Salmonid olfactory system-specific protein (N24) exhibits glutathione S-transferase class pi-like structure

Differential expression of olfactory genes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) during the parr-smolt transformation

The anadromous salmon life cycle includes two migratory events, downstream smolt migration and adult homing migration, during which they must navigate with high precision. During homing migration, olfactory cues are used for navigation in coastal and freshwater areas, and studies have suggested that the parr-smolt transformation has a sensitive period for imprinting. Accordingly, we hypothesized that there would be significant changes in gene expression in the olfactory epithelium specifically related to smoltification and sampled olfactory rosettes from hatchery-reared upper growth modal juvenile Atlantic salmon at 3-week intervals from January to June, using lower growth modal nonsmolting siblings as controls. A suite of olfactory receptors and receptor-specific proteins involved in functional aspects of olfaction and peripheral odor memorization was analyzed by qPCR. Gene expression in juveniles was compared with mature adult salmon of the same genetic strain caught in the river Gudenaa. All mRNAs displayed significant variation over time in both modal groups. Furthermore, five receptor genes (olfc13.1, olfc15.1, sorb, ora2, and asor1) and four olfactory-specific genes (soig, ependymin, gst, and omp2) were differentially regulated between modal groups, suggesting altered olfactory function during smoltification. Several genes were differentially regulated in mature salmon compared with juveniles, suggesting that homing and odor recollection involve a different set of genes than during imprinting. Thyroid hormone receptors thrα and thrβ mRNAs were elevated during smolting, suggesting increased sensitivity to thyroid hormones. Treatment of presmolts with triiodothyronine in vivo and ex vivo had, however, only subtle effects on the investigated olfactory targets, questioning the hypothesis that thyroid hormones directly regulate gene expression in the olfactory epithelium.

Detection and localization of the thyroid hormone receptor beta mRNA in the immature olfactory receptor neurons of chum salmon

Thyroid hormone (TH) plays an important role in regulating multiple cellular and metabolic processes, including cell proliferation, cell death, and energy metabolism, in various organs and tissues of vertebrates. It is generally accepted that anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) imprint odorants from their natal stream during their seaward migration, and they then use olfaction to discriminate their natal stream during the spawning migration. Both serum TH levels and the specific binding values of TH in the salmon olfactory epithelium were markedly increased during the seaward migration. However, thyroid hormone receptor (TR) expression in the olfactory epithelium has not been confirmed in vertebrates. We investigated gene expression of TR isoforms in chum salmon (O. keta) by both molecular biological and histochemical techniques. Expression of TRβ mRNA was detected in the olfactory epithelium by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Nucleotide sequencing demonstrated the existence of a remarkable homology between the RT-PCR product and part of the ligand-binding domain of other teleost TRβ isoforms. By in situ hybridization using a digoxygenin-labeled salmon olfactory TRβ cRNA probe, signals for salmon olfactory TRβ mRNA were observed preferentially in the perinuclear regions of immature olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), as protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5)-immunopositive ORNs. Our results provide the first detection of TRβ gene expression in the olfactory epithelium, and suggested the possibility that TRβ may be involved in cell maturation and/or cell differentiation of the ORNs in Pacific salmon.

Cloning, expression and analysis of the olfactory glutathione S-transferases in coho salmon

The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) provide cellular protection by detoxifying xenobiotics, maintaining redox status, and modulating secondary messengers, all of which are critical to maintaining olfaction in salmonids. Here, we characterized the major coho salmon olfactory GSTs (OlfGSTs), namely omega, pi, and rho subclasses. OlfGST omega contained an open reading frame of 720bp and encoded a protein of 239 amino acids. OlfGST pi and OlfGST rho contained open reading frames of 627 and 681nt, respectively, and encoded proteins of 208 and 226 amino acids. Whole-protein mass spectrometry yielded molecular weights of 29,950, 23,354, and 26,655Da, respectively, for the GST omega, pi, and rho subunits. Homology modeling using four protein-structure prediction algorithms suggest that the active sites in all three OlfGST isoforms resembled counterparts in other species. The olfactory GSTs conjugated prototypical GST substrates, but only OlfGST rho catalyzed the demethylation of the pesticide methyl parathion. OlfGST pi and rho exhibited thiol oxidoreductase activity toward 2-hydroxyethyl disulfide (2-HEDS) and conjugated 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE), a toxic aldehyde with neurodegenerative properties. The kinetic parameters for OlfGST pi conjugation of HNE were K(M)=0.16 ± 0.06mM and V(max)=0.5 ± 0.1μmolmin⁻¹mg⁻¹, whereas OlfGST rho was more efficient at catalyzing HNE conjugation (K(M)=0.022 ± 0.008 mM and V(max)=0.47 ± 0.05μmolmin⁻¹mg⁻¹). Our findings indicate that the peripheral olfactory system of coho expresses GST isoforms that detoxify certain electrophiles and pesticides and that help maintain redox status and signal transduction.

Identification of olfactory receptor genes in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar

It has been hypothesized that salmonids use olfactory cues to return to their natal rivers and streams. The key components of the molecular pathways involved in imprinting and homing, however, are still unknown. Aquatic chemical cues are received through the nares and into the nasal cavity that contains a single olfactory organ, the olfactory rosette. The olfactory rosette contains sensory neurons, each of which is thought to express only one olfactory receptor. If odorants are involved in salmonid homing migration then olfactory receptors should play a critical role in the dissipation of information from the environment to the fish. Therefore, to understand the molecular basis for imprinting and homing in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar it is important to identify and characterize the repertoire of olfactory receptors in this species. The first public assembly of the S. salar genome was searched for genes encoding three of the superfamilies of fish olfactory receptors: V2R-like (olfc), V1R-like (ora) and main olfactory receptor (mor). A further six ora genes were added to ora1 and ora2, which had been described previously. In addition, 48 putative mors were identified, 24 of which appear to be functional based on their gene structures and predicted amino-acid sequences. Phylogenetic analyses were then used to compare these S. salar olfactory receptor genes with those of zebrafish Danio rerio, two pufferfish species Takifugu rubripes and Tetraodon nigroviridis, medaka Oryzias latipes and three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus.

Physiological mechanisms of imprinting and homing migration in Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp

After several years of feeding at sea, salmonids have an amazing ability to migrate long distances from the open ocean to their natal stream to spawn. Three different research approaches from behavioural to molecular biological studies have been used to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underpinning salmonid imprinting and homing migration. The study was based on four anadromous Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp., pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta, sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka and masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou, migrating from the North Pacific Ocean to the coast of Hokkaido, Japan, as well as lacustrine O. nerka and O. masou in Lake Toya, Hokkaido, where the lake serves as the model oceanic system. Behavioural studies using biotelemetry techniques showed swimming profiles from the Bering Sea to the coast of Hokkaido in O. keta as well as homing behaviours of lacustrine O. nerka and O. masou in Lake Toya. Endocrinological studies on hormone profiles in the brain-pituitary-gonad axis of O. keta, and lacustrine O. nerka identified the hormonal changes during homing migration. Neurophysiological studies revealed crucial roles of olfactory functions on imprinting and homing during downstream and upstream migration, respectively. These findings are discussed in relation to the physiological mechanisms of imprinting and homing migration in anadromous and lacustrine salmonids.

Effect of cadmium on glutathione S-transferase and metallothionein gene expression in coho salmon liver, gill and olfactory tissues

The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a multifunctional family of phase II enzymes that detoxify a variety of environmental chemicals, reactive intermediates, and secondary products of oxidative damage. GST mRNA expression and catalytic activity have been used as biomarkers of exposure to environmental chemicals. However, factors such as species differences in induction, partial analyses of multiple GST isoforms, and lack of understanding of fish GST gene regulation, have confounded the use of GSTs as markers of pollutant exposure. In the present study, we examined the effect of exposure to cadmium (Cd), a prototypical environmental contaminant and inducer of mammalian GST, on GST mRNA expression in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) liver, gill, and olfactory tissues. GST expression data were compared to those for metallothionein (MT), a prototypical biomarker of metal exposure. Data mining of genomic databases led to the development of quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays for salmon GST isoforms encompassing 9 subfamilies, including alpha, mu, pi, theta, omega, kappa, rho, zeta and microsomal GST. In vivo acute (8-48 h) exposures to low (3.7 ppb) and high (347 ppb) levels of Cd relevant to environmental scenarios elicited a variety of transient, albeit minor changes (<2.5-fold) in tissue GST profiles, including some reductions in GST mRNA expression. In general, olfactory GSTs were the earliest to respond to cadmium, whereas, more pronounced effects in olfactory and gill GST expression were observed at 48 h relative to earlier time points. Although evaluation of GSTs reflected a cadmium-associated oxidative stress response, there was no clear GST isoform in any tissue that could serve as a reliable biomarker of acute cadmium exposure. By contrast, metallothionein (MT) mRNA was consistently and markedly induced in all three tissues by cadmium, and among the tissues examined, olfactory MT was the most sensitive marker of cadmium exposures. In summary, coho salmon exhibit a complex GST tissue profile consisting of at least 9 isoforms, all of which are present in the peripheral olfactory system. Short-term exposure to environmental levels of Cd causes transient changes in salmon GST consistent with oxidative stress, and in some cases, includes a loss of GST. In a biomarker context, however, monitoring of tissue MT mRNA expression, especially in the peripheral olfactory system, may be of greater utility for assessing short-term environmental exposures to cadmium.

Physiological mechanism of homing migration in Pacific salmon from behavioral to molecular biological approaches

The amazing abilities of Pacific salmon to migrate long distances from the ocean to their natal streams for spawning have been investigated intensively since 1950's, but there are still many mysteries because of difficulties to follow their whole life cycle and to wait their sole reproductive timing for several years. In my laboratory, we have tried to clarify physiological mechanisms of homing migration in Pacific salmon, using four anadromous Pacific salmon (pink, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha; chum, Oncorhynchus keta; sockeye, Oncorhynchus nerka; masu, Oncorhynchus masou) in the north Pacific Ocean as well as two lacustrine salmon (sockeye and masu) in Lake Toya and Lake Shikotsu, Hokkaido, Japan, where the lakes serve as a model "ocean". Three different approaches from behavioral to molecular biological researches have been conducted using these model fish. First, the homing behaviors of adult chum salmon from the Bering Sea to Hokkaido as well as lacustrine sockeye and masu salmon in Lake Toya were examined by means of physiological biotelemetry techniques, and revealed that salmon can navigate in open water using different sensory systems. Second, the hormone profiles in the brain-pituitary-gonadal (BPG) axis were investigated in chum salmon and lacustrine sockeye salmon during their homing migration by means of hormone specific time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay (TR-FIA) systems, and clarified that salmon gonadotropin-releasing hormone (sGnRH) plays leading roles on homing migration. Third, the olfactory functions of salmon were studied by means of electrophysiological, behavioral, and molecular biological techniques, and made clear that olfactory discriminating ability of natal stream odors. These results have discussed with the evolutional aspects of four Pacific salmon, sexual differences in homing profiles, and the possibility of dissolved free amino acids (DFAA) as natal stream odors for salmon.

Expressions of the multidrug resistance-related proteins in the rat olfactory epithelium: a possible role in the phase III xenobiotic metabolizing function

The xenobiotic metabolizing system is considered to play important roles in the olfaction by the chemical homeostasis. Several phase I and phase II xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are expressed in the olfactory epithelium in vertebrates. Multidrug resistance-related proteins (MRPs) are the phase III xenobiotic metabolizing pumps that eliminate some conjugated ligands from cells. However, the MRP-expressions in the olfactory epithelium have not been confirmed in the mammals. We investigated gene and protein expressions of MRP type 1 (MRP1) and type 2 (MRP2) isoforms in the adult rat olfactory epithelium in order to clarify the existence of phase III xenobiotic metabolizing pumps in the olfactory organs. Expressions of MRP1 mRNA were detected in the nasal cavity by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The nucleoside sequence of the RT-PCR products were completely identical to that found in other organs of rat. On the contrary, the analysis did not detect expressions of MRP2 mRNA in the nasal cavity. By in situ hybridization using a digoxigenin-labeled MRP1 cRNA probe, signals for MRP1 mRNA were observed preferentially in the perinuclear regions of supporting cells. However, the respiratory epithelial cells did not show the signals for MRP1 mRNA. By immunohistochemistry using a specific antibody to MRP1, MRP1-immunoreactivities were seen mainly on the supporting cells. These findings suggest that MRP1 is involved in olfaction as a part of the "olfactory signal termination" by the chemical homeostasis in the "perireceptor events" of the olfactory epithelium.

Molecular biological research on olfactory chemoreception in fishes

This review describes recent molecular biological research on olfactory chemoreception in fishes. The recent rapid development of molecular biological techniques has provided new valuable information on the main and vomeronasal olfactory receptor (OR) genes, the axonal projection from ciliated, microvillous and crypt-olfactory receptor cells to the olfactory bulb, properties of odorant substances and olfactory imprinting and homing in salmon. Many important questions, however, remain unanswered on functional differences among OR genes, on ligand binding to each OR and on the molecular biological mechanisms underlying olfactory imprinting and homing in salmon. Olfactory chemoreception is believed to be the oldest sensory cue for both animal survival and adaptation to various different environments. Further intensive molecular biological research on olfactory memory formation and remembrance should be carried out to clarify the fundamental process of olfactory chemoreception in fishes.

Pi class glutathione S-transferase genes are regulated by Nrf 2 through an evolutionarily conserved regulatory element in zebrafish

Pi class GSTs (glutathione S-transferases) are a member of the vertebrate GST family of proteins that catalyse the conjugation of GSH to electrophilic compounds. The expression of Pi class GST genes can be induced by exposure to electrophiles. We demonstrated previously that the transcription factor Nrf 2 (NF-E2 p45-related factor 2) mediates this induction, not only in mammals, but also in fish. In the present study, we have isolated the genomic region of zebrafish containing the genes gstp1 and gstp2. The regulatory regions of zebrafish gstp1 and gstp2 have been examined by GFP (green fluorescent protein)-reporter gene analyses using microinjection into zebrafish embryos. Deletion and point-mutation analyses of the gstp1 promoter showed that an ARE (antioxidant-responsive element)-like sequence is located 50 bp upstream of the transcription initiation site which is essential for Nrf 2 transactivation. Using EMSA (electrophoretic mobility-shift assay) analysis we showed that zebrafish Nrf 2-MafK heterodimer specifically bound to this sequence. All the vertebrate Pi class GST genes harbour a similar ARE-like sequence in their promoter regions. We propose that this sequence is a conserved target site for Nrf 2 in the Pi class GST genes.

Morphometry of olfactory lamellae and olfactory receptor neurons during the life history of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)

It is generally accepted that anadromous Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus) imprint to odorants in their natal streams during their seaward migration and use olfaction to identify these during their homeward migration. Despite the importance of the olfactory organ during olfactory imprinting, the development of this structure is not well understood in Pacific salmon. Olfactory cues from the environment are relayed to the brain by the olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) in the olfactory organ. Thus, we analyzed morphometric changes in olfactory lamellae of the peripheral olfactory organ and in the quantity of ORNs during life history from alevin to mature in chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta). The number of lamellae increased markedly during early development, reached 18 lamellae per unilateral peripheral olfactory organ in young salmon with a 200 mm in body size, and maintained this lamellar complement after young period. The number of ORNs per olfactory organ was about 180,000 and 14.2 million cells in fry and mature salmon, respectively. The relationship between the body size (fork length) and number of ORNs therefore revealed an allometric association. Our results represent the first quantitative analysis of the number of ORNs in Pacific salmon and suggest that the number of ORNs is synchronized with the fork length throughout its life history.

Molecular characterization and histochemical demonstration of salmon olfactory marker protein in the olfactory epithelium of lacustrine sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)

Despite the importance of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) for homing migration, the expression of olfactory marker protein (OMP) is not well understood in ORNs of Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus). In this study, salmon OMP was characterized in the olfactory epithelia of lacustrine sockeye salmon (O. nerka) by molecular biological and histochemical techniques. Two cDNAs encoding salmon OMP were isolated and sequenced. These cDNAs both contained a coding region encoding 173 amino acid residues, and the molecular mass of the two proteins was calculated to be 19,581.17 and 19,387.11Da, respectively. Both amino acid sequences showed marked homology (90%). The protein and nucleotide sequencing demonstrates the existence of high-level homology between salmon OMPs and those of other teleosts. By in situ hybridization using a digoxigenin-labeled salmon OMP cRNA probe, signals for salmon OMP mRNA were observed preferentially in the perinuclear regions of the ORNs. By immunohistochemistry using a specific antibody to salmon OMP, OMP-immunoreactivities were noted in the cytosol of those neurons. The present study is the first to describe cDNA cloning of OMP in salmon olfactory epithelium, and indicate that OMP is a useful molecular marker for the detection of the ORNs in Pacific salmon.

Marine glutathione S-transferases

The aquatic environment is generally affected by the presence of environmental xenobiotic compounds. One of the major xenobiotic detoxifying enzymes is glutathione S-transferase (GST), which belongs to a family of multifunctional enzymes involved in catalyzing nucleophilic attack of the sulfur atom of glutathione (gamma-glutamyl-cysteinylglycine) to an electrophilic group on metabolic products or xenobiotic compounds. Because of the unique nature of the aquatic environment and the possible pollution therein, the biochemical evolution in terms of the nature of GSTs could by uniquely expressed. The full complement of GSTs has not been studied in marine organisms, as very few aquatic GSTs have been fully characterized. The focus of this article is to present an overview of the GST superfamily and their critical role in the survival of organisms in the marine environment, emphasizing the critical roles of GSTs in the detoxification of marine organisms and the unique characteristics of their GSTs compared to those from non-marine organisms.

Synthesis and receptor sites of endothelin-1 in the rat liver vasculature

Immunocytochemical localization of big endothelin-1 (big ET-1), ET-1, and ET receptor A and B (ET(A) and ET(B)), and gene expression of prepro ET-1 mRNA were examined on the rat liver vasculature. Immunoreactivities for big ET-1 and ET-1 were preferentially seen along the endothelium of interlobular veins (IV) and artery (IA), although the staining intensity was more pronounced in IV. Expression of preproET-1 mRNA was detected in both vascular endothelia and the signal intensity was more prevalent in IV. Immunoelectron microscopy showed that rough endoplasmic cisterns were immunoreactive for big ET-1, while Weibel-Palade (WP) bodies, a storage site for ET-1, were immunoreactive for ET-1 in endothelial cells of IV. These results indicate that endothelial cells of IV are the major site of synthesis of ET-1, which is extracellularly secreted by degranulation and/or exocytosis of WP bodies. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), especially of the plasma membrane of perisinusoidal and interhepatocellular processes, were immunoreactive for both ET(A) and ET(B) receptor antibodies. These findings suggest that ET-1 receptor-mediated HSC contraction is involved in the regulation of hepatic sinusoidal blood flow as previously cited in mammalian liver cirrhosis. We also showed that sarcolemma and caveoles in the smooth muscle cells of the media of IV, and its branches before reaching the hepatic sinusoids, were immunoreactive for ET(A) receptor antibody. The results suggest that such vessels, which contains a large amount of hepatic blood inflow, participate in pump mechanism toward hepatic sinusoidal circulation in a receptor-mediated paracrine fashion.

Transient expression of activin betaA mRNA on osteoprogenitor cells in rat bone regeneration after drill-hole injury

We investigated the expression of activin betaA on osteoprogenitor cells in the regenerating bone and bone marrow of the rat femur after drill-hole injury, by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization. The periosteum and endosteum adjacent to the wound region showed marked thickening at day 3 and abundant osteoprogenitor cells, which were immunoreactive for proliferating cell nuclear antigen and showed positive reactions for alkaline phosphatase activity, and existed in the inner layer of the periosteum as well as in the endosteum. During the same period, these osteoprogenitor cells began to exhibit activin betaA immunoreactivity and mRNA expression. However, the latter expression gradually reduced the intensity as the cells started to express osteocalcin mRNA during their differentiation to osteoblasts participating in the periosteal and medullary bone formation from day 5. Immunoreactivity for activin type IB and II receptors was also found on activin betaA-immunoreactive cells between days 3 and 7. The above findings suggest that proliferating osteoprogenitor cells, before their transformation to osteoblasts, transiently produce and release activin A, which may play crucial roles in bone and bone marrow regeneration in a receptor-mediated, autocrine and paracrine fashion.

Expression of alpha-calcitonin gene-related peptide in the enteric nervous system of rat small intestine

We first detected alpha-calcitonin gene-related peptide (alpha-CGRP) precursor mRNA in the enteric nervous system (ENS) of rat small intestine by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The nucleotide sequence of the RT-PCR product was completely identical to that found in other organs. By in situ hybridization using digoxygenin-labeled alpha-CGRP precursor cRNA probe, we found that antisense probes detected a signal on nerve cell bodies of both submucosal and myenteric plexuses. Our findings indicate that the rat ENS participates in synthesis of alpha-CGRP precursor.

Dietary zinc deficiency decreases glutathione S-transferase expression in the rat olfactory epithelium

Zinc deficiency leads to olfactory and gustatory dysfunction, but little is known about the underlying molecular mechanism of this phenomenon. We examined the effect of dietary zinc deficiency on the rat olfactory epithelium. Immunoreactivities of glutathione S-transferase (GST) mu, neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and in situ hybridization of GST mu mRNA in the olfactory epithelia were examined under different dietary zinc intake conditions. Adult male rats were fed a zinc-deficient (ZD) diet (0.5 mg zinc/kg diet), whereas control rats, including pair-fed (PF) and zinc-adequate (ad libitum consumption, AL) groups, were fed a zinc-adequate diet (58 mg zinc/kg diet) for 7 wk. We also examined the effect of zinc replacement (ZR) by subsequently feeding half of the ZD group a zinc-adequate diet for 5 wk after the initial 7-wk deprivation. No significant differences in immunoreactivity for NSE in olfactory epithelial receptor cells or for PCNA in basal cells were noted among groups. Intense GST mu immunoreactivity and hybridization signals were observed in olfactory supporting cells of AL, PF and ZR groups, but very minimal or no such signal was noted in ZD rats. Our findings indicated that zinc deficiency reduces GST mu expression in the supporting cells of rat olfactory epithelia but does not affect receptor cell proliferation or maintenance.