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Tranulis MA, Tryland M. The Zoonotic Potential of Chronic Wasting Disease-A Review. Foods 2023; 12:foods12040824. [PMID: 36832899 PMCID: PMC9955994 DOI: 10.3390/foods12040824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative disorders that affect humans and ruminant species consumed by humans. Ruminant prion diseases include bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, scrapie in sheep and goats and chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids. In 1996, prions causing BSE were identified as the cause of a new prion disease in humans; variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD). This sparked a food safety crisis and unprecedented protective measures to reduce human exposure to livestock prions. CWD continues to spread in North America, and now affects free-ranging and/or farmed cervids in 30 US states and four Canadian provinces. The recent discovery in Europe of previously unrecognized CWD strains has further heightened concerns about CWD as a food pathogen. The escalating CWD prevalence in enzootic areas and its appearance in a new species (reindeer) and new geographical locations, increase human exposure and the risk of CWD strain adaptation to humans. No cases of human prion disease caused by CWD have been recorded, and most experimental data suggest that the zoonotic risk of CWD is very low. However, the understanding of these diseases is still incomplete (e.g., origin, transmission properties and ecology), suggesting that precautionary measures should be implemented to minimize human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Tranulis
- Department of Preclinical Sciences and Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 5003 As, Norway
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +47-67232040
| | - Morten Tryland
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2480 Koppang, Norway
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2
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Gelasakis AI, Boukouvala E, Babetsa M, Katharopoulos E, Palaska V, Papakostaki D, Giadinis ND, Loukovitis D, Langeveld JPM, Ekateriniadou LV. Polymorphisms of Codons 110, 146, 211 and 222 at the Goat PRNP Locus and Their Association with Scrapie in Greece. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082340. [PMID: 34438796 PMCID: PMC8388637 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Scrapie is considered an endemic disease in both sheep and goats in Greece. However, contrary to sheep, in goats more than one prion protein (PrP) polymorphism has been recognized as a candidate for resistance breeding against the disease. For an impression, candidates which are circulating, (i) brain samples (n = 525) from scrapie-affected (n = 282) and non-affected (n = 243) animals within the national surveillance program, and (ii) individual blood samples (n = 1708) from affected (n = 241) and non-affected (n = 1467) herds, in a large part of mainland Greece and its islands, were collected and assayed. A dedicated Taqman method was used to test for amino acid polymorphisms 110T/P, 146N/S/D, 211R/Q, and 222Q/K. Highly prevalent genotypes were 110TT, 146NN, 211RR, and 222QQ. The frequencies of polymorphisms in blood and negative brain samples for codons 110P, 211Q, and 222K were 4.0%, 3.0%, and 1.9%, respectively, while 146D (0.7%) was present only on Karpathos island. Codon 110P was exclusively found in scrapie-negative brains, and homozygous 110P/P in two scrapie-negative goats. It is concluded that breeding programs in Karpathos could focus on codon 146D, while in other regions carriers of the 110P and 222K allele should be sought. Case-control and challenge studies are now necessary to elucidate the most efficient breeding strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athanasios I. Gelasakis
- Department of Animal Science, School of Animal Biosciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece;
| | - Evridiki Boukouvala
- Veterinary Research Institute, ELGO-DIMITRA, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.B.); (M.B.); (E.K.)
| | - Maria Babetsa
- Veterinary Research Institute, ELGO-DIMITRA, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.B.); (M.B.); (E.K.)
| | | | - Vayia Palaska
- National Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food, 41110 Larissa, Greece;
| | - Dimitra Papakostaki
- Veterinary Center of Thessaloniki, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food, 54627 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Nektarios D. Giadinis
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54627 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | | | - Jan P. M. Langeveld
- Department of Infection Biology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research (WBVR), 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands;
| | - Loukia V. Ekateriniadou
- Veterinary Research Institute, ELGO-DIMITRA, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.B.); (M.B.); (E.K.)
- Correspondence:
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3
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Neuropathology of Animal Prion Diseases. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11030466. [PMID: 33801117 PMCID: PMC8004141 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs) or prion diseases are a fatal group of infectious, inherited and spontaneous neurodegenerative diseases affecting human and animals. They are caused by the conversion of cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a misfolded pathological isoform (PrPSc or prion- proteinaceous infectious particle) that self-propagates by conformational conversion of PrPC. Yet by an unknown mechanism, PrPC can fold into different PrPSc conformers that may result in different prion strains that display specific disease phenotype (incubation time, clinical signs and lesion profile). Although the pathways for neurodegeneration as well as the involvement of brain inflammation in these diseases are not well understood, the spongiform changes, neuronal loss, gliosis and accumulation of PrPSc are the characteristic neuropathological lesions. Scrapie affecting small ruminants was the first identified TSE and has been considered the archetype of prion diseases, though atypical and new animal prion diseases continue to emerge highlighting the importance to investigate the lesion profile in naturally affected animals. In this report, we review the neuropathology and the neuroinflammation of animal prion diseases in natural hosts from scrapie, going through the zoonotic bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the chronic wasting disease (CWD) to the newly identified camel prion disease (CPD).
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4
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Mammadova N, West Greenlee MH, Moore SJ, Hwang S, Lehmkuhl AD, Nicholson EM, Greenlee JJ. Evaluation of Antemortem Diagnostic Techniques in Goats Naturally Infected With Scrapie. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:517862. [PMID: 33240943 PMCID: PMC7677257 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.517862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Scrapie is a naturally occurring transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) that affects sheep and goats. Sheep and goats can be infected with scrapie as lambs or kids via contact with the placenta or placental fluids, or from ingestion of prions shed in the environment and/or bodily fluids (e.g., saliva, urine, and feces). Like other TSEs, scrapie is generally not diagnosed before extensive and irreversible brain damage has occurred. Therefore, a reliable method to screen animals may facilitate diagnosis. Additionally, while natural scrapie in sheep has been widely described, naturally acquired goat scrapie is less well-characterized. The purpose of this study was to better understand natural goat scrapie in regard to disease phenotype (i.e., incubation period, clinical signs, neuroanatomical deposition patterns of PrPSc, and molecular profile as detected by Western blot) and to evaluate the efficacy of antemortem tests to detect scrapie-positive animals in a herd of goats. Briefly, 28 scrapie-exposed goats were removed from a farm depopulated due to previous diagnoses of scrapie on the premises and observed daily for 30 months. Over the course of the observation period, antemortem biopsies of recto-anal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (RAMALT) were taken and tested using immunohistochemistry and real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC), and retinal thickness was measured in vivo using optical coherence tomography (OCT). Following the observation period, immunohistochemistry and Western blot were performed to assess neuroanatomical deposition patterns of PrPSc and molecular profile. Our results demonstrate that antemortem rectal biopsy was 77% effective in identifying goats naturally infected with scrapie and that a positive antemortem rectal biopsy was associated with the presence of clinical signs of neurologic disease and a positive dam status. We report that changes in retinal thickness are not detectable over the course of the observation period in goats naturally infected with scrapie. Finally, our results indicate that the accumulation of PrPSc in central nervous system (CNS) and non-CNS tissues is consistent with previous reports of scrapie in sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najiba Mammadova
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
| | - M Heather West Greenlee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, IA, United States
| | - S Jo Moore
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Soyoun Hwang
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Aaron D Lehmkuhl
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) Diagnostic Bacteriology and Pathology Laboratory, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Eric M Nicholson
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Justin J Greenlee
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States
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Mabbott NA, Bradford BM, Pal R, Young R, Donaldson DS. The Effects of Immune System Modulation on Prion Disease Susceptibility and Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E7299. [PMID: 33023255 PMCID: PMC7582561 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are a unique group of infectious chronic neurodegenerative disorders to which there are no cures. Although prion infections do not stimulate adaptive immune responses in infected individuals, the actions of certain immune cell populations can have a significant impact on disease pathogenesis. After infection, the targeting of peripherally-acquired prions to specific immune cells in the secondary lymphoid organs (SLO), such as the lymph nodes and spleen, is essential for the efficient transmission of disease to the brain. Once the prions reach the brain, interactions with other immune cell populations can provide either host protection or accelerate the neurodegeneration. In this review, we provide a detailed account of how factors such as inflammation, ageing and pathogen co-infection can affect prion disease pathogenesis and susceptibility. For example, we discuss how changes to the abundance, function and activation status of specific immune cell populations can affect the transmission of prion diseases by peripheral routes. We also describe how the effects of systemic inflammation on certain glial cell subsets in the brains of infected individuals can accelerate the neurodegeneration. A detailed understanding of the factors that affect prion disease transmission and pathogenesis is essential for the development of novel intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A. Mabbott
- The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK; (B.M.B.); (R.P.); (R.Y.); (D.S.D.)
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6
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Konold T, Libbey S, Rajanayagam B, Fothergill L, Spiropoulos J, Vidaña B, Alarcon P. Classical Scrapie Did Not Re-occur in Goats After Cleaning and Disinfection of the Farm Premises. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:585. [PMID: 32984416 PMCID: PMC7492743 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
After an outbreak of classical scrapie in a dairy goat herd with over 1,800 goats, all goats in the herd were culled in 2008, cleaning and disinfection of the premises was implemented, and restocking with goats took place ~4 months after depopulation. Ten years later the new herd population is over 3,000 goats. This study was carried out to determine whether the measures were effective to prevent re-occurrence of scrapie to the 1% prevalence level seen when scrapie was first detected on this farm. A total of 280 goats with a minimum age of 18 months, which were predominantly at the end of their productive life, were euthanized, and brain and retropharyngeal lymph node examined by immunohistochemistry for disease-associated prion protein. Genotyping was done in all euthanized goats and live male goats used or intended for breeding to determine prion protein gene polymorphisms associated with resistance to classical scrapie. None of the goats presented with disease-associated prion protein in the examined tissues, and 34 (12.2%) carried the K222 allele associated with resistance. This allele was also found in four breeding male goats. The study results suggested that classical scrapie was not re-introduced on this goat farm through mass restocking or inadequate cleaning and disinfection procedures. Further scrapie surveillance of goats on this farm is desirable to confirm absence of disease. Breeding with male goats carrying the K222 allele should be encouraged to increase the scrapie-resistant population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Sonja Libbey
- Animal and Plant Health England Field Delivery, Dorchester, United Kingdom
| | - Brenda Rajanayagam
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Fothergill
- Genotyping Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Beatriz Vidaña
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo Alarcon
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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Balkema-Buschmann A, Priemer G, Ulrich R, Strobelt R, Hills B, Groschup MH. Deciphering the BSE-type specific cell and tissue tropisms of atypical (H and L) and classical BSE. Prion 2020; 13:160-172. [PMID: 31476957 PMCID: PMC6746549 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2019.1651180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
After the discovery of two atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) forms in France and Italy designated H- and L-BSE, the question arose whether these new forms differed from classical BSE (C-BSE) in their pathogenesis. Samples collected from cattle in the clinical stage of BSE during an intracranial challenge study with L- and H-BSE were analysed using biochemical and histological methods as well as in a transgenic mouse bioassay. Our results generally confirmed what had been described for C-BSE to be true also for both atypical BSE forms, namely the restriction of the pathological prion protein (PrPSc) and BSE infectivity to the nervous system. However, analysis of samples collected under identical conditions from both atypical H- and L-BSE forms allowed us a more precise assessment of the grade of involvement of different tissues during the clinical end stage of disease as compared to C-BSE. One important feature is the involvement of the peripheral nervous and musculoskeletal tissues in both L-BSE and H-BSE affected cattle. We were, however, able to show that in H-BSE cases, the PrPSc depositions in the central and peripheral nervous system are dominated by a glial pattern, whereas a neuronal deposition pattern dominates in L-BSE cases, indicating differences in the cellular and topical tropism of both atypical BSE forms. As a consequence of this cell tropism, H-BSE seems to spread more rapidly from the CNS into the periphery via the glial cell system such as Schwann cells, as opposed to L-BSE which is mostly propagated via neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Balkema-Buschmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Grit Priemer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Romano Strobelt
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases , Greifswald , Germany
| | - Bob Hills
- Health Canada, Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Secretariat , Ottawa , Ontario , Canada
| | - Martin H Groschup
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases , Greifswald , Germany
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Konold T, Spiropoulos J, Thorne J, Phelan L, Fothergill L, Rajanayagam B, Floyd T, Vidana B, Charnley J, Coates N, Simmons M. The Scrapie Prevalence in a Goat Herd Is Underestimated by Using a Rapid Diagnostic Test. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:164. [PMID: 32226784 PMCID: PMC7081731 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Current European surveillance regulations for scrapie, a naturally occurring transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) or prion disease in sheep and goats, require testing of fallen stock or healthy slaughter animals, and outline measures in the case of confirmation of disease. An outbreak of classical scrapie in a herd with 2500 goats led to the culling of the whole herd, providing the opportunity to examine a subset of goats, take samples, and examine them for the presence of disease-associated prion protein (PrPSc) to provide further information on scrapie test sensitivity, pathology, and association with prion protein genotype. Goats were examined clinically prior to cull, and the brains examined post mortem by Bio-Rad ELISA, a rapid screening test used for active surveillance in sheep and goats, and two confirmatory tests, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, up to 10 lymphoid tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry. Of 151 goats examined, three (2.0%) tested positive for scrapie by ELISA on brain, confirmed by confirmatory tests, and a further five (3.3%) were negative by ELISA but positive by at least one of the confirmatory tests. Only two of these, both positive by ELISA, displayed evident signs of scrapie. In addition, 10 (6.6%) goats, which also included two clinical suspects, were negative on brain examination but had detectable PrPSc in lymphoid tissue. PrPSc was detected most frequently in the medial retropharyngeal lymph node (LN; 94.4% of all 18 cases) and palatine tonsil (88.9%). Abnormal behavior and circling or loss of balance when blindfolded were the best clinical discriminators for scrapie status. None of the goats that carried a single allele in the prion protein gene associated with increased resistance to scrapie (Q211, K222, S146) were scrapie-positive, and the percentage of goats with these alleles was greater than expected from previous surveys. Significantly more goats that were scrapie-positive were isoleucine homozygous at codon 142 (II142). The results indicate that the sensitivity of the applied screening test is poor in goats compared to the confirmatory tests as gold standard, particularly for asymptomatic animals. Sensitivity of surveillance could be improved by testing retropharyngeal LN or palatine tonsil in addition to brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Jemma Thorne
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Phelan
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Fothergill
- Central Sequencing Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Brenda Rajanayagam
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias Floyd
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Beatriz Vidana
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Judith Charnley
- Animal and Plant Health England Field Delivery, Skipton, United Kingdom
| | - Nadya Coates
- TSE/BVDV Testing Laboratory, Eurofins Forensic Services, Risley, United Kingdom
| | - Marion Simmons
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
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Nonno R, Marin-Moreno A, Carlos Espinosa J, Fast C, Van Keulen L, Spiropoulos J, Lantier I, Andreoletti O, Pirisinu L, Di Bari MA, Aguilar-Calvo P, Sklaviadis T, Papasavva-Stylianou P, Acutis PL, Acin C, Bossers A, Jacobs JG, Vaccari G, D'Agostino C, Chiappini B, Lantier F, Groschup MH, Agrimi U, Maria Torres J, Langeveld JPM. Characterization of goat prions demonstrates geographical variation of scrapie strains in Europe and reveals the composite nature of prion strains. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19. [PMID: 31913327 PMCID: PMC6949283 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) is the only animal prion which has been recognized as a zoonotic agent so far. The identification of BSE in two goats raised the need to reliably identify BSE in small ruminants. However, our understanding of scrapie strain diversity in small ruminants remains ill-defined, thus limiting the accuracy of BSE surveillance and spreading fear that BSE might lurk unrecognized in goats. We investigated prion strain diversity in a large panel of European goats by a novel experimental approach that, instead of assessing the neuropathological profile after serial transmissions in a single animal model, was based on the direct interaction of prion isolates with several recipient rodent models expressing small ruminants or heterologous prion proteins. The findings show that the biological properties of scrapie isolates display different patterns of geographical distribution in Europe and suggest that goat BSE could be reliably discriminated from a wide range of biologically and geographically diverse goat prion isolates. Finally, most field prion isolates showed composite strain features, with discrete strain components or sub-strains being present in different proportions in individual goats or tissues. This has important implications for understanding the nature and evolution of scrapie strains and their transmissibility to other species, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romolo Nonno
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy.
| | | | | | - Christine Fast
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | | | - John Spiropoulos
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle Lantier
- INRA-Centre Val de Loire, Infectiologie et Santé Publique, Nouzilly, France
| | - Olivier Andreoletti
- UMR INRA ENVT 1225- IHAP, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Laura Pirisinu
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Michele A Di Bari
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Theodoros Sklaviadis
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Pier Luigi Acutis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Torino, Italy
| | - Cristina Acin
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Alex Bossers
- Wageningen BioVeterinary Research, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - Jorge G Jacobs
- Wageningen BioVeterinary Research, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - Gabriele Vaccari
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia D'Agostino
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara Chiappini
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Frederic Lantier
- INRA-Centre Val de Loire, Infectiologie et Santé Publique, Nouzilly, France
| | - Martin H Groschup
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Umberto Agrimi
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
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Simmons MM, Thorne L, Ortiz-Pelaez A, Spiropoulos J, Georgiadou S, Papasavva-Stylianou P, Andreoletti O, Hawkins SA, Meloni D, Cassar C. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in goats: is PrP rapid test sensitivity affected by genotype? J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32:87-93. [PMID: 31894737 PMCID: PMC7003235 DOI: 10.1177/1040638719896327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) surveillance in goats relies on tests initially approved for cattle, subsequently assessed for sheep, and approval extrapolated for use in "small ruminants." The current EU-approved immunodetection tests employ antibodies against various epitopes of the prion protein PrPSc, which is encoded by the host PRNP gene. The caprine PRNP gene is polymorphic, mostly at codons different from the ovine PRNP. The EU goat population is much more heterogeneous than the sheep population, with more PRNP-related polymorphisms, and with marked breed-related differences. The ability of the current tests to detect disease-specific PrPSc generated against these different genetic backgrounds is currently assumed, rather than proven. We examined whether common polymorphisms within the goat PRNP gene might have any adverse effect on the relative performance of EU-approved rapid tests. The sample panel comprised goats from the UK, Cyprus, France, and Italy, with either experimental or naturally acquired scrapie at both the preclinical and/or unknown and clinical stages of disease. Test sensitivity was significantly lower and more variable when compared using samples from animals that were preclinical or of unknown status. However, all of the rapid tests included in our study were able to correctly identify all samples from animals in the clinical stages of disease, apart from samples from animals polymorphic for serine or aspartic acid at codon 146, in which the performance of the Bio-Rad tests was profoundly affected. Our data show that some polymorphisms may adversely affect one test and not another, as well as underline the dangers of extrapolating from other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion M. Simmons
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Leigh Thorne
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Angel Ortiz-Pelaez
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - John Spiropoulos
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Soteria Georgiadou
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Penelope Papasavva-Stylianou
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Olivier Andreoletti
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Stephen A.C. Hawkins
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Daniela Meloni
- APHA-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK (Simmons, Thorne, Spiropoulos, Hawkins, Cassar)
- Unit of Biological Hazards and Contaminants (BIOCONTAM), Risk Assessment & Scientific Assistance, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (Ortiz-Pelaez)
- Veterinary Services of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus (Georgiadou, Papasavva-Stylianou)
- UMR Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France (Andreoletti)
- Italian Reference Laboratory for TSEs, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Turin, Italy (Meloni)
| | - Claire Cassar
- Claire Cassar, Department of Pathology, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
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11
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Anzuino K, Knowles TG, Lee MRF, Grogono-Thomas R. Survey of husbandry and health on UK commercial dairy goat farms. Vet Rec 2019; 185:267. [PMID: 31413117 DOI: 10.1136/vr.105274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Published research relevant to the UK dairy goat industry is scarce. Current practices and concerns within the UK dairy goat industry must be better understood if research is to have optimal value. A postal survey was conducted of the farmer membership of the Milking Goat Association as a first step in addressing gaps in knowledge. Questions were asked about husbandry practices, farmer observations of their goats and their priorities for further research. Seventy-three per cent of Milking Goat Association members responded, representing 38 per cent of commercial dairy goat farms and 53 per cent of the commercial dairy goat population in England and Wales. Findings were comprehensive and showed extensive variation in farm practices. Farmers reported pneumonia and scours (diarrhoea) as the most prevalent illnesses of their kids. Pneumonia, diarrhoea, failure to conceive and poor growth were the most prevalent observations of youngstock. Overly fat body condition, assisted kidding, failure to conceive and difficulty drying off were the most prevalent observations of adult milking goats. Farmers' top priorities for further research were kid health (79.5 per cent of farmers), Johne's disease (69.5 per cent of farmers), tuberculosis (59 per cent of farmers) and nutrition (47.7 per cent of farmers).
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Affiliation(s)
- K Anzuino
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - T G Knowles
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - M R F Lee
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.,Rothamsted Research, North Wyke, Devon, UK
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12
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Otero A, Duque Velásquez C, Johnson C, Herbst A, Bolea R, Badiola JJ, Aiken J, McKenzie D. Prion protein polymorphisms associated with reduced CWD susceptibility limit peripheral PrP CWD deposition in orally infected white-tailed deer. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:50. [PMID: 30717795 PMCID: PMC6360794 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1794-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease affecting members of the Cervidae family. PrPC primary structures play a key role in CWD susceptibility resulting in extended incubation periods and regulating the propagation of CWD strains. We analyzed the distribution of abnormal prion protein (PrPCWD) aggregates in brain and peripheral organs from orally inoculated white-tailed deer expressing four different PRNP genotypes: Q95G96/Q95G96 (wt/wt), S96/wt, H95/wt and H95/S96 to determine if there are substantial differences in the deposition pattern of PrPCWD between different PRNP genotypes. Results Although we detected differences in certain brain areas, globally, the different genotypes showed similar PrPCWD deposition patterns in the brain. However, we found that clinically affected deer expressing H95 PrPC, despite having the longest survival periods, presented less PrPCWD immunoreactivity in particular peripheral organs. In addition, no PrPCWD was detected in skeletal muscle of any of the deer. Conclusions Our data suggest that expression of H95-PrPC limits peripheral accumulation of PrPCWD as detected by immunohistochemistry. Conversely, infected S96/wt and wt/wt deer presented with similar PrPCWD peripheral distribution at terminal stage of disease, suggesting that the S96-PrPC allele, although delaying CWD progression, does not completely limit the peripheral accumulation of the infectious agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Otero
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, IA2, IIS, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Camilo Duque Velásquez
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Chad Johnson
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
| | - Allen Herbst
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rosa Bolea
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, IA2, IIS, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Juan José Badiola
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, IA2, IIS, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Judd Aiken
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Debbie McKenzie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. .,Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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13
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Madsen-Bouterse SA, Highland MA, Dassanayake RP, Zhuang D, Schneider DA. Low-volume goat milk transmission of classical scrapie to lambs and goat kids. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204281. [PMID: 30235307 PMCID: PMC6147516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The risk of classical scrapie transmission in small ruminants is highest during the neonatal period with the placenta recognized as a significant source of infection. Milk has also been identified as a source of scrapie with sheep-to-sheep transmission occurring after neonatal consumption of as little as 1-2 liters of milk; concurrent mastitis due to small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection may be associated with increased scrapie transmission via milk in sheep. In contrast, goat-to-sheep transmission has been documented only after prolonged consumption of >30 liters of milk. The goal of the current study was to assess transmission of scrapie to goat kids and lambs following low volume, short duration consumption of milk from infected goats. Milk from two does (female goats) with pre-clinical scrapie was fed to four goat kids (≤4.5 L each) and four lambs (~3.7 L each) beginning ~24 hours after birth. Scrapie transmission was detected in three sheep as early as 18 months post inoculation; transmission was also detected in two goats but not until postmortem analyses at 33 months post inoculation. Each milk donor goat also had naturally-acquired infection with SRLV. Different degrees of lymphohistiocytic inflammation and PrPSc accumulation were observed in mammary gland tissues of the donors, which appeared to associate with transmission of scrapie via milk. Thus, similar to the risks of milk transmission of scrapie from sheep, even limited exposure to milk from goats can pose significant risk for scrapie transmission to both goat kids and lambs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A. Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Margaret A. Highland
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Rohana P. Dassanayake
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Dongyue Zhuang
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - David A. Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
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14
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Oral Prion Neuroinvasion Occurs Independently of PrP C Expression in the Gut Epithelium. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01010-18. [PMID: 30021891 PMCID: PMC6146811 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01010-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of orally acquired prions within Peyer's patches in the small intestine is essential for the efficient spread of disease to the brain. Little is known of how the prions initially establish infection within Peyer's patches. Some gastrointestinal pathogens utilize molecules, such as the cellular prion protein PrPC, expressed on gut epithelial cells to enter Peyer's patches. Acute mucosal inflammation can enhance PrPC expression in the intestine, implying the potential to enhance oral prion disease susceptibility. We used transgenic mice to determine whether the uptake of prions into Peyer's patches was dependent upon PrPC expression in the gut epithelium. We show that orally acquired prions can establish infection in Peyer's patches independently of PrPC expression in gut epithelial cells. Our data suggest that the magnitude of PrPC expression in the epithelium lining the small intestine is unlikely to be an important factor which influences oral prion disease susceptibility. The early replication of certain prion strains within Peyer's patches in the small intestine is essential for the efficient spread of disease to the brain after oral exposure. Our data show that orally acquired prions utilize specialized gut epithelial cells known as M cells to enter Peyer's patches. M cells express the cellular isoform of the prion protein, PrPC, and this may be exploited by some pathogens as an uptake receptor to enter Peyer's patches. This suggested that PrPC might also mediate the uptake and transfer of prions across the gut epithelium into Peyer's patches in order to establish infection. Furthermore, the expression level of PrPC in the gut epithelium could influence the uptake of prions from the lumen of the small intestine. To test this hypothesis, transgenic mice were created in which deficiency in PrPC was specifically restricted to epithelial cells throughout the lining of the small intestine. Our data clearly show that efficient prion neuroinvasion after oral exposure occurred independently of PrPC expression in small intestinal epithelial cells. The specific absence of PrPC in the gut epithelium did not influence the early replication of prions in Peyer's patches or disease susceptibility. Acute mucosal inflammation can enhance PrPC expression in the intestine, implying the potential to enhance oral prion disease pathogenesis and susceptibility. However, our data suggest that the magnitude of PrPC expression in the epithelium lining the small intestine is unlikely to be an important factor which influences the risk of oral prion disease susceptibility. IMPORTANCE The accumulation of orally acquired prions within Peyer's patches in the small intestine is essential for the efficient spread of disease to the brain. Little is known of how the prions initially establish infection within Peyer's patches. Some gastrointestinal pathogens utilize molecules, such as the cellular prion protein PrPC, expressed on gut epithelial cells to enter Peyer's patches. Acute mucosal inflammation can enhance PrPC expression in the intestine, implying the potential to enhance oral prion disease susceptibility. We used transgenic mice to determine whether the uptake of prions into Peyer's patches was dependent upon PrPC expression in the gut epithelium. We show that orally acquired prions can establish infection in Peyer's patches independently of PrPC expression in gut epithelial cells. Our data suggest that the magnitude of PrPC expression in the epithelium lining the small intestine is unlikely to be an important factor which influences oral prion disease susceptibility.
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15
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Abstract
Scrapie is a naturally occurring transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) or prion disease of sheep and goats. Scrapie is a protein misfolding disease where the normal prion protein (PrPC) misfolds into a pathogenic form (PrPSc) that is highly resistant to enzymatic breakdown within the cell and accumulates, eventually leading to neurodegeneration. The amino acid sequence of the prion protein and tissue distribution of PrPSc within affected hosts have a major role in determining susceptibility to and potential environmental contamination with the scrapie agent. Many countries have genotype-based eradication programs that emphasize using rams that express arginine at codon 171 in the prion protein, which is associated with resistance to the classical scrapie agent. In classical scrapie, accumulation of PrPSc within lymphoid and other tissues facilitates environmental contamination and spread of the disease within flocks. A major distinction can be made between classical scrapie strains that are readily spread within populations of susceptible sheep and goats and atypical (Nor-98) scrapie that has unique molecular and phenotype characteristics and is thought to occur spontaneously in older sheep or goats. This review provides an overview of classical and atypical scrapie with consideration of potential transmission of classical scrapie to other mammalian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin J Greenlee
- 1 Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, USA
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16
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17
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Mabbott NA. How do PrP Sc Prions Spread between Host Species, and within Hosts? Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6040060. [PMID: 29186791 PMCID: PMC5750584 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6040060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are sub-acute neurodegenerative diseases that affect humans and some domestic and free-ranging animals. Infectious prion agents are considered to comprise solely of abnormally folded isoforms of the cellular prion protein known as PrPSc. Pathology during prion disease is restricted to the central nervous system where it causes extensive neurodegeneration and ultimately leads to the death of the host. The first half of this review provides a thorough account of our understanding of the various ways in which PrPSc prions may spread between individuals within a population, both horizontally and vertically. Many natural prion diseases are acquired peripherally, such as by oral exposure, lesions to skin or mucous membranes, and possibly also via the nasal cavity. Following peripheral exposure, some prions accumulate to high levels within the secondary lymphoid organs as they make their journey from the site of infection to the brain, a process termed neuroinvasion. The replication of PrPSc prions within secondary lymphoid organs is important for their efficient spread to the brain. The second half of this review describes the key tissues, cells and molecules which are involved in the propagation of PrPSc prions from peripheral sites of exposure (such as the lumen of the intestine) to the brain. This section also considers how additional factors such as inflammation and aging might influence prion disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Mabbott
- The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
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18
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Fast C, Goldmann W, Berthon P, Tauscher K, Andréoletti O, Lantier I, Rossignol C, Bossers A, Jacobs JG, Hunter N, Groschup MH, Lantier F, Langeveld JPM. Protecting effect of PrP codons M142 and K222 in goats orally challenged with bovine spongiform encephalopathy prions. Vet Res 2017; 48:52. [PMID: 28927447 PMCID: PMC5606029 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0455-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Breeding towards genetic resistance to prion disease is effective in eliminating scrapie. In sheep, classical forms of scrapie have been eradicated almost completely in several countries by breeding programs using a prion protein (PrP) gene (PRNP) amino acid polymorphism. For goats, field and experimental studies have provided evidence for several amino acid polymorphisms that are associated with resistance to scrapie, but only limited data are available concerning the susceptibility of caprine PRNP genotypes to BSE. In this study, goat kids representing five PRNP genotypes based on three polymorphisms (M142, Q211 and K222 and the wild type I142, R211 and Q222) were orally challenged with bovine or goat BSE. Wild type goats were killed with clinical signs between 24-28 months post inoculation (mpi) to both challenges, and goats with genotype R/Q211 succumbed between 29-36 mpi. I/M142 goats developed clinical signs at 44-45 mpi and M/M142 goats remained healthy until euthanasia at 48 mpi. None of the Q/K222 goats showed definite clinical signs. Taken together the highest attack ratios were seen in wild type and R/Q211 goats, and the lowest in I/M142, M/M142 and Q/K222. In all genotype groups, one or more goats remained healthy within the incubation period in both challenges and without detectable PrP deposition in the tissues. Our data show that both the K222 and M142 polymorphisms lengthen the incubation period significantly compared to wild type animals, but only K222 was associated with a significant increase in resistance to BSE infection after oral exposure to both BSE sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Fast
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - W. Goldmann
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - P. Berthon
- UMR 1282 ISP, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), University of Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - K. Tauscher
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - O. Andréoletti
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - I. Lantier
- UMR 1282 ISP, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), University of Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - C. Rossignol
- UMR 1282 ISP, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), University of Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - A. Bossers
- Wageningen BioVeterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - J. G. Jacobs
- Wageningen BioVeterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - N. Hunter
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - M. H. Groschup
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - F. Lantier
- UMR 1282 ISP, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), University of Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France
| | - J. P. M. Langeveld
- Wageningen BioVeterinary Research, Wageningen University & Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
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19
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Ricci A, Allende A, Bolton D, Chemaly M, Davies R, Fernández Escámez PS, Gironés R, Herman L, Koutsoumanis K, Lindqvist R, Nørrung B, Robertson L, Ru G, Sanaa M, Skandamis P, Speybroeck N, Simmons M, Kuile BT, Threlfall J, Wahlström H, Acutis PL, Andreoletti O, Goldmann W, Langeveld J, Windig JJ, Ortiz Pelaez A, Snary E. Genetic resistance to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) in goats. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04962. [PMID: 32625625 PMCID: PMC7010077 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Breeding programmes to promote resistance to classical scrapie, similar to those for sheep in existing transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) regulations, have not been established in goats. The European Commission requested a scientific opinion from EFSA on the current knowledge of genetic resistance to TSE in goats. An evaluation tool, which considers both the weight of evidence and strength of resistance to classical scrapie of alleles in the goat PRNP gene, was developed and applied to nine selected alleles of interest. Using the tool, the quality and certainty of the field and experimental data are considered robust enough to conclude that the K222, D146 and S146 alleles both confer genetic resistance against classical scrapie strains known to occur naturally in the EU goat population, with which they have been challenged both experimentally and under field conditions. The weight of evidence for K222 is greater than that currently available for the D146 and S146 alleles and for the ARR allele in sheep in 2001. Breeding for resistance can be an effective tool for controlling classical scrapie in goats and it could be an option available to member states, both at herd and population levels. There is insufficient evidence to assess the impact of K222, D146 and S146 alleles on susceptibility to atypical scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or on health and production traits. These alleles are heterogeneously distributed across the EU Member States and goat breeds, but often at low frequencies (< 10%). Given these low frequencies, high selection pressure may have an adverse effect on genetic diversity so any breeding for resistance programmes should be developed at Member States, rather than EU level and their impact monitored, with particular attention to the potential for any negative impact in rare or small population breeds.
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20
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Mabbott NA. Immunology of Prion Protein and Prions. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2017; 150:203-240. [PMID: 28838662 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Many natural prion diseases are acquired peripherally, such as following the oral consumption of contaminated food or pasture. After peripheral exposure many prion isolates initially accumulate to high levels within the host's secondary lymphoid tissues. The replication of prions within these tissues is essential for their efficient spread to the brain where they ultimately cause neurodegeneration. This chapter describes our current understanding of the critical tissues, cells, and molecules which the prions exploit to mediate their efficient propagation from the site of exposure (such as the intestine) to the brain. Interactions between the immune system and prions are not only restricted to the secondary lymphoid tissues. Therefore, an account of how the activation status of the microglial in the brain can also influence progression of prion disease pathogenesis is provided. Prion disease susceptibility may also be influenced by additional factors such as chronic inflammation, coinfection with other pathogens, and aging. Finally, the potential for immunotherapy to provide a means of safe and effective prophylactic or therapeutic intervention in these currently untreatable diseases is considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Mabbott
- The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, United Kingdom.
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21
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Meydan H, Pehlivan E, Özkan MM, Yildiz MA, Goldmann W. Prion protein gene polymorphisms in Turkish native goat breeds. J Genet 2017; 96:299-305. [PMID: 28674229 DOI: 10.1007/s12041-017-0763-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Susceptibility to 'scrapie' disease in goats is influenced by polymorphisms of the prion protein (PRNP) gene. The aim of this study was to identify PRNP gene polymorphisms in a total of 356 scrapie disease-free goats from 10 Turkish native breeds. Eighteen single-nucleotide polymorphisms were detected in the caprine PRNP open-reading frame. Ten previously described amino acid substitutions (I142M, H143R, N146S, N146D, R151H, R154H, P168Q, R211Q, Q222K and P240S) and two novel dimorphisms (G134E and Q163P) were identified. The strongest association between caprine PRNP and relative resistance to scrapie disease has been reported previously for polymorphisms at codons 146 (S/D) and 222 (K). In the present study, these three PrP variants were relatively rare with 6.3%. This is the first report on PRNP gene variation in Turkish native goat breeds and our knowledge of these polymorphisms will assist goat breeding programmes to reduce the risk of scrapie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan Meydan
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Akdeniz University, 07058, Antalya, Turkey.
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Konold T, Phelan LJ, Donnachie BR, Chaplin MJ, Cawthraw S, González L. Codon 141 polymorphisms of the ovine prion protein gene affect the phenotype of classical scrapie transmitted from goats to sheep. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:122. [PMID: 28472956 PMCID: PMC5418773 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A study to investigate transmission of classical scrapie via goat milk was carried out in sheep: firstly, lambs were challenged orally with goat scrapie brain homogenate to confirm transmission of scrapie from goats to sheep. In the second study phase, milk from scrapie-infected goats was fed to lambs. Lambs were selected according to their prion protein gene (PRNP) genotype, which was either VRQ/VRQ or ARQ/ARQ, with or without additional polymorphisms at codon 141 (FF141, LF141 or LL141) of the ovine PRNP. This report describes the clinical, pathological and molecular phenotype of goat scrapie in those sheep that progressed to clinical end-stage. Results Ten sheep (six VRQ/VRQ and four ARQ/ARQ, of which three FF141 and one LL141) challenged with one of two scrapie brain homogenates, and six pairs of sheep (ARQ, of which five LL141 and seven LF141) fed milk from six different goats, developed clinical disease, which was characterised by a pruritic (all VRQ/VRQ and LL141 sheep) or a non-pruritic form (all LF141 and FF141 sheep). Immunohistochemical (IHC) examination revealed that the pattern of intra- and extracellular accumulation of disease-associated prion protein in the brain was also dependent on PRNP polymorphisms at codon 141, which was similar in VRQ and LL141 sheep but different from LF141 and FF141 sheep. The influence of codon 141 was also seen in discriminatory Western blot (WB), with LF141 and FF141 sheep showing a bovine spongiform encephalopathy-like profile (diminished reactivity with P4 antibody) on brain tissue. However, discriminatory WB in lymphoid tissues, and IHC pattern and profile both in lymphoid and brain tissue was consistent with classical scrapie in all sheep. Conclusions This study provided further evidence that the clinical presentation and the pathological and molecular phenotypes of scrapie in sheep are influenced by PRNP polymorphisms, particularly at codon 141. Differences in the truncation of disease-associated prion protein between LL141 sheep and those carrying the F141 allele may be responsible for these observations. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1036-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK.
| | - Laura J Phelan
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Ben R Donnachie
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Melanie J Chaplin
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Saira Cawthraw
- Central Sequencing Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Lasswade, Penicuik, UK
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Adams DB. Prenatal transmission of scrapie in sheep and goats: A case study for veterinary public health. Open Vet J 2016; 6:194-214. [PMID: 27928518 PMCID: PMC5133396 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v6i3.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Unsettled knowledge as to whether scrapie transmits prenatally in sheep and goats and transmits by semen and preimplantation embryos has a potential to compromise measures for controlling, preventing and eliminating the disease. The remedy may be analysis according to a systematic review, allowing comprehensive and accessible treatment of evidence and reasoning, clarifying the issue and specifying the uncertainties. Systematic reviews have clearly formulated questions, can identify relevant studies and appraise their quality and can summarise evidence and reasoning with an explicit methodology. The present venture lays a foundation for a possible systematic review and applies three lines of evidence and reasoning to two questions. The first question is whether scrapie transmits prenatally in sheep and goats. It leads to the second question, which concerns the sanitary safety of artificial breeding technologies, and is whether scrapie transmits in sheep and goats by means of semen and washed or unwashed in vivo derived embryos. The three lines of evidence derive from epidemiological, field and clinical studies, experimentation, and causal reasoning, where inferences are made from the body of scientific knowledge and an understanding of animal structure and function. Evidence from epidemiological studies allow a conclusion that scrapie transmits prenatally and that semen and embryos are presumptive hazards for the transmission of scrapie. Evidence from experimentation confirms that semen and washed or unwashed in vivo derived embryos are hazards for the transmission of scrapie. Evidence from causal reasoning, including experience from other prion diseases, shows that mechanisms exist for prenatal transmission and transmission by semen and embryos in both sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Adams
- 24 Noala Street, Aranda, ACT 2614, Australia
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24
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Goats with aspartic acid or serine at codon 146 of the PRNP gene remain scrapie-negative after lifetime exposure in affected herds in Cyprus. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 145:326-328. [PMID: 27751198 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816002272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The results of the study reported here are part of an ongoing integrated research programme aimed at producing additional, robust, evidence on the genetic resistance to classical scrapie in goats, with particular reference to codon 146. The study targeted animals aged ⩾6 years, which were born and raised in infected herds and were being culled for management reasons. A total of 556 animals were tested, and all positive animals (n = 117) were of the susceptible NN genotype. A total of 246 goats heterozygous or homozygous for putatively resistant alleles (S146 and D146) were screened with no positive results. The outcome of this study supports the hypothesis that the D146 and S146 alleles could be used as the basis for a nationwide strategy for breeding for resistance in the Cypriot goat population.
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Niedermeyer S, Eiden M, Toumazos P, Papasavva-Stylianou P, Ioannou I, Sklaviadis T, Panagiotidis C, Langeveld J, Bossers A, Kuczius T, Kaatz M, Groschup MH, Fast C. Genetic, histochemical and biochemical studies on goat TSE cases from Cyprus. Vet Res 2016; 47:99. [PMID: 27716411 PMCID: PMC5053211 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-016-0379-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) are transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE’s) affecting sheep and goats. Susceptibility of goats to scrapie is influenced by polymorphisms of the prion protein gene (PRNP) of the host. Five polymorphisms are associated with reduced susceptibility to TSE’s. In the study presented here caprine samples from a scrapie eradication program on Cyprus were genotyped and further characterized using BioRad TeSeE rapid test, histological, immunohistochemical and biochemical methods. In total 42 goats from 20 flocks were necropsied from which 25 goats showed a positive result in the rapid test, a spongiform encephalopathy and an accumulation of pathological prion protein (PrPSc) in the obex. PrPSc deposits were demonstrated in the placenta, peripheral nervous and lymphoreticular system. Two animals showed PrPSc-accumulations in peripheral tissues only. By discriminatory immunoblots a scrapie infection could be confirmed for all cases. Nevertheless, slight deviations in the glycosylation pattern might indicate the presence of different scrapie strains. Furthermore scrapie samples from goats in the current study demonstrated less long term resistance to proteinase K than ovine or caprine BSE control samples. Reduced scrapie susceptibility according to the PRNP genotype was demonstrated (Fishers Exact test, p < 0.05) for the goats with at least one polymorphism (p = 0.023) at the six codons examined and in particular for those with polymorphisms at codon 146 (p = 0.016). This work characterizes scrapie in goats having implications for breeding and surveillance strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Niedermeyer
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Eiden
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Pavlos Toumazos
- Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment, 1417, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | | | - Ioannis Ioannou
- Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment, 1417, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Theodoros Sklaviadis
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Cynthia Panagiotidis
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Jan Langeveld
- Department of Infection Biology, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Alex Bossers
- Department of Infection Biology, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Thorsten Kuczius
- Institute for Hygiene, Westfälische Wilhelms-University and University Hospital Münster, Robert Koch-Strasse 41, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Kaatz
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Martin H Groschup
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Christine Fast
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany.
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Konold T, Thorne L, Simmons HA, Hawkins SAC, Simmons MM, González L. Evidence of scrapie transmission to sheep via goat milk. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:208. [PMID: 27640200 PMCID: PMC5027119 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0807-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies confirmed that classical scrapie can be transmitted via milk in sheep. The current study aimed to investigate whether scrapie can also be transmitted via goat milk using in vivo (new-born lambs fed milk from scrapie-affected goats due to the unavailability of goat kids from guaranteed scrapie-free herds) and in vitro methods (serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification [sPMCA] on milk samples). Results In an initial pilot study, new-born lambs of two different prion protein gene (PRNP) genotypes (six VRQ/VRQ and five ARQ/ARQ) were orally challenged with 5 g brain homogenate from two scrapie-affected goats to determine susceptibility of sheep to goat scrapie. All sheep challenged with goat scrapie brain became infected based on the immunohistochemical detection of disease-associated PrP (PrPsc) in lymphoid tissue, with an ARQ/ARQ sheep being the first to succumb. Subsequent feeding of milk to eight pairs of new-born ARQ/ARQ lambs, with each pair receiving milk from a different scrapie-affected goat, resulted in scrapie in the six pairs that received the largest volume of milk (38–87 litres per lamb), whereas two pairs fed 8–9 litres per lamb, and an environmental control group raised on sheep milk from healthy ewes, did not show evidence of infection when culled at up to 1882 days of age. Infection in those 12 milk recipients occurred regardless of the clinical status, PrPsc distribution, caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus infection status and PRNP polymorphisms at codon 142 (II or IM) of the donor goats, but survival time was influenced by PRNP polymorphisms at codon 141. Serial PMCA applied to a total of 32 milk samples (four each from the eight donor goats collected throughout lactation) detected PrPsc in one sample each from two goats. Conclusions The scrapie agent was present in the milk from infected goats and was able to transmit to susceptible species even at early preclinical stage of infection, when PrPsc was undetectable in the brain of the donor goats. Serial PMCA as a PrPsc detection method to assess the risk of scrapie transmission via milk in goats proved inefficient compared to the bioassay. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0807-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Leigh Thorne
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Hugh A Simmons
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Steve A C Hawkins
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marion M Simmons
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Lasswade, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
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Donaldson DS, Mabbott NA. The influence of the commensal and pathogenic gut microbiota on prion disease pathogenesis. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:1725-1738. [PMID: 27193137 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are a unique group of transmissible, chronic, neurodegenerative disorders. Following peripheral exposure (e.g. oral), prions often accumulate first within the secondary lymphoid tissues before they infect the central nervous system (CNS). Prion replication within secondary lymphoid tissues is crucial for the efficient spread of disease to the CNS. Once within the CNS, the responses of innate immune cells within it can have a significant influence on neurodegeneration and disease progression. Recently, there have been substantial advances in our understanding of how cross-talk between the host and the vast community of commensal microorganisms present at barrier surfaces such as the gut influences the development and regulation of the host's immune system. These effects are evident not only in the mucosal immune system in the gut, but also in the CNS. The actions of this microbial community (the microbiota) have many important beneficial effects on host health, from metabolism of nutrients and regulation of host development to protection from pathogen infection. However, the microbiota can also have detrimental effects in some circumstances. In this review we discuss the many and varied interactions between prions, the host and the gut microbiota. Particular emphasis is given to the ways by which changes to the composition of the commensal gut microbiota or congruent pathogen infection may influence prion disease pathogenesis and/or disease susceptibility. Understanding how these factors influence prion pathogenesis and disease susceptibility is important for assessing the risk to infection and the design of novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Donaldson
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Neil A Mabbott
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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28
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Srithayakumar V, Mitchell GB, White BN. Identification of amino acid variation in the prion protein associated with classical scrapie in Canadian dairy goats. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:59. [PMID: 27005313 PMCID: PMC4804529 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0684-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A clear association of amino acid variation in the prion protein gene (PRNP) with susceptibility and resistance to classical scrapie exists in sheep, but not in goats. In this study we examined DNA sequence variation in the PRNP of 149 animals from two scrapie-infected herds of Saanen dairy goats, and identified 6 non-synonymous variants in the coding region. RESULTS In the larger herd, all of the 54 scrapie-affected goats tested had at least one allele with the arginine (R) codon at position 211, with 52 being homozygous for that variant. No animal homozygous for the glutamine (Q) codon at 211 were affected and only two heterozygotes (R/Q) were affected. A weak association was found at position 146 and no significant associations were found with amino acid variation at the remaining four variant positions (142, 143, 222 and 240), however, the allelic variation was low. Similar patterns were observed in the second scrapie-affected herd. CONCLUSION We also evaluated previous studies on goat herds affected with scrapie and this relationship of R susceptibility and Q resistance at 211 was present independent of the genotypes at the other positions including 222. The fact that glutamine at 211 provides a significant protective property to scrapie irrespective of the other positions could be important for breeding strategies aimed at improving herd resistance to scrapie, while maintaining important productivity traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vythegi Srithayakumar
- Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, DNA Building, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada. .,Livestock Gentec, Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G2P5, Canada.
| | - Gordon B Mitchell
- National and OIE Reference Laboratory for Scrapie and CWD, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Bradley N White
- Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, DNA Building, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada
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Abstract
Prion diseases or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are fatal protein-misfolding neurodegenerative diseases. TSEs have been described in several species, including bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, scrapie in sheep and goats, chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids, transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) in mink, and Kuru and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. These diseases are associated with the accumulation of a protease-resistant, disease-associated isoform of the prion protein (called PrP(Sc)) in the central nervous system and other tissues, depending on the host species. Typically, TSEs are acquired through exposure to infectious material, but inherited and spontaneous TSEs also occur. All TSEs share pathologic features and infectious mechanisms but have distinct differences in transmission and epidemiology due to host factors and strain differences encoded within the structure of the misfolded prion protein. The possibility that BSE can be transmitted to humans as the cause of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease has brought attention to this family of diseases. This review is focused on the TSEs of livestock: bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and scrapie in sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin J Greenlee
- Justin J. Greenlee, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACVP, is a research veterinary medical officer in the Virus and Prion Research Unit of the National Animal Disease Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service in Ames, Iowa. M. Heather West Greenlee, PhD, is an associate professor of biomedical sciences at the Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine
| | - M Heather West Greenlee
- Justin J. Greenlee, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACVP, is a research veterinary medical officer in the Virus and Prion Research Unit of the National Animal Disease Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service in Ames, Iowa. M. Heather West Greenlee, PhD, is an associate professor of biomedical sciences at the Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine
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30
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Acín C, Pitarch JL. Controlling scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy in goats. Vet Rec 2016; 178:166-7. [PMID: 26868240 DOI: 10.1136/vr.i702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Acín
- Research Centre for TSE and Emerging Transmissible Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50013, Spain e-mail:
| | - José Luis Pitarch
- Research Centre for TSE and Emerging Transmissible Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50013, Spain e-mail:
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Madsen-Bouterse SA, Schneider DA, Dassanayake RP, Truscott TC, Zhuang D, Kumpula-McWhirter N, O'Rourke KI. PRNP variants in goats reduce sensitivity of detection of PrP(Sc) by immunoassay. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 27:332-43. [PMID: 26038481 DOI: 10.1177/1040638715585865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnostic analyses often employ single antibody systems but are potentially limited by epitope sequence variation. United States regulatory testing for scrapie primarily uses antibody F99/97.6.1 for immunohistochemistry (IHC) of the prion protein associated with scrapie (PrP(Sc)). Whereas the epitope bound by F99/97.6.1 is highly conserved in sheep, a polymorphism in caprine PRNP results in a glutamine to lysine change at codon 222 and affects PrP detection. This study evaluated the performance of immunoassays (Western blot and IHC) in the presence of PRNP polymorphisms observed in U.S. goat populations. Effects of naturally occurring caprine prion protein alterations at codons 142, 143, 146, 154, or 222 were first evaluated using bacterially expressed recombinant normal cellular prion protein (rec-PrP(C)) and commercially available antibodies (F99/97.6.1, F89/160.1.5, L42, and SAF84). Detection of rec-PrP(C) using F89/160.1.5 was reduced by alterations at 142 and 143; this was also observed in brain PrP(C) from goats expressing these PRNP variants. Effect of allelic variation at 222 was confirmed by Western blot with F99/97.6.1. No differences were observed with L42 or SAF84. IHC of brain demonstrated reduced signal with F89/160.1.5 in animals heterozygous at 143. Decreasing F89/160.1.5 titers were used to demonstrate the impact of PrP(Sc) immunolabeling in preclinical goats and as a surrogate for F99/97.6.1 detection in 222 variants. In the absence of epitope-relevant knowledge of individual goat PRNP, a multi-antibody approach or an antibody that binds an invariant site may provide a more robust immunoassay of PrP(Sc) in classical scrapie, thus reducing the likelihood of false-negative results due to allelic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - David A Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - Rohana P Dassanayake
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - Thomas C Truscott
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - Dongyue Zhuang
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - Nancy Kumpula-McWhirter
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
| | - Katherine I O'Rourke
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA (Madsen-Bouterse, Schneider, Dassanayake, Kumpula-McWhirter, O'Rourke)Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA (Schneider, Truscott, Zhuang)
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The Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissues in the Small Intestine, Not the Large Intestine, Play a Major Role in Oral Prion Disease Pathogenesis. J Virol 2015; 89:9532-47. [PMID: 26157121 PMCID: PMC4542385 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01544-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Prion diseases are infectious neurodegenerative disorders characterized by accumulations of abnormally folded cellular prion protein in affected tissues. Many natural prion diseases are acquired orally, and following exposure, the early replication of some prion isolates upon follicular dendritic cells (FDC) within gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) is important for the efficient spread of disease to the brain (neuroinvasion). Prion detection within large intestinal GALT biopsy specimens has been used to estimate human and animal disease prevalence. However, the relative contributions of the small and large intestinal GALT to oral prion pathogenesis were unknown. To address this issue, we created mice that specifically lacked FDC-containing GALT only in the small intestine. Our data show that oral prion disease susceptibility was dramatically reduced in mice lacking small intestinal GALT. Although these mice had FDC-containing GALT throughout their large intestines, these tissues were not early sites of prion accumulation or neuroinvasion. We also determined whether pathology specifically within the large intestine might influence prion pathogenesis. Congruent infection with the nematode parasite Trichuris muris in the large intestine around the time of oral prion exposure did not affect disease pathogenesis. Together, these data demonstrate that the small intestinal GALT are the major early sites of prion accumulation and neuroinvasion after oral exposure. This has important implications for our understanding of the factors that influence the risk of infection and the preclinical diagnosis of disease. IMPORTANCE Many natural prion diseases are acquired orally. After exposure, the accumulation of some prion diseases in the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) is important for efficient spread of disease to the brain. However, the relative contributions of GALT in the small and large intestines to oral prion pathogenesis were unknown. We show that the small intestinal GALT are the essential early sites of prion accumulation. Furthermore, congruent infection with a large intestinal helminth (worm) around the time of oral prion exposure did not affect disease pathogenesis. This is important for our understanding of the factors that influence the risk of prion infection and the preclinical diagnosis of disease. The detection of prions within large intestinal GALT biopsy specimens has been used to estimate human and animal disease prevalence. However, our data suggest that using these biopsy specimens may miss individuals in the early stages of oral prion infection and significantly underestimate the disease prevalence.
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Allelic variants at codon 146 in the PRNP gene show significant differences in the risk for natural scrapie in Cypriot goats. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 143:1304-10. [PMID: 25140573 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814002064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown the association between the polymorphisms serine (S) or aspartic acid (D) at codon 146 of the PRNP gene and resistance to scrapie. All goats aged >12 months (a total of 1075 animals) from four herds with the highest prevalence of scrapie in the country were culled and tested, of which 234 (21·7%) were positive by either the rapid test or immunohistochemistry (IHC) for any of the tissues tested. The odds of scrapie infection occurring in NN146 goats was 101 [95% credible interval (CrI) 19-2938] times higher than for non-NN146 or unknown genotypes. IHC applied to lymphoreticular tissue produced the highest sensitivity (94%, 95% CrI 90-97). The presence of putatively resistant non-NN146 alleles in the Cypriot goat population, severely affected by scrapie, provides a potential tool to reduce/eradicate scrapie provided that coordinated nationwide breeding programmes are implemented and maintained over time.
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34
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Scientific Opinion on the scrapie situation in the EU after 10 years of monitoring and control in sheep and goats. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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35
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Plinston C, Hart P, Hunter N, Manson JC, Barron RM. Increased susceptibility of transgenic mice expressing human PrP to experimental sheep bovine spongiform encephalopathy is not due to increased agent titre in sheep brain tissue. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1855-1859. [PMID: 24828334 PMCID: PMC4103070 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.065730-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans have previously been shown to be caused by the same strain of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy agent. It is hypothesized that the agent spread to humans following consumption of food products prepared from infected cattle. Despite evidence supporting zoonotic transmission, mouse models expressing human prion protein (HuTg) have consistently shown poor transmission rates when inoculated with cattle BSE. Higher rates of transmission have however been observed when these mice are exposed to BSE that has been experimentally transmitted through sheep or goats, indicating that humans may potentially be more susceptible to BSE from small ruminants. Here we demonstrate that increased transmissibility of small ruminant BSE to HuTg mice was not due to replication of higher levels of infectivity in sheep brain tissue, and is instead due to other specific changes in the infectious agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Plinston
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Patricia Hart
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Nora Hunter
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Jean C Manson
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Rona M Barron
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Beringue
- UR892 Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires Centre de Recherche de Jouy-en-Josas F-78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - O. Andreoletti
- UMR INRA ENVT 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles 31076 Toulouse, France
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37
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Gryspeirt A, Gubbins S. A Bayesian framework to assess the potential for controlling classical scrapie in sheep flocks using a live diagnostic test. Epidemics 2013; 5:123-30. [PMID: 24021519 DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Current strategies to control classical scrapie remove animals at risk of scrapie rather than those known to be infected with the scrapie agent. Advances in diagnostic tests, however, suggest that a more targeted approach involving the application of a rapid live test may be feasible in future. Here we consider the use of two diagnostic tests: recto-anal mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (RAMALT) biopsies; and a blood-based assay. To assess their impact we developed a stochastic age- and prion protein (PrP) genotype-structured model for the dynamics of scrapie within a sheep flock. Parameters were estimated in a Bayesian framework to facilitate integration of a number of disparate datasets and to allow parameter uncertainty to be incorporated in model predictions. In small flocks a control strategy based on removal of clinical cases was sufficient to control disease and more stringent measures (including the use of a live diagnostic test) did not significantly reduce outbreak size or duration. In medium or large flocks strategies in which a large proportion of animals are tested with either live diagnostic test significantly reduced outbreak size, but not always duration, compared with removal of clinical cases. However, the current Compulsory Scrapie Flocks Scheme (CSFS) significantly reduced outbreak size and duration compared with both removal of clinical cases and all strategies using a live diagnostic test. Accordingly, under the assumptions made in the present study there is little benefit from implementing a control strategy which makes use of a live diagnostic test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiko Gryspeirt
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
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38
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Konold T, Simmons HA, Webb PR, Bellerby PJ, Hawkins SAC, González L. Transmission of classical scrapie via goat milk. Vet Rec 2013; 172:455. [PMID: 23625249 DOI: 10.1136/vr.f2613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Wilson R, King D, Hunter N, Goldmann W, Barron RM. Characterization of an unusual transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in goat by transmission in knock-in transgenic mice. J Gen Virol 2013; 94:1922-1932. [PMID: 23720218 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.051706-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder of cattle, and its transmission to humans through contaminated food is thought to be the cause of the variant form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. BSE is believed to have spread from the recycling in cattle of ruminant tissue in meat and bone meal (MBM). However, during this time, sheep and goats were also exposed to BSE-contaminated MBM. Both sheep and goats are experimentally susceptible to BSE, and while there have been no reported natural BSE cases in sheep, two goat BSE field cases have been documented. While cases of BSE are rare in small ruminants, the existence of scrapie in both sheep and goats is well established. In the UK, during 2006-2007, a serious outbreak of clinical scrapie was detected in a large dairy goat herd. Subsequently, 200 goats were selected for post-mortem examination, one of which showed biochemical and immunohistochemical features of the disease-associated prion protein (PrP(TSE)) which differed from all other infected goats. In the present study, we investigated this unusual case by performing transmission bioassays into a panel of mouse lines. Following characterization, we found that strain properties such as the ability to transmit to different mouse lines, lesion profile pattern, degree of PrP deposition in the brain and biochemical features of this unusual goat case were neither consistent with goat BSE nor with a goat scrapie herdmate control. However, our results suggest that this unusual case has BSE-like properties and highlights the need for continued surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rona Wilson
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Declan King
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Nora Hunter
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Wilfred Goldmann
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Rona M Barron
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
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40
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Corbière F, Chauvineau-Perrin C, Lacroux C, Lugan S, Costes P, Thomas M, Brémaud I, Chartier C, Barillet F, Schelcher F, Andréoletti O. The limits of test-based scrapie eradication programs in goats. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54911. [PMID: 23372789 PMCID: PMC3553010 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Small ruminant post-mortem testing programs were initially designed for monitoring the prevalence of prion disease. They are now considered as a potential alternative to genetic selection for eradicating/controlling classical scrapie at population level. If such policy should be implemented, its success would be crucially dependent on the efficiency of the surveillance system used to identify infected flocks. In this study, we first determined the performance of post-mortem classical scrapie detection in eight naturally affected goat herds (total n = 1961 animals) according to the age at culling. These results provided us with necessary parameters to estimate, through a Monte Carlo simulation model, the performance of scrapie detection in a commercial population. According to this model, whatever the number of tests performed, post mortem surveillance will have limited success in identifying infected herds. These data support the contention that scrapie eradication programs relying solely on post mortem testing in goats will probably fail. Considering the epidemiological and pathological similarities of scrapie in sheep and goats, the efficiency of scrapie surveillance in both species is likely to be similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Corbière
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Caroline Lacroux
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Séverine Lugan
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Pierrette Costes
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Myriam Thomas
- ANSES, Laboratoire d’études et recherches caprines, Niort, France
| | - Isabelle Brémaud
- ANSES, Laboratoire d’études et recherches caprines, Niort, France
| | | | - Francis Barillet
- INRA, UR 631, Station d’Amélioration Génétique des Animaux, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - François Schelcher
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Andréoletti
- UMR 1225 INRA-ENVT Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
- * E-mail:
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41
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Scientific and technical assistance on the provisional results of the study on genetic resistance to Classical scrapie in goats in Cyprus. EFSA J 2012. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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42
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Corbière F, Perrin-Chauvineau C, Lacroux C, Costes P, Thomas M, Brémaud I, Martin S, Lugan S, Chartier C, Schelcher F, Barillet F, Andreoletti O. PrP-associated resistance to scrapie in five highly infected goat herds. J Gen Virol 2012; 94:241-245. [PMID: 23100359 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.047225-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The PrP gene polymorphisms at codons 142 (I/M), 154 (R/H), 211 (R/Q), 222 (Q/K) and 240 (S/P) and their association with susceptibility to classical scrapie infection were investigated in five French goat herds displaying a high disease prevalence (>10%). On the basis of PrP(Sc) detection in the central nervous system and in various lymphoid tissues, 301 of 1343 goats were found to be scrapie infected. The statistical analyses indicated that while P(240) mutation had no direct impact on scrapie infection risk, the H(154), Q(211) and K(222) mutations were associated with high resistance to scrapie. The M(142) mutated allele was associated with a limited protection level against the disease. These results further reinforce the view that, like in sheep, the control and eradication of classical scrapie through the selection of certain PrP alleles could be envisaged in commercial goat population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Corbière
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | | | - Caroline Lacroux
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Pierrette Costes
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Myriam Thomas
- ANSES, Laboratoire d'Etudes et de Recherches Caprines, BP 3081, 79012 Niort Cedex, France
| | - Isabelle Brémaud
- ANSES, Laboratoire d'Etudes et de Recherches Caprines, BP 3081, 79012 Niort Cedex, France
| | - Samuel Martin
- ANSES, Laboratoire d'Etudes et de Recherches Caprines, BP 3081, 79012 Niort Cedex, France
| | - Séverine Lugan
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Christophe Chartier
- ANSES, Laboratoire d'Etudes et de Recherches Caprines, BP 3081, 79012 Niort Cedex, France
| | - François Schelcher
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Francis Barillet
- INRA, UR 631, Station d'Amélioration Génétique des Animaux, BP 52627, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan Cedex, France
| | - Olivier Andreoletti
- INRA, UMR 1225, Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse Cedex, France
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43
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Franz M, Eiden M, Balkema-Buschmann A, Greenlee J, Schatzl H, Fast C, Richt J, Hildebrandt JP, Groschup MH. Detection of PrP(Sc) in peripheral tissues of clinically affected cattle after oral challenge with bovine spongiform encephalopathy. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:2740-2748. [PMID: 22915695 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.044578-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a fatal neurodegenerative prion disease that mainly affects cattle. Transmission of BSE to humans caused a variant form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Following infection, the protease-resistant, disease-associated isoform of prion protein (PrP(Sc)) accumulates in the central nervous system and in other tissues. Many countries have defined bovine tissues that may contain prions as specified risk materials, which must not enter the human or animal food chains and therefore must be discarded. Ultrasensitive techniques such as protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) have been developed to detect PrP(Sc) when present in minuscule amounts that are not readily detected by other diagnostic methods such as immunohistochemistry or Western blotting. This study was conducted to determine when and where PrP(Sc) can be found by PMCA in cattle orally challenged with BSE. A total of 48 different tissue samples from four cattle infected orally with BSE at various clinical stages of disease were examined using a standardized PMCA protocol. The protocol used brain homogenate from bovine PrP transgenic mice (Tgbov XV) as substrate and three consecutive rounds of PMCA. Using this protocol, PrP(Sc) was found in the brain, spinal cord, nerve ganglia, optic nerve and Peyer's patches. The presence of PrP(Sc) was confirmed in adrenal glands, as well as in mesenteric lymph nodes - a finding that was reported recently by another group. Interestingly, additional positive results were obtained for the first time in the oesophagus, abomasum, rumen and rectum of clinically affected cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Franz
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Eiden
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Anne Balkema-Buschmann
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Justin Greenlee
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, PO BOX 70 Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Hermann Schatzl
- Department of Veterinary Sciences and Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, MICRO/Molecular Biology, 1000 E. University Avenue Laramie, Wyoming, WY 82071, USA
| | - Christine Fast
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jürgen Richt
- Kansas State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, K224B Mosier Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Jan-Peter Hildebrandt
- Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University, Zoological Institute, Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Biotechnikum, Walther-Rathenau-Strasse 49a, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Martin H Groschup
- Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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44
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The risk of introducing scrapie from restocking goats in Great Britain. Prev Vet Med 2012; 107:222-30. [PMID: 22748559 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The goat population in Great Britain (GB), which is mostly oriented to milk production, is small compared to that in other European Union (EU) countries and contributes a very small fraction of the total livestock production. The recent confirmation and cull of scrapie-affected goat herds has raised the concern that the risk of re-introducing scrapie by mass restocking after the cull of a scrapie-affected herd, may not have been fully considered at the time of implementing statutory eradication measures. A conditional probability model has been developed to estimate the probability of introducing at least one animal infected with classical scrapie into a British goat herd under two scenarios: restocking over one year under normal operating conditions (Scenario 1); and restocking post a whole herd cull as part of the compulsory eradication measures (Scenario 2). Several of the parameters were based on expert opinion, as there is a paucity of data regarding goat industry norms for all sectors. Considering all herds, of which 99% have less than 100 animals, the probability of introduction is approximately 2 times higher for Scenario (2) than for Scenario (1). The risk of subsequently re-introducing the disease through the introduction of replacement stock is not insignificant, although it can be considered very low for the vast majority of herds (>99%). In the case of very large herds (>1000 heads), mass restocking would almost certainly reintroduce the disease since it would require purchases from a very large number of herds.
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45
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Madsen-Bouterse SA, Zhuang D, O'Rourke KI, Schneider DA. Differential immunoreactivity of goat derived scrapie following in vitro misfolding versus mouse bioassay. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 423:770-4. [PMID: 22713450 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) assay allows for detection of prion protein misfolding activity in tissues and fluids from sheep with scrapie where it was previously undetected by conventional western blot and immunohistochemistry assays. Studies of goats with scrapie have yet to take advantage of PMCA, which could aid in discerning the risk of transmission between goats and goats to sheep. The aim of the current study was to adapt PMCA for evaluation of scrapie derived from goats. Diluted brain homogenate from scrapie-infected goats (i.e., the scrapie seed, PrP(Sc)) was subjected to PMCA using normal brain homogenate from ovinized transgenic mice (tg338) as the source of normal cellular prion protein (the substrate, PrP(C)). The assay end-point was detection of the proteinase K-resistant misfolded prion protein core (PrP(res)) by western blot. Protein misfolding activity was consistently observed in caprine brain homogenate diluted 10,000-fold after 5 PMCA rounds. Epitope mapping by western blot analyses demonstrated that PrP(res) post-PMCA was readily detected with an N-terminus anti-PrP monoclonal antibody (P4), similar to scrapie inoculum from goats. This was in contrast to limited detection of PrP(res) with P4 following mouse bioassay. The inverse was observed with a monoclonal antibody to the C-terminus (F99/97.6.1). Thus, brain homogenate prepared from uninoculated tg338 served as an appropriate substrate for serial PMCA of PrP(Sc) derived from goats. These observations suggest that concurrent PMCA and bioassay with tg338 could improve characterization of goat derived scrapie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA.
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46
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Spiropoulos J, Lockey R, Sallis RE, Terry LA, Thorne L, Holder TM, Beck KE, Simmons MM. Isolation of prion with BSE properties from farmed goat. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 17:2253-61. [PMID: 22172149 PMCID: PMC3311188 DOI: 10.3201/eid1712.110333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BSE can infect small ruminants and could be misdiagnosed as scrapie. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are fatal neurodegenerative diseases that include variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, scrapie in small ruminants, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle. Scrapie is not considered a public health risk, but BSE has been linked to variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Small ruminants are susceptible to BSE, and in 2005 BSE was identified in a farmed goat in France. We confirm another BSE case in a goat in which scrapie was originally diagnosed and retrospectively identified as suspected BSE. The prion strain in this case was further characterized by mouse bioassay after extraction from formaldehyde-fixed brain tissue embedded in paraffin blocks. Our data show that BSE can infect small ruminants under natural conditions and could be misdiagnosed as scrapie. Surveillance should continue so that another outbreak of this zoonotic transmissible spongiform encephalopathy can be prevented and public health safeguarded.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Spiropoulos
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, Surrey, UK
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47
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Goldmann W, Ryan K, Stewart P, Parnham D, Xicohtencatl R, Fernandez N, Saunders G, Windl O, González L, Bossers A, Foster J. Caprine prion gene polymorphisms are associated with decreased incidence of classical scrapie in goat herds in the United Kingdom. Vet Res 2011; 42:110. [PMID: 22040234 PMCID: PMC3224758 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of genetic breeding programmes to eradicate transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in goats is an important aim for reasons of animal welfare as well as human food safety and food security. Based on the positive impact of Prnp genetics on sheep scrapie in Europe in the past decade, we have established caprine Prnp gene variation in more than 1100 goats from the United Kingdom and studied the association of Prnp alleles with disease phenotypes in 150 scrapie-positive goats. This investigation confirms the association of the Met142 encoding Prnp allele with increased resistance to preclinical and clinical scrapie. It reveals a novel association of the Ser127 encoding allele with a reduced probability to develop clinical signs of scrapie in goats that are already positive for the accumulation of disease-specific prion protein in brain or periphery. A United Kingdom survey of Prnp genotypes in eight common breeds revealed eleven alleles in over thirty genotypes. The Met142 encoding allele had a high overall mean allele frequency of 22.6%, whereas the Ser127 encoding allele frequency was considerably lower with 6.4%. In contrast, a well known resistance associated allele encoding Lys222 was found to be rare (0.9%) in this survey. The analysis of Prnp genotypes in Mexican Criollas goats revealed nine alleles, including a novel Phe to Leu substitution in codon 201, confirming that high genetic variability of Prnp can be found in scrapie-free populations. Our study implies that it should be feasible to lower scrapie prevalence in goat herds in the United Kingdom by genetic selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilfred Goldmann
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Kelly Ryan
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Paula Stewart
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - David Parnham
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Rosa Xicohtencatl
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México
| | - Nora Fernandez
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México
| | - Ginny Saunders
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Otto Windl
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, UK
| | - Alex Bossers
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - James Foster
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
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Seuberlich T, Heim D, Zurbriggen A. Atypical transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in ruminants: a challenge for disease surveillance and control. J Vet Diagn Invest 2011; 22:823-42. [PMID: 21088166 DOI: 10.1177/104063871002200601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1987, when bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) emerged as a novel disease in cattle, enormous efforts were undertaken to monitor and control the disease in ruminants worldwide. The driving force was its high economic impact, which resulted from trade restrictions and the loss of consumer confidence in beef products, the latter because BSE turned out to be a fatal zoonosis, causing variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in human beings. The ban on meat and bone meal in livestock feed and the removal of specified risk materials from the food chain were the main measures to successfully prevent infection in cattle and to protect human beings from BSE exposure. However, although BSE is now under control, previously unknown, so-called atypical transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) in cattle and small ruminants have been identified by enhanced disease surveillance. This report briefly reviews and summarizes the current level of knowledge on the spectrum of TSEs in cattle and small ruminants and addresses the question of the extent to which such atypical TSEs have an effect on disease surveillance and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Seuberlich
- NeuroCentre, National and OIE Reference Laboratories for BSE and Scrapie, DCR-VPH, Bremgartenstrasse 109a, CH-3001 Berne, Switzerland.
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O'Rourke KI, Zhuang D, Truscott TC, Yan H, Schneider DA. Sparse PrP(Sc) accumulation in the placentas of goats with naturally acquired scrapie. BMC Vet Res 2011; 7:7. [PMID: 21284878 PMCID: PMC3041672 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-7-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Domestic goats (Capra hircus) are a natural and experimental host of scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy, the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) of sheep and cattle. Goats are also susceptible to experimental infection with the agents of TSEs of deer and elk (chronic wasting disease) and humans (Creutzfeldt Jakob disease). Distribution of PrPSc, the abnormal prion protein, is similar in the tissues of scrapie-infected sheep and goats but no data are available on the potential shedding of the agent through the placenta, the presumed route of transmission of ovine scrapie. We describe the sparse accumulation of PrPSc in the placentas of goats with naturally acquired classical scrapie in comparison to field cases of classical ovine scrapie. Results PrPSc was detected in the shed placentas from a sample of U.S. goats with naturally occurring scrapie, diagnosed by antemortem lymphoid tissue biopsy or identified as high risk progeny of infected dams. PrPSc accumulation patterns in the intact placentome and western blot banding was similar in the caprine and ovine samples. However, levels of PrPSc estimated from ELISA and immunohistochemistry assays were generally lower in goats than in sheep, although wide variation was noted in both species. Conclusions PrPSc accumulates in the shed placentas of goats with naturally acquired scrapie. Although these levels were low in most caprine samples, the caprine placenta may contribute to prion contamination of kidding facilities and transmission to co-housed sheep or goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine I O'Rourke
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA 99164, USA.
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Joint Scientific Opinion on any possible epidemiological or molecular association between TSEs in animals and humans. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.1945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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