be integrated in novel therapies and treatments.

Abeta-dependent Inhibition of LTP in different intracortical circuits of the visual cortex: the role of RAGE

Oligomeric amyloid-beta (Abeta) interferes with long-term potentiation (LTP) and cognitive processes, suggesting that Abeta peptides may play a role in the neuronal dysfunction which characterizes the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Multiple lines of evidence have highlighted RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end-products) as a receptor involved in Abeta-induced neuronal and synaptic dysfunction. In the present study, we investigated the effect of oligomeric soluble Abeta1-42 on LTP elicited by the stimulation of different intracortical pathways in the mouse visual cortex. A variety of nanomolar concentrations (20-200 nM) of Abeta1-42 were able to inhibit LTP in cortical layer II-III induced by either white matter (WM-Layer II/III) or the layer II/III (horizontal pathway) stimulation, whereas the inhibition of LTP was more susceptible to Abeta1-42, which occurred at 20 nM of Abeta, when stimulating layer II-III horizontal pathway. Remarkably, cortical slices were resistant to nanomolar Abeta1-42 in the absence of RAGE (genetic deletion of RAGE) or blocking RAGE by RAGE antibody. These results indicate that nanomolar Abeta inhibits LTP expression in different neocortical circuits. Crucially, it is demonstrated that Abeta-induced reduction of LTP in different cortical pathways is mediated by RAGE.

Early inflammation and immune response mRNAs in the brain of AD11 anti-NGF mice

We characterized the gene expression profile of brain regions at an early stage of the Alzheimer's like neurodegeneration in the anti-NGF AD11 model. Total RNA was extracted from hippocampus, cortex and basal forebrain of postnatal day 30 (P30) and postnatal day 90 (P90) mice and expression profiles were studied by microarray analysis, followed by qRT-PCR validation of 243 significant candidates. Wide changes in gene expression profiles occur already at P30. As expected, cholinergic system and neurotrophins related genes expression were altered. Interestingly, the most significantly affected clusters of mRNAs are linked to inflammation and immune response, as well as to Wnt signaling. mRNAs encoding for different complement factors show a large differential expression. This is noteworthy, since these complement cascade proteins are involved in CNS synapse elimination, during normal brain developing and in neurodegenerative diseases. This gene expression pattern highlights that an early event in AD11 neurodegeneration is represented, together with neurotrophic deficits and synaptic remodeling, by an inflammatory response and an unbalance in the immunotrophic state of the brain. These might be key events in the pathogenesis and development of AD.

Receptor for advanced glycation end product-dependent activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase contributes to amyloid-beta-mediated cortical synaptic dysfunction

Soluble amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide is likely to play a key role during early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by perturbing synaptic function and cognitive processes. Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) has been identified as a receptor involved in Abeta-induced neuronal dysfunction. We investigated the role of neuronal RAGE in Abeta-induced synaptic dysfunction in the entorhinal cortex, an area of the brain important in memory processes that is affected early in AD. We found that soluble oligomeric Abeta peptide (Abeta42) blocked long-term potentiation (LTP), but did not affect long-term depression, paired-pulse facilitation, or basal synaptic transmission. In contrast, Abeta did not inhibit LTP in slices from RAGE-null mutant mice or in slices from wild-type mice treated with anti-RAGE IgG. Similarly, transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative form of RAGE targeted to neurons showed normal LTP in the presence of Abeta, suggesting that neuronal RAGE functions as a signal transducer for Abeta-mediated LTP impairment. To investigate intracellular pathway transducing RAGE activation by Abeta, we used inhibitors of stress activated kinases. We found that inhibiting p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), but not blocking c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation, was capable of maintaining LTP in Abeta-treated slices. Moreover, Abeta-mediated enhancement of p38 MAPK phosphorylation in cortical neurons was reduced by blocking antibodies to RAGE. Together, our results indicate that Abeta impairs LTP in the entorhinal cortex through neuronal RAGE-mediated activation of p38 MAPK.

Identification of a caspase-derived N-terminal tau fragment in cellular and animal Alzheimer's disease models

Biochemical modifications of tau proteins have been proposed to be among the earliest neurobiological changes in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and correlate better with cognitive symptoms than do beta-amyloid plaques. We have recently reported that adenovirus-mediated overexpression of the NH2 26-230aa tau fragment evokes a potent NMDA-mediated neurotoxic effect in primary neuronal cultures. In order to assess whether such N-terminal tau fragment(s) are indeed produced during apoptosis or neurodegeneration in vivo, we attempted to ascertain their presence in cell and animal models using an anti-tau antibody directed against the N-terminal sequence of human protein located downstream of the caspase(s)-cleavage site DRKD(25)-QGGYTMHQDQ. We provide biochemical evidence that a caspase(s)-cleaved NH2-terminal tau fragment of 20-22 kDa, consistent with the size of the NH2 26-230aa neurotoxic fragment of tau, is generated in vitro in differentiated human SH-SY5Y cells undergoing apoptosis by BDNF withdrawal or following treatment with staurosporine. In addition this NH2-terminally cleaved tau fragment, whose expression correlates with a significant up-regulation of caspase(s) activity, is also specifically detected in vivo in the hippocampus of 15 month-old AD11 transgenic mice, a model in which a progressive AD-like neurodegeneration is induced by the expression of transgenic anti-NGF antibodies. The results support the idea that aberrant activation of caspase(s), following apoptotic stimuli or neurodegeneration insults, may produce one or more toxic NH2 tau fragments, that further contribute to propagate and increase cellular dysfunctions in AD.

The place of choline acetyltransferase activity measurement in the "cholinergic hypothesis" of neurodegenerative diseases

The so-called "cholinergic hypothesis" assumes that degenerative dysfunction of the cholinergic system originating in the basal forebrain and innervating several cortical regions and the hippocampus, is related to memory impairment and neurodegeneration found in several forms of dementia and in brain aging. Biochemical methods measuring the activity of the key enzyme for acetylcholine synthesis, choline acetyltransferase, have been used for many years as a reliable marker of the integrity or the damage of the cholinergic pathways. Stereologic counting of the basal forebrain cholinergic cell bodies, has been additionally used to assess neurodegenerative changes of the forebrain cholinergic system. While initially believed to mark relatively early stages of disease, cholinergic dysfunction is at present considered to occur in advanced dementia of Alzheimer's type, while its involvement in mild and prodromal stages of the disease has been questioned. The issue is relevant to better understand the neuropathological basis of the diseases, but it is also of primary importance for therapy. During the last few years, indeed, cholinergic replacement therapies, mainly based on the use of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to increase synaptic availability of acetylcholine, have been exploited on the assumption that they could ameliorate the progression of the dementia from its initial stages. In the present paper, we review data from human studies, as well as from animal models of Alzheimer's and Down's diseases, focusing on different ways to evaluate cholinergic dysfunction, also in relation to the time point at which these dysfunctions can be demonstrated, and on some discrepancy arising from the use of different methodological approaches. The reviewed literature, as well as some recent data from our laboratories on a mouse model of Down's syndrome, stress the importance of performing biochemical evaluation of choline acetyltransferase activity to assess cholinergic dysfunction both in humans and in animal models.

Cochlear damage induces GAP-43 expression in cholinergic synapses of the cochlear nucleus in the adult rat: a light and electron microscopic study

Recent studies suggest a potential for activity-dependent reconstruction in the adult mammalian brainstem that exceeds previous expectations. We found that a unilateral cochlear lesion led within 1 week to a rise of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunoreactivity in the ventral cochlear nucleus of the affected side, matching the lesion-induced expression of growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43) previously described. The rise of both ChAT and GAP-43 immunoreactivity was reflected in the average density of the staining. Moreover, the number of light-microscopically identifiable boutons increased in both stains. GAP-43-positive boutons could, by distinct ultrastructural features, regularly be identified as presynaptic endings. However, GAP-43 immunoreactivity was not only found in presynaptic endings with a classical morphology, but also in profiles that suggest morphological dynamic structures by showing filopodia, assemblages of pleomorphic vesicles, large vesicles (diameter up to 200 nm) fusing with the presynaptic plasma membrane close to synaptic contacts, small dense-core vesicles (diameter about 80 nm) and presynaptic ribosomes. Moreover, we observed perforated synapses as well as GAP-43 immunoreactivity condensed in rafts, both indicative of growing or changing neuronal connections. Classical and untypical ultrastructural profiles that contained GAP-43 also contained ChAT. We conclude that there is extensive deafness-induced GAP-43-mediated synaptic plasticity in the cochlear nucleus, and that this plasticity is predominantly, if not exclusively, based on cholinergic afferents.

Failure of nicotine-dependent enhancement of synaptic efficacy at Schaffer-collateral CA1 synapses of AD11 anti-nerve growth factor transgenic mice

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by neuronal loss associated with a progressive impairment of cognitive functions. Early consequences of Alzheimer's disease include deficit of cholinergic signalling in particular regions controlling memory processes, such as the cortex and hippocampus, and accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptide in neuritic plaques. The cholinergic system depends for its integrity and function on nerve growth factor. Chronic nerve growth factor deprivation in transgenic mice (AD11) engineered to produce recombinant neutralizing anti-nerve growth factor antibodies leads to progressive age-dependent Alzheimer's-like neurodegenerative pathology similar to that found in patients with Alzheimer's disease, associated with a selective loss of cholinergic neurones in the basal forebrain. Here we show that in the hippocampus of 6-month-old AD11 mice, Abeta aggregates started appearing in the CA1 region. The accumulation of Abeta was associated with a loss of cholinergic function at CA3-CA1 synapses. Whereas in wild-type mice nicotine induced a persistent increase of synaptic efficacy via alpha7 nicotine acetylcholine receptors, in AD11 mice this alkaloid failed to modify synaptic strength. Moreover, nicotine failed to transiently enhance the frequency of spontaneous miniature glutamatergic currents (miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents) recorded from CA1 but not from CA3 pyramidal neurones of AD11 mice. However, in CA3 principal cells of AD11 mice, the potentiating effect of nicotine on miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents was prevented when Abeta peptide 1-42 was added to the extracellular solution. These data suggest that in AD11 mice, Abeta interferes with nicotine acetylcholine receptors at the level of presynaptic glutamatergic terminals, inhibiting their function possibly through calcium signalling via presynaptic alpha7 nicotine acetylcholine receptors.

Nicotine-induced enhancement of synaptic plasticity at CA3-CA1 synapses requires GABAergic interneurons in adult anti-NGF mice

The hippocampus, a key structure for learning and memory processes, receives an important cholinergic innervation and is densely packed with a variety of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) localized on principal cells and interneurons. Activation of these receptors by nicotine or endogenously released acetylcholine enhances activity-dependent synaptic plasticity processes. Deficits in the cholinergic system produce impairment of cognitive functions that are particularly relevant during senescence and in age-related neurodegenerative pathologies. In particular, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and nAChRs in particular regions controlling memory processes such as the cortex and the hippocampus. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials were recorded in order to examine whether nicotine was able to regulate induction of long-term potentiation at CA3-CA1 synapses in hippocampal slices from adult anti-NGF transgenic mice (AD 11), a comprehensive animal model of AD, in which cholinergic deficits due to nerve growth factor depletion are accompanied by progressive Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration. Both AD 11 and wild-type (WT) mice exhibited short- and long-lasting synaptic plasticity processes that were boosted by nicotine. The effects of nicotine on WT and AD 11 mice were mediated by both alpha7- and beta2-containing nAChRs. In the presence of GABA(A) receptor antagonists, nicotine failed to boost synaptic plasticity in AD 11 but not in WT mice, indicating that in anti-NGF transgenic mice GABAergic interneurons are able to compensate for the deficit in cholinergic modulation of glutamatergic transmission. This compensation may occur at different levels and may involve the reorganization of the GABAergic circuit. However, patch-clamp whole-cell recordings from principal cells failed to reveal any change in spontaneous release of GABA following pressure application of nicotine to nearby GABAergic interneurons. Together, these experiments indicate that in AD 11 mice a rearrangement of the GABAergic circuit can 'rescue' nicotine-induced potentiation of synaptic plasticity. This may be relevant for developing proper therapeutic tools useful for the treatment of AD.

Altered neurogenesis in Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Exciting preliminary work indicates an increase in progenitor activity in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) compared to that of controls. We examine progenitor activity in the other main progenitor niche, the subventricular zone (SVZ), as well as potential associations with key pathological and neurochemical substrates.

METHOD

Immunocytochemistry techniques utilizing nestin and Musashi1 antibodies were used to examine progenitor activity in the SVZ and to enable comparisons between seven patients with AD and seven controls, based upon the quantification of the percentage area covered, using the Image Pro Plus v.4.1 image analysis system. AD pathology was staged using the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease and Braak criteria. Choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) was measured in the temporal cortex as an indication of the severity of cortical cholinergic deficits. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was used to label astrocytes.

RESULTS

There was a significant ninefold decrease (Z = 2.2, P = .046) of Musashi1 immunoreactivity in the SVZ of patients with AD in comparison with that of controls, but there was a significant increase in nestin immunoreactivity in the same region (Z = 2.2, P = .028) without any significant change in GFAP immunoreactivity. Reduced ChAT enzymatic activity was the main association of Musashi immunoreactivity (R = -.90, P = .03).

DISCUSSION

The current results indicate a significant reduction of progenitor cells (as labeled by Musashi1) in the SVZ of patients with AD, but an increase in GFAP-negative astrocyte-like cells with progenitor characteristics. Cortical cholinergic loss was strongly associated with the reduction of progenitors, with potential implications of important treatment targets.

On the molecular basis linking Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) to Alzheimer's disease

1. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is pathologically defined by the deposition of amyloid peptide and neurofibrillary tangles and is characterized by a progressive loss of cognition and memory function, due to marked cortical cholinergic depletion. 2. Cholinergic cortical innervation is provided by basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. The neurotrophin Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) promotes survival and differentiation of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. 3. This assertion has been at the basis of the hypothesis developed in the last 20 years, whereby NGF deprivation would be one of the factor involved in the etiology of sporadic forms of AD. 4. In this review, we shall summarize data that lead to the production and characterization of a mouse model for AD (AD11 anti-NGF mice), based on the expression of transgenic antibodies neutralizing NGF. The AD-like phenotype of AD11 mice will be discussed on the basis of recent studies that have posed NGF and its precursor pro-NGF back to the stage of AD-like neurodegeneration, showing the involvement of the precursor pro-NGF in one of the cascades leading to AD neurodegeneration.

Long-term depression in rat CA1-subicular synapses depends on the G-protein coupled mACh receptors

The subiculum, which is the primary target of CA1 pyramidal neurons and sending efferent fibres to many brain regions, serves as a hippocampal interface in the neural information processes between hippocampal formation and neocortex. Long-term depression (LTD) is extensively studied in the hippocampus, but not at the CA1-subicular synaptic transmission. Using whole-cell EPSC recordings in the brain slices of young rats, we demonstrated that the pairing protocols of low frequency stimulation (LFS) at 3 Hz and postsynaptic depolarization of -50 mV elicited a reliable LTD in the subiculum. The LTD did not cause the changes of the paired-pulse ratio of EPSC. Furthermore, it did not depend on either NMDA receptors or voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Bath application of the G-protein coupled muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) antagonists, atropine or scopolamine, blocked the LTD, suggesting that mAChRs are involved in the LTD. It was also completely blocked by either the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA or the G-protein inhibitor GDP-beta-S in the intracellular solution. This type of LTD in the subiculum may play a particular role in the neural information processing between the hippocampus and neocortex.

Reconnecting neuronal networks in the auditory brainstem following unilateral deafening

When we disturbed the auditory input of the adult rat by cochleotomy or noise trauma on one side, several substantial anatomical, cellular, and molecular changes took place in the auditory brainstem. We found that: (1) cochleotomy or severe noise trauma both lead to a considerable increase of immunoreactivity of the growth-associated protein GAP-43 in the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) of the affected side; (2) the expression of GAP-43 in VCN is restricted to presynaptic endings and short fiber segments; (3) axon collaterals of the cholinergic medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons are the path along which GAP-43 reaches VCN; (4) partial cochlear lesions induce the emergence of GAP-43 positive presynaptic endings only in regions tonotopically corresponding to the extent of the lesion; (5) judging from the presence of immature fibers and growth cones in VCN on the deafened side, at least part of the GAP-43 positive presynaptic endings appear to be newly formed neuronal contacts following axonal sprouting while others may be modified pre-existing contacts; and (6) GAP-43 positive synapses are formed only on specific postsynaptic profiles, i.e., glutamatergic, glycinergic and calretinin containing cell bodies, but not GABAergic cell bodies. We conclude that unilateral deafening, be it partial or total, induces complex patterns of reconnecting neurons in the adult auditory brainstem, and we evaluate the possibility that the deafness-induced chain of events is optimized to remedy the loss of a bilaterally balanced activity in the auditory brainstem.

Selective cholinergic immunolesioning affects synaptic plasticity in developing visual cortex

Cholinergic neurotransmission is known to affect activity-dependent plasticity in various areas, including the visual cortex. However, relatively little is known about the exact role of subcortical cholinergic inputs in the regulation of plastic events in this region during early postnatal development. In the present study, synaptic transmission and plasticity in the developing visual cortex were studied following selective immunotoxic removal of the basal forebrain cholinergic afferents in 4-day-old rat pups. The lesion produced dramatic cholinergic neuronal and terminal fibre loss associated with decreased mRNA levels for the M1 and M2 muscarinic receptors, as well as clear-cut impairments of long-term potentiation (LTP) in visual cortex slices. Indeed, after theta burst stimulation of layer IV a long-term depression (LTD) instead of an LTP was induced in immunolesioned slices. This functional change appears to be due to the lack of cholinergic input as exogenous application of acetylcholine prevented the shift from LTP to LTD. In addition, lesioned rats showed an increased sensitivity to acetylcholine (ACh). While application of 20 microm ACh produced a depression of the field potential in immunolesioned rat slices, in order to observe the same effect in control slices we had to increase ACh concentration to up to 200 microm. Taken together, our results indicate that deprivation of cholinergic input affects synaptic transmission and plasticity in developing visual cortex, suggesting that the cholinergic system could play an active role in the refinement of the cortical circuitry during maturation.

Induction of nerve growth factor by butanol fraction of Liriope platyphylla in C6 and primary astrocyte cells

Liriope platyphylla (LP) has been used as a tonic, antitussive, and expectorant in Korea for many years. In this study, we found that the buthanol fraction of Liriope platyphylla (BLP)-conditioned media of C6 and primary astrocyte induced the neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells, and that the effect was reversed by addition of nerve growth factor (NGF)-antibody and GF109203X, an inhibitor of protein kinase (PKC). Furthermore, we demonstrated that BLP increased the expression and secretion of NGF. GF109203X also decreased NGF expression in C6 cells. Taken together, our results suggest that astroglial NGF enhanced by BLP in a PKC-dependent pathway contributed to the induction of neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells.

Intranasal administration of nerve growth factor (NGF) rescues recognition memory deficits in AD11 anti-NGF transgenic mice

Nerve growth factor (NGF) delivery to the brain of patients appears to be an emerging potential therapeutic approach to neurodegenerative disease, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The intranasal route of administration could provide an alternative to intracere-broventricular infusion and gene therapy. We previously showed that intranasal administration of NGF determined an amelioration of cholinergic deficit and a decrease in the number of phosphotau-positive neurons and of beta-amyloid accumulation in AD11 mice, which express transgenic antibodies neutralizing NGF action and exhibit a progressive Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration. In this study, we report that the Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration in AD11 mice is linked to progressive behavioral deficits in visual recognition memory and spatial memory starting from 4 months of age. To establish whether intranasal administration of NGF, started after the appearance of the first memory deficits, could revert the cognitive deficits in AD11 mice, we assessed the performance of NGF-treated or control AD11 mice in the object recognition test and in a test of memory for place and context. Deficits exhibited by untreated AD11 mice could be rescued by the intranasal administration of NGF. Thus, this route of administration provides a promising way to deliver NGF to the brain in a therapeutic perspective.

Disruption of the retinoid signalling pathway causes a deposition of amyloid beta in the adult rat brain

We have disrupted the retinoid signalling pathway in adult rats by a dietary deficiency of vitamin A. After 1 year of this dietary deficiency, there was a deposition of amyloid beta in the cerebral blood vessels. There is a downregulation of retinoic acid receptor alpha in the forebrain neurons of the retinoid-deficient rats and a loss of choline acetyl transferase expression, which precedes amyloid beta deposition. In neocortex of pathology samples of patients with Alzheimer's disease, the same retinoic acid receptor alpha deficit in the surviving neurons was observed. We have identified the retinoid-synthesizing enzymes involved in this process, retinaldehyde dehydrogenase-2 and class IV alcohol dehydrogenase, only the former is downregulated in patients with Alzheimer's disease. This suggests that retinoids are important for the maintenance of the adult nervous system and their loss may in part play a role in Alzheimer's disease.

Ganstigmine and donepezil improve neurodegeneration in AD11 antinerve growth factor transgenic mice

Ganstigmine (CHF2819) is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that increases acetylcholine in rat hippocampus and ameliorates scopolamine-induced amnesia. In this article, we examined whether and how ganstigmine might prevent or rescue the neurodegenerative phenotype in AD11 antinerve growth factor (anti-NGF) mice, a transgenic model for Alzheimer's disease. The effects of ganstigmine were compared with those obtained after administration of donepezil. Results demonstrate that intraperitoneal and oral administration of ganstigmine and donepezil can reverse the cholinergic and behavioral deficit in AD11 mice but not the amyloid and phosphotau accumulation, uncovering different mechanisms leading to neurodegeneration in AD11 mice.

Rescue of NGF-deficient mice II: basal forebrain cholinergic projections require NGF for target innervation but not guidance

Basal forebrain cholinergic (BFC) neurons are an important substrate of cognitive function and are hypothesized to require the presence of nerve growth factor (NGF) for survival and target innervation. NGF-deficient mice develop BFC neurons that extend projections into telencephalic targets, but the mice perish before innervation is fully established. Rescue of NGF-deficient mice by transgenic expression of NGF under the keratin promoter yields viable mice with disrupted CNS expression of NGF. In the current study, rescued NGF-deficient mice contain normal numbers of septal cholinergic neurons yet reveal severe compromise of cholinergic innervation of both cortex and hippocampus. Surprisingly, intracerebroventricular infusion of NGF into juvenile mice can induce an essentially normal pattern of cholinergic innervation of the hippocampus. These results indicate that NGF is required for induction of proper innervation by BFC neurons, but that the cellular pattern of expression of this factor is not critical for specifying the distribution of axon terminals.

(−)-3,5-Dicaffeoyl-muco-quinic acid isolated from Aster scaber contributes to the differentiation of PC12 cells: through tyrosine kinase cascade signaling

Aster scaber T. (Asteraceae) has been used in traditional Korean and Chinese medicine to treat bruises, snakebites, headaches, and dizziness. (-)-3,5-Dicaffeoyl-muco-quinic acid (DQ) isolated from A. scaber induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells. It has been reported that the activation of the extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk 1/2) and phosphoinositide 3 (PI3) kinase plays a crucial role in the NGF-induced differentiation of PC12 cells. This study showed that the effect of DQ on neurite outgrowth is mediated via the Erk 1/2 and PI3 kinase-dependent pathways like NGF. Furthermore, DQ stimulated the phosphorylation of Trk A. Overall, DQ elicited the differentiation of PC12 cells through Trk A phosphorylation followed by Erk 1/2 and PI3 kinase activation.

Nerve growth factor and galantamine ameliorate early signs of neurodegeneration in anti-nerve growth factor mice

Phenotypic knockout of nerve growth factor (NGF) activity in transgenic anti-NGF mice (AD11 mice) results in a progressive neurodegenerative phenotype resembling Alzheimer's disease. In this article, we examine whether and how the progressive neurodegenerative phenotype of AD11 mice could be prevented or ameliorated by pharmacological treatments with NGF or the cholinergic agonist galantamine, at a relatively early phase of Alzheimer's disease-like neurodegeneration. We demonstrate that the neurodegeneration induced by the expression of anti-NGF antibodies in AD11 mice can be largely reversed by NGF delivery through an olfactory route.

Beta-amyloid plaques in a model for sporadic Alzheimer's disease based on transgenic anti-nerve growth factor antibodies

Cerebral deposition of beta-amyloid (Abeta) is an invariant event of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We recently described that the brain of aged transgenic mice expressing anti-nerve growth factor (NGF) antibodies (AD11 mice) show a dramatic neurodegenerative phenotype, reminiscent of AD, which includes neuronal loss, cholinergic deficit, and tau hyperphosphorylation, associated with neurofibrillary pathology. We now report that brains of aged transgenic mice contain large amounts of beta-amyloid plaques and describe their morphology by a variety of approaches. In conclusion, the chronic deprivation of NGF leads to the formation and deposition of Abeta in AD11 mice, suggesting a direct link between NGF signaling and abnormal processing of amyloid precursor protein.