Liver fibrosis: insights into migration of hepatic stellate cells in response to extracellular matrix and growth factors

Current and future therapies for small cell lung carcinoma

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive malignancy characterized by rapid proliferation and high metastatic potential. It is characterized by universal inactivation of and RB1, overexpression of the MYC family and dysregulation of multiple oncogenic signaling pathways. Among different patients, SCLCs are similar at the genetic level but exhibit significant heterogeneity at the molecular level. The classification of SCLC has evolved from a simple neuroendocrine (NE)/non-neuroendocrine (non-NE) classification system to a transcription factor-based molecular subtype system; lineage plasticity adds further complexity and poses challenges for therapeutic development. While SCLC is initially sensitive to platinum-based chemotherapy, resistance develops rapidly, leading to a dismal prognosis. Various antibodies, including PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors and antibody‒drug conjugates, have been introduced into clinical practice or are being evaluated in clinical trials. However, their therapeutic benefits for SCLC patients remain limited. This review summarizes SCLC carcinogenic mechanisms, tumor heterogeneity, and the immune microenvironment of SCLC, with a focus on recent advances in metastasis and resistance mechanisms. Additionally, the corresponding clinical progress in tackling these challenges is discussed.

Mapping Tumor-Stroma-ECM Interactions in Spatially Advanced 3D Models of Pancreatic Cancer

Bioengineering-based in vitro tumor models are increasingly important as tools for studying disease progression and therapy response for many cancers, including the deadly pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) that exhibits a tumor/tissue microenvironment of high cellular/biochemical complexity. Therefore, it is crucial for in vitro models to capture that complexity and to enable investigation of the interplay between cancer cells and factors such as extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins or stroma cells. Using polyurethane (PU) scaffolds, we performed a systematic study on how different ECM protein scaffold coatings impact the long-term cell evolution in scaffolds containing only cancer or only stroma cells (activated stellate and endothelial cells). To investigate potential further changes in those biomarkers due to cancer-stroma interactions, we mapped their expression in dual/zonal scaffolds consisting of a cancer core and a stroma periphery, spatially mimicking the fibrotic/desmoplastic reaction in PDAC. In our single scaffolds, we observed that the protein coating affected the cancer cell spatial aggregation, matrix deposition, and biomarker upregulation in a cell-line-dependent manner. In single stroma scaffolds, different levels of fibrosis/desmoplasia in terms of ECM composition/quantity were generated depending on the ECM coating. When studying the evolution of cancer and stroma cells in our dual/zonal model, biomarkers linked to cell aggressiveness/invasiveness were further upregulated by both cancer and stroma cells as compared to single scaffold models. Collectively, our study advances the understanding of how different ECM proteins impact the long-term cell evolution in PU scaffolds. Our findings show that within our bioengineered models, we can stimulate the cells of the PDAC microenvironment to develop different levels of aggressiveness/invasiveness, as well as different levels of fibrosis. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of considering spatial complexity to map cell invasion. Our work contributes to the design of in vitro models with variable, yet biomimetic, tissue-like properties for studying the tumor microenvironment's role in cancer progression.

Placenta hIGF1 nanoparticle treatment in guinea pigs mitigates FGR-associated fetal sex-dependent effects on liver metabolism-related signaling pathways

Fetal development in an adverse in utero environment significantly increases the risk of developing metabolic diseases in later life, including dyslipidemia, nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases, and diabetes. The aim of this study was to determine whether improving the in utero fetal growth environment with a placental nanoparticle gene therapy would ameliorate fetal growth restriction (FGR)-associated dysregulation of fetal hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism-related signaling pathways. Using the guinea pig maternal nutrient restriction (MNR) model of placental insufficiency and FGR, placenta efficiency and fetal weight were significantly improved following three administrations of a nonviral polymer-based nanoparticle gene therapy to the placenta from mid-pregnancy (gestational day 35) until gestational day 52. The nanoparticle gene therapy transiently increased expression of human insulin-like growth factor 1 (hIGF1) in placenta trophoblast. Fetal liver tissue was collected near-term at gestational day 60. Fetal sex-specific differences in liver gene and protein expression of profibrosis and glucose metabolism-related factors were demonstrated in sham-treated FGR fetuses but not observed in FGR fetuses who received placental hIGF1 nanoparticle treatment. Increased plasma bilirubin, an indirect measure of hepatic activity, was also demonstrated with placental hIGF1 nanoparticle treatment. We speculate that the changes in liver gene and protein expression and increased liver activity that result in similar expression profiles to appropriately growing control fetuses might confer protection against increased susceptibility to aberrant liver physiology in later life. Overall, this work opens avenues for future research assessing the translational prospect of mitigating FGR-induced metabolic derangements.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A placenta-specific nonviral polymer-based nanoparticle gene therapy that improves placenta nutrient transport and near-term fetal weight ameliorates growth restriction-associated changes to fetal liver activity, and cholesterol and glucose/nutrient homeostasis genes/proteins that might confer protection against increased susceptibility to aberrant liver physiology in later life. This knowledge may have implications toward removing predispositions that increase the risk of metabolic diseases, including diabetes, dyslipidemia, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in later life.

Methyl donor ameliorates CCl4-induced liver fibrosis by inhibiting inflammation, and fibrosis through the downregulation of EGFR and DNMT-1 expression

Methyl donors regulate the one-carbon metabolism and have significant potential to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the protective effect of methyl donors against CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. Liver fibrosis was induced in male Sprague Dawley rats using CCl4 at a dose of 1 ml/kg (twice a week for a 4-week, via intraperitoneal route). Subsequently, methyl donor treatments were given orally for the next six weeks while continuing CCl4 administration. After 10 weeks, biochemical, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, western blotting, and qRT-PCR were performed. Methyl donor treatment significantly ameliorated ALT, AST, ALP levels, and oxidative stress associated with CCl4-induced liver injury. The histopathological investigation also demonstrated the hepatoprotective effect of methyl donors against CCl4-induced liver fibrosis, showing reduced tissue damage, collagen deposition, and attenuating the expression of the COL1A1 gene. Further, methyl donors inhibited the CCl4-induced increase in DNMT-1 and NF-κB p65 expression with an upregulation of AMPK. Methyl donor downregulated the CCl4-induced increase in inflammatory and fibrosis related gene expression and inhibited the apoptosis with a downregulation of EGFR expression. Here, we provide the first evidence that methyl donor combinations prevent liver fibrosis by attenuating oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis through DNMT-1 and EGFR downregulation.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of 3-(2-(substituted benzyloxy)benzylidene) pyrrolidine-2,5-dione derivatives for novel ATX inhibitor

Autotaxin (ATX) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for liver diseases. In this study, we identified potential drug candidates through in silico high-throughput screening. Subsequently, we synthesized a series of small molecules, specifically KR-40795 (2c), a pyrrolidine-2,5-dione-based analogue that binds to the allosteric tunnel and hydrophobic pocket of ATX. This compound was designed to inhibit the enzymatic activity of ATX for the treatment of liver diseases. The inhibitory potency of KR-40795 was evaluated using a biochemical assay that measured the hydrolysis of a specific substrate (FS-3). Notably, KR-40795 demonstrated significant inhibition of both collagen formation and lipid accumulation in liver cells, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent for liver diseases, particularly fibrosis and steatosis.

Magnoflorine ameliorates hepatic fibrosis and hepatic stellate cell activation by regulating ferroptosis signaling pathway

Liver fibrosis is a chronic liver disease that brings a heavy economic burden to the world and has attracted global attention. Although the pathological mechanisms and treatment strategies of liver fibrosis have been extensively studied, there are currently no effective targeted drugs for the prevention and treatment of liver fibrosis in clinical practice. Therefore, it is imperative to seek and develop effective treatment strategies and drugs for liver fibrosis. Magnoflorine (MAG) is a natural product with multiple pharmacological activities. Thus, in this study, we will explore the effect of MAG on alleviating liver fibrosis in mice and its mechanism of action. Our study indicates that MAG can alleviate liver damage, improve liver collagen deposition, and significantly reduced the expression levels of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation markers in vivo. Additionally, the findings of this study indicate that MAG can inhibit the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)/Smad signaling pathway. Bioinformatics analysis suggests that the alleviating effect of MAG on liver fibrosis may be associated with ferroptosis. Interestingly, in vitro experiments have demonstrated that MAG slows down the progression of liver fibrosis by inhibiting the activation of HSCs, and further confirms that MAG promotes ferroptosis in ROS-mediated activated HSCs. In short, MAG has a good alleviating effect on liver fibrosis and will be a potential candidate drug for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Exploring heterogeneous cell population dynamics in different microenvironments by novel analytical strategy based on images

Understanding the dynamic states and transitions of heterogeneous cell populations is crucial for addressing fundamental biological questions. High-content imaging provides rich datasets, but it remains increasingly difficult to integrate and annotate high-dimensional and time-resolved datasets to profile heterogeneous cell population dynamics in different microenvironments. Using hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) LX-2 as model, we proposed a novel analytical strategy for image-based integration and annotation to profile dynamics of heterogeneous cell populations in 2D/3D microenvironments. High-dimensional features were extracted from extensive image datasets, and cellular states were identified based on feature profiles. Time-series clustering revealed distinct temporal patterns of cell shape and actin cytoskeleton reorganization. We found LX-2 showed more complex membrane dynamics and contractile systems with an M-shaped actin compactness trend in 3D culture, while they displayed rapid spreading in early 2D culture. This image-based integration and annotation strategy enhances our understanding of HSCs heterogeneity and dynamics in complex extracellular microenvironments.

Role of WISP1 in Stellate Cell Migration and Liver Fibrosis

The mechanisms underlying the remarkable capacity of the liver to regenerate are still not completely understood. Particularly, the cross-talk between cytokines and cellular components of the process is of utmost importance because they represent potential avenues for diagnostics and therapeutics. WNT1-inducible-signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1) is a cytokine member of the CCN family, a family of proteins that play many different roles in liver pathophysiology. WISP1 also belongs to the earliest and strongest upregulated genes in mouse livers after CCl4 intoxication and has recently been shown to be secreted by tumor cells and to bind to type 1 collagen to cause its linearization in vitro and in tumor tissue in vivo. We show that WISP1 expression is strongly induced by TGFβ, a critical cytokine in wound healing processes. Additionally, secretion of WISP1 protein by hepatic stellate is increased in cells upon TGFβ stimulation (~seven-fold increase). Furthermore, WISP1 facilitates the migration of mouse hepatic stellate cells through collagen in vitro. However, in WISP1 knockout mice, no difference in stellate cell accumulation in damaged liver tissue and no influence on fibrosis was obtained, probably because the knockout of WISP1 was compensated by other factors in vivo.

Impact of tibial transverse transport in tissue regeneration and wound healing with perspective on diabetic foot ulcers

In this editorial, we comment on an article by Liao et al published in the current issue of the World Journal of Diabetes. We focus on the clinical significance of tibial transverse transport (TTT) as an effective treatment for patients with diabetic foot ulcers (DFU). TTT has been associated with tissue regeneration, improved blood circulation, reduced amputation rates, and increased expression of early angiogenic factors. Mechanistically, TTT can influence macrophage polarization and growth factor upregulation. Despite this potential, the limitations and conflicting results of existing studies justify the need for further research into its optimal application and development. These clinical implications highlight the efficacy of TTT in recalcitrant DFU and provide lasting stimuli for tissue re-generation, and blood vessel and bone marrow improvement. Immunomodulation via systemic responses contributes to its therapeutic potential. Future studies should investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms to enhance our understanding and the efficacy of TTT. This manuscript emphasizes the potential of TTT in limb preservation and diabetic wound healing and suggests avenues for preventive measures against limb amputation in diabetes and peripheral artery disease. Here, we highlight the clinical significance of the TTT and its importance in healing DFU to promote the use of this technique in tissue regeneration.

Loss of SREBP-1c ameliorates iron-induced liver fibrosis by decreasing lipocalin-2

Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c is involved in cellular lipid homeostasis and cholesterol biosynthesis and is highly increased in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, the molecular mechanism by which SREBP-1c regulates hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation in NASH animal models and patients have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we examined the role of SREBP-1c in NASH and the regulation of LCN2 gene expression. Wild-type and SREBP-1c knockout (1cKO) mice were fed a high-fat/high-sucrose diet, treated with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and subjected to lipocalin-2 (LCN2) overexpression. The role of LCN2 in NASH progression was assessed using mouse primary hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and HSCs. LCN2 expression was examined in samples from normal patients and those with NASH. LCN2 gene expression and secretion increased in CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mice model, and SREBP-1c regulated LCN2 gene transcription. Moreover, treatment with holo-LCN2 stimulated intracellular iron accumulation and fibrosis-related gene expression in mouse primary HSCs, but these effects were not observed in 1cKO HSCs, indicating that SREBP-1c-induced LCN2 expression and secretion could stimulate HSCs activation through iron accumulation. Furthermore, LCN2 expression was strongly correlated with inflammation and fibrosis in patients with NASH. Our findings indicate that SREBP-1c regulates Lcn2 gene expression, contributing to diet-induced NASH. Reduced Lcn2 expression in 1cKO mice protects against NASH development. Therefore, the activation of Lcn2 by SREBP-1c establishes a new connection between iron and lipid metabolism, affecting inflammation and HSCs activation. These findings may lead to new therapeutic strategies for NASH.

A liver digital twin for in silico testing of cellular and inter-cellular mechanisms in regeneration after drug-induced damage

This communication presents a mathematical mechanism-based model of the regenerating liver after drug-induced pericentral lobule damage resolving tissue microarchitecture. The consequence of alternative hypotheses about the interplay of different cell types on regeneration was simulated. Regeneration dynamics has been quantified by the size of the damage-induced dead cell area, the hepatocyte density and the spatial-temporal profile of the different cell types. We use deviations of observed trajectories from the simulated system to identify branching points, at which the systems behavior cannot be explained by the underlying set of hypotheses anymore. Our procedure reflects a successful strategy for generating a fully digital liver twin that, among others, permits to test perturbations from the molecular up to the tissue scale. The model simulations are complementing current knowledge on liver regeneration by identifying gaps in mechanistic relationships and guiding the system toward the most informative (lacking) parameters that can be experimentally addressed.

A synergistic regulation works in matrix stiffness-driven invadopodia formation in HCC

Growing evidence has suggested that increased matrix stiffness can significantly strengthen the malignant characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. However, whether and how increased matrix stiffness regulates the formation of invadopodia in HCC cells remain largely unknown. In the study, we developed different experimental systems in vitro and in vivo to explore the effects of matrix stiffness on the formation of invadopodia and its relevant molecular mechanism. Our results demonstrated that increased matrix stiffness remarkably augmented the migration and invasion abilities of HCC cells, upregulated the expressions of invadopodia-associated genes and enhanced the number of invadopodia. Two regulatory pathways contribute to matrix stiffness-driven invadopodia formation together in HCC cells, including direct triggering invadopodia formation through activating integrin β1 or Piezo1/ FAK/Src/Arg/cortactin pathway, and indirect stimulating invadopodia formation through improving EGF production to activate EGFR/Src/Arg/cortactin pathway. Src was identified as the common hub molecule of two synergistic regulatory pathways. Simultaneously, activation of integrin β1/RhoA/ROCK1/MLC2 and Piezo1/Ca2+/MLCK/MLC2 pathways mediate matrix stiffness-reinforced cell migration. This study uncovers a new mechanism by which mechanosensory pathway and biochemical signal pathway synergistically regulate the formation of invadopodia in HCC cells.

Supramolecular Nanoarchitectonics Based on Antagonist Peptide Self-Assembly for Treatment of Liver Fibrosis

Therapeutic peptides have attracted increasing attention as anti-fibrotic drug candidates. However, the rapid degradation and insufficient liver accumulation of therapeutic peptides have seriously hampered their clinical translation. Here, the use of supramolecular nanoarchitectonics is reported to fabricate nanodrugs from therapeutic peptides for treating liver fibrosis. Self-assembling antagonist peptides are rationally designed and manipulated into uniform peptide nanoparticles with well-defined nanostructures and uniform sizes. Significantly, the peptide nanoparticles show enhanced accumulation in liver sites and limited distribution in other tissues. In vivo results show that the peptide nanoparticles exhibit greatly enhanced anti-fibrotic activity compared to the pristine antagonist along with good biocompatibility. These results indicate that self-assembly is a promising nanoarchitectonics approach to enhance the anti-fibrotic activity of therapeutic peptides for treating liver fibrosis.

Theaflavine inhibits hepatic stellate cell activation by modulating the PKA/LKB1/AMPK/GSK3β cascade and subsequently enhancing Nrf2 signaling

Activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) constitutes a crucial etiological factor leading to liver fibrosis. Theaflavine (TF) is a characteristic bioactive compound in fermented tea. Here, we found that TF attenuated the activation of LX-2 HSCs induced by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1). TF potentiated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related Factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling. Knockdown of Nrf2 abrogated TF-mediated resistance to TGF-β1. Liver kinase B1 (LKB1), AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) are upstream regulators of Nrf2. TF modulated the LKB1/AMPK/GSK3β axis. Inhibition of AMPK or knockdown of LKB1 crippled TF-mediated potentiation of Nrf2. Protein kinase A (PKA) catalyzes LKB1 phosphorylation. In LX-2 cells, TF increased the LKB1/PKA interaction without affecting their contents. Inhibition of PKA abolished TF-mediated potentiation of LKB1/Nrf2 and abrogated the inhibitory effects of TF on their activation. TF also enhanced direct binding between purified catalytic subunit α of PKA (PKA-Cα) and LKB1 proteins in vitro. Molecular docking indicated that TF showed binding activity with both LKB1 and PKA-Cα proteins. In mouse primary HSCs, TF elevated LKB1/PKA-Cα binding, boosted LKB1 phosphorylation, potentiated Nrf2 and suppressed their spontaneous activation. PKA inhibition or LKB1 knockdown eliminated TF-mediated induction of Nrf2 and suppression of HSC activation. Furthermore, TF considerably alleviated CCl4-induced mouse liver fibrosis. In mouse livers, TF increased the LKB1/PKA-Cα interaction, upregulated LKB1 phosphorylation and modulated its downstream AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade. Our findings collectively indicated that TF suppresses HSC activation. Mechanistically, TF elevated the LKB1/PKA interaction in HSCs, which increased LKB1 phosphorylation and subsequently modulated the downstream AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 axis.

Synthesis of and anti-fibrotic effect of pyrazole derivative J-1048: Inhibition of ALK5 as a novel approach to liver fibrosis targeting inflammation

Liver fibrosis is a worldwide challenge of health issue. Developing effective new drugs for treating liver fibrosis is of great importance. In recent years, chemically synthesized drugs have significant advantages in treating liver fibrosis. Small molecule pyrazole derivatives as activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5) inhibitors have also shown anti-fibrotic and tumor growth inhibitory effects. To develop the candidate with anti-fibrotic effect, we synthesized a novel pyrazole derivative, J-1048. The inhibitory effect of J-1048 on ALK5 and p38α mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase activity was assessed by enzymatic assays. We established an in vivo liver fibrosis model by injecting thioacetamide (TAA) into mice and in vitro model of TGF-β stimulated hepatic stellated cells to explore the inhibition mechanisms and therapeutic potential of J-1048 as an ALK5 inhibitor in liver fibrosis. Our data showed that J-1048 inhibited TAA-induced liver fibrosis in mice by explicitly blocking the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. Additionally, J-1048 inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokine Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) by inhibiting the purinergic ligand-gated ion channel 7 receptor (P2X7r) -Nucleotide-binding domain-(NOD-)like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) axis, thereby alleviating liver fibrosis. Our findings demonstrated that a novel small molecule ALK5 inhibitor, J-1048, exhibited strong potential as a clinical therapeutic candidate for liver fibrosis.

Sanguisorba officinalis L. Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis by Modulating Oxidative Stress, Fatty Acid Oxidation, and Gut Microbiota in CDAHFD-Induced Mice

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a leading cause of chronic liver diseases and encompasses non-alcoholic steatosis, steatohepatitis, and fibrosis. Sanguisorba officinalis L. (SO) roots have traditionally been used for their antioxidant properties and have beneficial effects on metabolic disorders, including diabetes and obesity. However, its effects on hepatic steatosis and fibrosis remain unclear. In this study, we explored the effects of a 95% ethanolic SO extract (SOEE) on NAFLD and fibrosis in vivo and in vitro. The SOEE was orally administered to C57BL/6J mice fed a choline-deficient, L-amino-acid-defined, high-fat diet for 10 weeks. The SOEE inhibited hepatic steatosis by modulating hepatic malondialdehyde levels and the expression of oxidative stress-associated genes, regulating fatty-acid-oxidation-related genes, and inhibiting the expression of genes that are responsible for fibrosis. The SOEE suppressed the deposition of extracellular matrix hydroxyproline and mRNA expression of fibrosis-associated genes. The SOEE decreased the expression of fibrosis-related genes in vitro by inhibiting SMAD2/3 phosphorylation. Furthermore, the SOEE restored the gut microbial diversity and modulated specific bacterial genera associated with NAFLD and fibrosis. This study suggests that SOEE might be the potential candidate for inhibiting hepatic steatosis and fibrosis by modulating oxidative stress, fatty acid oxidation, and gut microbiota composition.

Grb2-related adaptor protein GRAP is a novel regulator of liver fibrosis

AIMS

Excessive liver fibrosis is frequently observed in chronic liver diseases and associated with decline of liver functions. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are considered the principal mediator of liver fibrosis by trans-differentiating into myofibroblasts. In the present study we investigated the role of Grb2-related adaptor protein (GRAP) in HSC activation and liver fibrosis.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Liver fibrosis was induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) injection. Gene expression was examined by quantitative PCR. Cell proliferation was evaluated by EdU incorporation. DNA-protein interaction was examined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP).

KEY FINDINGS

GRAP expression was up-regulated during HSC-myofibroblast transition both in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, serum response factor (SRF) and myocardin-related transcription factor A (MRTF-A) formed a complex to bind to the GRAP promoter and activate GRAP transcription. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) mediated GRAP silencing blocked HSC-myofibroblast transition in vitro. Importantly, adeno-associated virus 6 (AAV6) mediated GRAP knockdown in myofibroblasts attenuated liver fibrosis in mice. Of note, inhibition of ERK signaling abrogated enhancement of HSC-myofibroblast transition by GRAP over-expression.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our data suggest that GRAP, possibly via ERK activation, regulates HSC-myofibroblast transition and contributes to liver fibrosis. Screening for small-molecule GRAP inhibitors may yield novel therapeutic solutions against liver fibrosis.

Nanoparticle-Mediated RNA Therapy Attenuates Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis and Related Fibrosis by Targeting Activated Hepatic Stellate Cells

Chronic liver injury and inflammation triggered by metabolic abnormalities initiate the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), driving fibrosis and parenchymal dysfunction, culminating in disorders such as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Unfortunately, there are currently no approved drugs capable of effectively treating NASH due to the challenges in addressing fibrosis and restoring extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis. We discovered a significant up-regulation of interleukin-11 (IL-11) in fibrotic livers using two well-established murine models of NASH. To leverage this signaling pathway, we developed a nanoparticle (NP)-assisted RNA interfering approach that specifically targets activated HSCs (aHSCs), blocking IL-11/ERK signaling to regulate HSC transdifferentiation along with fibrotic remodeling. The most potent NP, designated NP-AEAA, showed enhanced accumulation in fibrotic livers with NASH and was primarily enriched in aHSCs. We further investigated the therapeutic efficacy of aHSC-targeting NP-AEAA encapsulating small interfering RNA (siRNA) against IL11 or its cognate receptor IL11ra1 (termed siIL11@NP-AEAA or siIL11ra1@NP-AEAA, respectively) for resolving fibrosis and NASH. Our results demonstrate that both siIL11@NP-AEAA and siIL11ra1@NP-AEAA effectively inhibit HSC activation and resolve fibrosis and inflammation in two well-established murine models of NASH. Notably, siIL11ra1@NP-AEAA exhibits a superior therapeutic effect over siIL11@NP-AEAA, in terms of reducing liver steatosis and fibrosis as well as recovering liver function. These results constitute a targeted nanoparticulate siRNA therapeutic approach against the IL-11 signaling pathway of aHSCs in the fibrotic liver, offering a promising therapeutic intervention for NASH and other diseases.

HOXC8/TGF-β1 positive feedback loop promotes liver fibrosis and hepatic stellate cell activation via activating Smad2/Smad3 signaling

Liver fibrosis occurs in any chronic liver disease, where extraordinary increase of extracellular matrix components is caused by the hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. HOXC8 has been disclosed to participate inregulating cell proliferation and fibrosis in tumors. However, the role of HOXC8 in liver fibrosis and the underlying molecular mechanisms has not yet been investigated. In this study, we founded that HOXC8 mRNA and protein was elevated in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis mouse model and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-treated human (LX-2) HSC cells. Importantly, we observed that downregulating HOXC8 alleviates liver fibrosis and suppressed the fibrogenic gene induction induced by CCl₄ in vivo. In addition, inhibition of HOXC8 suppressed the HSC activation and the expression of fibrosis-associated genes (α-SMA and COL1a1) induced by TGF-β1 in LX-2 cells in vitro, while HOXC8 overexpression had the opposite effects. Mechanistically, we demonstrated HOXC8 activates TGFβ1 transcription and enhanced the phosphorylated Smad2/Smad3 levels, suggesting a positive feedback loop between HOXC8 and TGF-β1 that facilitates TGF-β signaling and subsequent HSCs activation. Collectively, our data strongly indicated that a HOXC8/TGF-β1 positive feedback loop plays as a critical role in controlling the HSC activation and in the liver fibrosis process, suggesting that inhibition of HOXC8 may serve as a promoting therapeutic strategy for diseases characterized by liver fibrosis.

Doxofylline ameliorates liver fibrosis by regulating the ferroptosis signaling pathway

Liver fibrosis, a compensatory repair response to chronic liver injury, is caused by various pathogenic factors, and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation and phenotypic transformation are regarded as key events in its progression. Ferroptosis, a novel form of programmed cell death, is also closely related to different pathological processes, including those associated with liver diseases. Here, we investigated the effect of doxofylline (DOX), a xanthine derivative with potent anti-inflammatory activity, on liver fibrosis as well as the associated mechanism. Our results indicated that in mice with CCl4-induced liver fibrosis, DOX attenuated hepatocellular injury and the levels of liver fibrosis indicators, inhibited the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway, and significantly downregulated the expression of HSC activation markers, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, inducing ferroptosis in activated HSCs was found to be critical for its anti-liver fibrosis effect. More importantly, ferroptosis inhibition using the specific inhibitor, deferoxamine (DFO) not only abolished DOX-induced ferroptosis, but also led to resistance to the anti-liver fibrosis effect of DOX in HSCs. In summary, our results showed an association between the protective effect of DOX against liver fibrosis and HSC ferroptosis. Thus, DOX may be a promising anti-hepatic fibrosis agent.

Upregulation of GLT25D1 in Hepatic Stellate Cells Promotes Liver Fibrosis via the TGF-β1/SMAD3 Pathway In Vivo and In vitro

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Collagen β(1-O) galactosyltransferase 25 domain 1 (GLT25D1) is associated with collagen production and glycosylation, and its knockout in mice results in embryonic death. However, its role in liver fibrosis remains elusive, particularly in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the primary collagen-producing cells associated with liver fibrogenesis. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the role of GLT25D1 in HSCs.

METHODS

Bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced mouse liver fibrosis models, primary mouse HSCs (mHSCs), and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1)-stimulated LX-2 human hepatic stellate cells were used in in vivo and in vitro studies. Stable LX-2 cell lines with either GLT25D1 overexpression or knockdown were established using lentiviral transfection. RNA-seq was performed to investigate the genomic differences. HPLC-MS/MS were used to identify glycosylation sites. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) and second-harmonic generation/two-photon excited fluorescence (SHG/TPEF) were used to image collagen fibril morphology.

RESULTS

GLT25D1 expression was upregulated in nonparenchymal cells in human cirrhotic liver tissues. Meanwhile, its knockdown attenuated collagen deposition in BDL-induced mouse liver fibrosis and inhibited mHSC activation. GLT25D1 was overexpressed in activated versus quiescence LX-2 cells and regulated in vitro LX-2 cell activation, including proliferation, contraction, and migration. GLT25D1 also significantly increased liver fibrogenic gene and protein expression. GLT25D1 upregulation promoted HSC activation and enhanced collagen expression through the TGF-β1/SMAD signaling pathway. Mass spectrometry showed that GLT25D1 regulated the glycosylation of collagen in HSCs, affecting the diameter of collagen fibers.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the upregulation of GLT25D1 in HSCs promoted the progression of liver fibrosis by affecting HSCs activation and collagen stability.

17α-estradiol, a lifespan-extending compound, attenuates liver fibrosis by modulating collagen turnover rates in male mice

Estrogen signaling is protective against chronic liver diseases, although men and a subset of women are contraindicated for chronic treatment with 17β-estradiol (17β-E2) or combination hormone replacement therapies. We sought to determine if 17α-estradiol (17α-E2), a naturally occurring diastereomer of 17β-E2, could attenuate liver fibrosis. We evaluated the effects of 17α-E2 treatment on collagen synthesis and degradation rates using tracer-based labeling approaches in male mice subjected to carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis. We also assessed the effects of 17α-E2 on markers of hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, collagen cross-linking, collagen degradation, and liver macrophage content and polarity. We found that 17α-E2 significantly reduced collagen synthesis rates and increased collagen degradation rates, which was mirrored by declines in transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) protein content in liver. These improvements were associated with increased matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) activity and suppressed stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) protein levels, the latter of which has been linked to the resolution of liver fibrosis. We also found that 17α-E2 increased liver fetuin-A protein, a strong inhibitor of TGF-β1 signaling, and reduced proinflammatory macrophage activation and cytokines expression in the liver. We conclude that 17α-E2 reduces fibrotic burden by suppressing HSC activation and enhancing collagen degradation mechanisms. Future studies will be needed to determine if 17α-E2 acts directly in hepatocytes, HSCs, and/or immune cells to elicit these benefits.

A Novel miRNA From Egg-Derived Exosomes of Schistosoma japonicum Promotes Liver Fibrosis in Murine Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma japonicum is a serious public health problem in China. Granuloma and hepatic fibrosis are the main pathological features of schistosomiasis japonica. The role and mechanism of egg-derived exosomes of S. japonicum in liver fibrosis remain unclear. In this study, we found that egg-derived exosomes of S. japonicum carry a new type of microRNA (miRNA-33). In vitro, this novel miRNA upregulated the expression of smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen 1 α1 (Col 1 α1) in the human hepatic stellate cell (LX-2) line at both mRNA and protein levels. In vivo, this novel miRNA was upregulated in the serum of infected mice, and when injected into mice through the tail vein using miRNA agomir, α-SMA, Col 1 α1, and Col 3 α1 were upregulated in liver tissue at both mRNA and protein levels. In addition, this novel miRNA downregulated the expression of α-SMA and Col 1 α1 in liver tissue at mRNA and protein levels in mice infected with S. japonicum and treated with miRNA antagomir. The novel miRNA-33 upregulated TGF-β Receptor I (TGF-β RI) at both mRNA and protein levels in LX-2 cells. Our results suggest that this novel miRNA from egg-derived exosomes of S. japonicum can promote liver fibrosis in the host in a cross-species manner, and the degree of fibrosis can be decreased by inhibiting the expression of this miRNA.

Macrophages evoke autophagy of hepatic stellate cells to promote liver fibrosis in NAFLD mice via the PGE2/EP4 pathway

The pathogenesis of liver fibrosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) remains unclear and the effective treatments have not been explored yet. The activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is considered as the most critical factor in the progression of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. Autophagy has recently been identified as a new mechanism to regulate HSC activation. Here, we found that liver macrophages were polarized toward type 2 (M2) during the progression of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and liver fibrosis in both patients and NAFLD mice. Using the methionine-choline-deficient (MCD) diet NAFLD murine model and the in vitro cell culture system, we identified that the M2 macrophages promoted HSC autophagy by secreting prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and binding its receptor EP4 on the surface of HSCs, which consequently enhanced HSC activation, extracellular matrix deposition, and liver fibrosis. Mechanistically, PGE2/EP4 signals enhanced HSC autophagy through the Erk pathway. A specific PGE2/EP4 antagonist E7046 significantly inhibited M2 macrophage-mediated HSC autophagy and improved liver fibrosis and histopathology in NAFLD mice. Our study provides novel mechanistic insights into the regulation of HSC activation and liver fibrosis. Our findings suggest that the PGE2/EP4 pathway is a promising therapeutic target to prevent NASH progression into cirrhosis.

Galectin 1-A Key Player between Tissue Repair and Fibrosis

Galectins are ten family members of carbohydrate-binding proteins with a high affinity for β galactose-containing oligosaccharides. Galectin-1 (Gal-1) is the first protein discovered in the family, expressed in many sites under normal and pathological conditions. In the first part of the review article, we described recent advances in the Gal-1 modulatory role on wound healing, by focusing on the different phases triggered by Gal-1, such as inflammation, proliferation, tissue repair and re-epithelialization. On the contrary, Gal-1 persistent over-expression enhances angiogenesis and extracellular matrix (ECM) production via PI3K/Akt pathway activation and leads to keloid tissue. Therefore, the targeted Gal-1 modulation should be considered a method of choice to treat wound healing and avoid keloid formation. In the second part of the review article, we discuss studies clarifying the role of Gal-1 in the pathogenesis of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, liver, renal, pancreatic and pulmonary fibrosis. This evidence suggests that Gal-1 may become a biomarker for the diagnosis and prognosis of tissue fibrosis and a promising molecular target for the development of new and original therapeutic tools to treat fibrosis in different chronic diseases.

Rubus chingii Hu. unripe fruits extract ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis and improves the associated gut microbiota imbalance

BACKGROUND

The unripe fruits of Rubus chingii Hu. ("Fu-peng-zi" in Chinese) is a well-known herbal tonic in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for tonifying liver and kidney. However, little is known regarding its therapeutic efficacy against liver fibrosis and the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The current research aims to explore the potential of Rubus chingii Hu. unripe fruits extract (RF) in the treatment of liver fibrosis and explore the underlying mechanism. RF was administered (450 and 900 mg·kg^- 1 of body weight per day) orally to male C57BL/6 mice with CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis for 3 weeks. The histopathological changes and fibrosis stage in liver tissue were assessed using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Sirius red staining. The distribution of α-SMA and Col1A1 in the liver was analyzed to determine the hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescent analysis. Various biochemical markers in serum (ALT, AST) and liver (Hyp, IL1-β, IL6, TNF-α and MCP-1) were observed to assess the liver's injury, fibrosis, and inflammation. In liver tissue, fibrosis-associated proteins including α-SMA, TGF-β1, Smad2/3, p-Smad2/3, and Smad4 were detected through a Western blot assay. Pyrosequencing-based analysis of bacterial 16 S ribosomal RNA from variable regions V3-V4 of fecal samples characterized the gut microbiota. Spearman's rank correlation analysis was performed for the association between altered bacterial genera by RF and pharmacodynamics parameters.

RESULTS

Three weeks of RF treatment can significantly lower liver inflammatory levels, pathological abnormalities, and collagen fibrous deposition in mice with CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis. The expressions of α-SMA and Col1A1 were lowered by RF, while the expression levels of TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway-related proteins, including TGF-β1, p-Smad2/3, and Smad4, were dramatically decreased by RF. The RF treatment significantly increased or reduced 18 different bacterial species, restoring the CCl₄-induced gut microbiota imbalance to the normal group's levels. According to correlation analysis, the bacterial genera Bifidobacterium and Turicibacter were the most significant in restoring CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

RF can reduce liver damage and delay the onset of liver fibrosis through modulating TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway. Furthermore, RF's anti-liver fibrosis effect was related to balancing the gut microbial community, partly attained by increasing Bifidobacterium and Turicibacter in liver fibrosis.

Inhibition of ASCT2 induces hepatic stellate cell senescence with modified proinflammatory secretome through an IL-1α/NF-κB feedback pathway to inhibit liver fibrosis

Senescence of activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) is a stable growth arrest that is implicated in liver fibrosis regression. Senescent cells often accompanied by a multi-faceted senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). But little is known about how alanine-serine-cysteine transporter type-2 (ASCT2), a high affinity glutamine transporter, affects HSC senescence and SASP during liver fibrosis. Here, we identified ASCT2 is mainly elevated in aHSCs and positively correlated with liver fibrosis in human and mouse fibrotic livers. We first discovered ASCT2 inhibition induced HSCs to senescence in vitro and in vivo. The proinflammatory SASP were restricted by ASCT2 inhibition at senescence initiation to prevent paracrine migration. Mechanically, ASCT2 was a direct target of glutaminolysis-dependent proinflammatory SASP, interfering IL-1α/NF-κB feedback loop via interacting with precursor IL-1α at Lys82. From a translational perspective, atractylenolide III is identified as ASCT2 inhibitor through directly bound to Asn230 of ASCT2. The presence of –OH group in atractylenolide III is suggested to be favorable for the inhibition of ASCT2. Importantly, atractylenolide III could be utilized to treat liver fibrosis mice. Taken together, ASCT2 controlled HSC senescence while modifying the proinflammatory SASP. Targeting ASCT2 by atractylenolide III could be a therapeutic candidate for liver fibrosis.

Mitofusin-2 Restrains Hepatic Stellate Cells' Proliferation via PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway and Inhibits Liver Fibrosis in Rats

The mitochondrial GTPase mitofusin-2 (MFN2) gene can suppress the cell cycle and regulate cell proliferation in a number of cell types. However, its function in hepatic fibrosis remains largely unexplored. We attempted to understand the mechanism of MFN2 in hepatic stellate cell (HSC) proliferation and the development of hepatic fibrosis. Rat HSC-T6 HSC were cultured and transfected by adenovirus- (Ad-) Mfn2 or its negative control (NC) vector (Ad-green fluorescent protein (GFP)); a rat liver cirrhosis model was established via subcutaneous injection with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Seventy-two rats were randomly divided into four groups: CCl4, Mfn2, GFP, and NC. Ad-Mfn2 or Ad-GFP was transfected into the circulation via intravenous injection at day 1, 14, 28, 42, or 56 after the first injection of CCl4 in the Mfn2/GFP groups. Biomarkers related to HSC proliferation and the development of hepatic fibrosis were detected using western blotting, hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining, and immunohistochemistry. In vitro, Mfn2 interfered specifically with platelet-derived growth factor- (PDGF-) induced signaling pathway (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase- (PI3K-) AKT), inhibiting HSC-T6 cell activation and proliferation. During the process of hepatic fibrosis in vivo, extracellular collagen deposition and the expression of fibrosis-related proteins increased progressively, while Mfn2 expression decreased gradually. Upregulating Mfn2 expression at the early stage of fibrosis impeded the process, triggered the downregulation of type I collagen, and antagonized the formation of factors associated with liver fibrosis. Mfn2 suppresses HSC proliferation and activation and exhibits antifibrotic potential in early-stage hepatic fibrosis. Therefore, it may represent a significant therapeutic target for eradicating hepatic fibrosis.

Hepatic stellate cell activation by TGFβ induces hedgehog signaling and endoplasmic reticulum stress simultaneously

Activation of hepatic stellates (HSCs) is known as the major cause of initiation and progression of liver fibrosis. A wide array of events occurs during HSC activation including induction of hedgehog (Hh) signaling and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Targeting HSC activation may provide promising insights into liver fibrosis treatment. In this regard, establishing in vitro models which can mimic the molecular pathways of interest is very important. We aimed to activate HSC in which Hh signaling and ER stress are stimulated simultaneously. We used 5 ng/ml TGFβ to activate LX-2 cells, HSC cell line. Gene expression analysis using qRT-PCR, immunostaining and immunoblotting were performed to show HSC activation associated markers. Furthermore, the migration capacity of the TGFβ treated cells is evaluated. The results demonstrated that major fibrogenic markers including collagen1a, lysyl oxidase, and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 1 genes are up-regulated significantly. In addition, our immunofluorescence and immunoblotting results showed that protein levels of GLI-2 and XBP1, were enhanced. Moreover, we found that TGFβ treatment reduced the migration of LX-2 cells. Our results are compatible with high throughput data analysis with respect to differentially expressed genes of activated HSC compared to the quiescent ones. Moreover, our findings suggest that quercetin can reduce fibrogenic markers of activated HSCs as well as osteopontin expression, a target gene of hedgehog signaling.

Regulatory T-Cell Therapy in Liver Transplantation and Chronic Liver Disease

The constant exposure of the liver to gut derived foreign antigens has resulted in this organ attaining unique immunological characteristics, however it remains susceptible to immune mediated injury. Our understanding of this type of injury, in both the native and transplanted liver, has improved significantly in recent decades. This includes a greater awareness of the tolerance inducing CD4+ CD25+ CD127low T-cell lineage with the transcription factor FoxP3, known as regulatory T-Cells (Tregs). These cells comprise 5-10% of CD4+ T cells and are known to function as an immunological "braking" mechanism, thereby preventing immune mediated tissue damage. Therapies that aim to increase Treg frequency and function have proved beneficial in the setting of both autoimmune diseases and solid organ transplantations. The safety and efficacy of Treg therapy in liver disease is an area of intense research at present and has huge potential. Due to these cells possessing significant plasticity, and the potential for conversion towards a T-helper 1 (Th1) and 17 (Th17) subsets in the hepatic microenvironment, it is pre-requisite to modify the microenvironment to a Treg favourable atmosphere to maintain these cells' function. In addition, implementation of therapies that effectively increase Treg functional activity in the liver may result in the suppression of immune responses and will hinder those that destroy tumour cells. Thus, fine adjustment is crucial to achieve this immunological balance. This review will describe the hepatic microenvironment with relevance to Treg function, and the role these cells have in both native diseased and transplanted livers.

Biofabricated 3D in vitro model of fibrosis-induced abnormal hepatoblast/biliary progenitors' expansion of the developing liver

Congenital disorders of the biliary tract are the primary reason for pediatric liver failure and ultimately for pediatric liver transplant needs. Not all causes of these disorders are well understood, but it is known that liver fibrosis occurs in many of those afflicted. The goal of this study is to develop a simple yet robust model that recapitulates physico-mechanical and cellular aspects of fibrosis mediated via hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and their effects on biliary progenitor cells. Liver organoids were fabricated by embedding various HSCs, with distinctive abilities to generate mild to severe fibrotic environments, together with undifferentiated liver progenitor cell line, HepaRG, within a collagen I hydrogel. The fibrotic state of each organoid was characterized by examination of extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling through quantitative image analysis, rheometry, and qPCR. In tandem, the phenotype of the liver progenitor cell and cluster formation was assessed through histology. Activated HSCs (aHSCs) created a more severe fibrotic state, exemplified by a more highly contracted and rigid ECM, as well higher relative expression of TGF-β, TIMP-1, LOXL2, and COL1A2 as compared to immortalized HSCs (LX-2). Within the more severe fibrotic environment, generated by the aHSCs, higher Notch signaling was associated with an expansion of CK19+ cells as well as the formation of larger, more densely populated cell biliary like-clusters as compared to mild and non-fibrotic controls. The expansion of CK19+ cells, coupled with a severely fibrotic environment, are phenomena found within patients suffering from a variety of congenital liver disorders of the biliary tract. Thus, the model presented here can be utilized as a novel in vitro testing platform to test drugs and identify new targets that could benefit pediatric patients that suffer from the biliary dysgenesis associated with a multitude of congenital liver diseases.

MicroRNA-139-5p Regulates Fibrotic Potentials via Modulation of Collagen Type 1 and Phosphorylated p38 MAPK in Uterine Leiomyoma

PURPOSE

This study aimed to elucidate whether microRNA-139-5p is involved in the pathogenesis of uterine leiomyoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human leiomyoma and matched human smooth muscle samples were obtained from 10 women who underwent hysterectomy for uterine leiomyoma. MicroRNA (miRNA) expression was analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. To assess the effects of miR-139-5p on cultured leiomyoma cells, cell migration, collagen gel contraction, wound healing, and the expression levels of hallmark proteins were evaluated in cells transfected with a miR-139-5p mimic.

RESULTS

The expression of miR-139-5p was significantly lower in leiomyoma tissues than in matched smooth muscle tissues. Restored miR-139-5p expression in miR-139-5p mimic-transfected human leiomyoma cells resulted in decreased contractility of the ECM and cell migration. In addition, upregulation of miR-139-5p decreased the protein expression of collagen type 1 and phosphorylated p38 MAPK.

CONCLUSION

Expression of miR-139-5p is downregulated in leiomyoma cells and modulation of miR-139-5p may be involved inthe pathogenesis of leiomyomas through the regulation of collagen type 1 and phosphorylated p38 MAPK. Therefore, miR-139-5p is a potential therapeutic target for leiomyoma.

Insights into the molecular mechanisms of Huangqi decoction on liver fibrosis via computational systems pharmacology approaches

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Huangqi decoction (HQD) consists of Radix Astragali and Radix Glycyrrhizae in a ratio of 6: 1, which has been used for the treatment of liver fibrosis. In this study, we tried to elucidate its action of mechanism (MoA) via a combination of metabolomics data, network pharmacology and molecular docking methods.

METHODS

Firstly, we collected prototype components and metabolic products after administration of HQD from a publication. With known and predicted targets, compound-target interactions were obtained. Then, the global compound-liver fibrosis target bipartite network and the HQD-liver fibrosis protein-protein interaction network were constructed, separately. KEGG pathway analysis was applied to further understand the mechanisms related to the target proteins of HQD. Additionally, molecular docking simulation was performed to determine the binding efficiency of compounds with targets. Finally, considering the concentrations of prototype compounds and metabolites of HQD, the critical compound-liver fibrosis target bipartite network was constructed.

RESULTS

68 compounds including 17 prototype components and 51 metabolic products were collected. 540 compound-target interactions were obtained between the 68 compounds and 95 targets. Combining network analysis, molecular docking and concentration of compounds, our final results demonstrated that eight compounds (three prototype compounds and five metabolites) and eight targets (CDK1, MMP9, PPARD, PPARG, PTGS2, SERPINE1, TP53, and HIF1A) might contribute to the effects of HQD on liver fibrosis. These interactions would maintain the balance of ECM, reduce liver damage, inhibit hepatocyte apoptosis, and alleviate liver inflammation through five signaling pathways including p53, PPAR, HIF-1, IL-17, and TNF signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a new way to understand the MoA of HQD on liver fibrosis by considering the concentrations of components and metabolites, which might be a model for investigation of MoA of other Chinese herbs.

The Provocative Roles of Platelets in Liver Disease and Cancer

Both platelets and the liver play important roles in the processes of coagulation and innate immunity. Platelet responses at the site of an injury are rapid; their immediate activation and structural changes minimize the loss of blood. The majority of coagulation proteins are produced by the liver—a multifunctional organ that also plays a critical role in many processes: removal of toxins and metabolism of fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs. Chronic inflammation, trauma, or other causes of irreversible damage to the liver can dysregulate these pathways leading to organ and systemic abnormalities. In some cases, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratios can also be a predictor of disease outcome. An example is cirrhosis, which increases the risk of bleeding and prothrombotic events followed by activation of platelets. Along with a triggered coagulation cascade, the platelets increase the risk of pro-thrombotic events and contribute to cancer progression and metastasis. This progression and the resulting tissue destruction is physiologically comparable to a persistent, chronic wound. Various cancers, including colorectal cancer, have been associated with increased thrombocytosis, platelet activation, platelet-storage granule release, and thrombosis; anti-platelet agents can reduce cancer risk and progression. However, in cancer patients with pre-existing liver disease who are undergoing chemotherapy, the risk of thrombotic events becomes challenging to manage due to their inherent risk for bleeding. Chemotherapy, also known to induce damage to the liver, further increases the frequency of thrombotic events. Depending on individual patient risks, these factors acting together can disrupt the fragile balance between pro- and anti-coagulant processes, heightening liver thrombogenesis, and possibly providing a niche for circulating tumor cells to adhere to—thus promoting both liver metastasis and cancer-cell survival following treatment (that is, with minimal residual disease in the liver).

Schisantherin A ameliorates liver fibrosis through TGF-β1mediated activation of TAK1/MAPK and NF-κB pathways in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUD

Schisandra chinensis, a traditional Chinese medicine for liver protection, can significantly improve liver fibrosis. However, it is still unclear which active components in Schisandra chinensis play an anti-fibrosis role.

PURPOSE

The purpose of present study was to observe the anti-fibrosis effect of schisantherin A (SCA) on liver fibrosis and explore its underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The liver fibrosis model of mice was constructed by the progressive intraperitoneal injection of thioacetamide (TAA), and SCA (1, 2, and 4 mg/kg) was administered by gavage for 5 weeks. The biochemical indicators and inflammatory cytokines were measured, changes in the pathology of the mice liver were observed by hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) and Masson stainings for studying the anti-fibrosis effect of SCA. A hepatic stellate cell (HSCs) activation model induced by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) was established, and the effect of SCA on the HSCs proliferation was observed by MTT assay. The expressions of target proteins related to transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways were evaluated by western blotting, immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence analysis, to explore the potential mechanism of SCA.

RESULTS

SCA could significantly ameliorate the pathological changes of liver tissue induced by TAA, and reduce the serum transaminase level, the hydroxyproline level and the expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen 1A1 (COL1A1) proteins in the liver tissue. SCA could significantly lower the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the serum and liver tissue, and down-regulate the expression of target proteins related to TAK1/MAPK and NF-κB pathways in the liver tissue. The in vitro studies demonstrated that SCA significantly inhibited the proliferation and activation of HCS-T6 cells induced by TGF-β1, decreased TNF-α and IL-6 levels, and inhibited the TAK1 activation induced by TGF-β1 and then the expression of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

Together, SCA can ameliorate the liver fibrosis induced by TAA and the HSC-T6 cell activation induced by TGF-β1 in mice, and its mechanism may be to inhibit the HSCs activation and inflammatory response by inhibiting TGF-β1 mediated TAK1/MAPK and signal pathways.

Pathophysiology and Treatment Options for Hepatic Fibrosis: Can It Be Completely Cured?

Hepatic fibrosis is a dynamic process that occurs as a wound healing response against liver injury. During fibrosis, crosstalk between parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells, activation of different immune cells and signaling pathways, as well as a release of several inflammatory mediators take place, resulting in inflammation. Excessive inflammation drives hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, which then encounters various morphological and functional changes before transforming into proliferative and extracellular matrix (ECM)-producing myofibroblasts. Finally, enormous ECM accumulation interferes with hepatic function and leads to liver failure. To overcome this condition, several therapeutic approaches have been developed to inhibit inflammatory responses, HSC proliferation and activation. Preclinical studies also suggest several targets for the development of anti-fibrotic therapies; however, very few advanced to clinical trials. The pathophysiology of hepatic fibrosis is extremely complex and requires comprehensive understanding to identify effective therapeutic targets; therefore, in this review, we focus on the various cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with the pathophysiology of hepatic fibrosis and discuss potential strategies to control or reverse the fibrosis.

SAA1/TLR2 axis directs chemotactic migration of hepatic stellate cells responding to injury

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are crucial for liver injury repair and cirrhosis. However, the mechanism of chemotactic recruitment of HSCs into injury loci is still largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that serum amyloid A1 (SAA1) acts as a chemokine recruiting HSCs toward injury loci signaling via TLR2, a finding proven by gene manipulation studies in cell and mice models. The mechanistic investigations revealed that SAA1/TLR2 axis stimulates the Rac GTPases through PI3K-dependent pathways and induces phosphorylation of MLC (pSer19). Genetic deletion of TLR2 and pharmacological inhibition of PI3K diminished the phosphorylation of MLCpSer19 and migration of HSCs. In brief, SAA1 serves as a hepatic endogenous chemokine for the TLR2 receptor on HSCs, thereby initiating PI3K-dependent signaling and its effector, Rac GTPases, which consequently regulates actin filament remodeling and cell directional migration. Our findings provide novel targets for anti-fibrosis drug development.

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SAA1 serves as a chemokine to guide migration of HSCs toward injury locus

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TLR2 acts as a functional receptor for SAA1 in HSCs

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SAA1/TLR2 axis-mediated migration of HSCs operates through PI3K/Rac1 signaling

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SAA1/TLR2 axis provides a link for the cross talk between hepatocytes and HSCs

Ligustroflavone ameliorates CCl4-induced liver fibrosis through down-regulating the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

Liver fibrosis is a pathological process characterized by excess deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) that are mainly derived from activated hepatic stellate cells. Previous studies suggested that ligustroflavone (LF) was an ingredient of Ligustrum lucidum Ait. with activities of anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation. In this study, we investigated whether LF had any effect on liver fibrosis. In our study, we established a mouse model of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis and used TGF-β₁-stimulated human hepatic stellate cell line (LX-2) to explore the effect of LF and associated underlying mechanism. LF was used in vivo with low dose (L-LF, 5 mg·kg^-1, i.p., 3 times each week) and high dose (H-LF, 20 mg·kg^-1, i.p., 3 times each week) and in vitro (25 μmol·L^-1). Histopathological and biochemical assays investigations showed that LF delayed the formation of liver fibrosis; decreased AST, ALT activities and increased Alb activity in serum; decreased MDA level, Hyp content and increased GSH-Px concentration, SOD activity in liver tissues. Moreover, immunohistochemical, immunofluorescent and Western blot results showed that LF reduced the expressions of hepatic stellate cells specific marker proteins, including collagen I and α-SMA in vivo and in vitro. In addition, LF markedly suppressed TGF-β₁-upregulated protein expressions of TβR I, TβR II, P-Smad2, P-Smad3 and Smad4 in LX-2 cells. Taken together, these findings demonstrated LF could decrease histopathological lesions, ameliorate oxidative injury, attenuate CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis, which may be associated with down-regulating the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway.

Hepatic fibrosis grading with extracellular volume fraction from iodine mapping in spectral liver CT

PURPOSE

To determine whether hepatic extracellular volume fraction (ECV) obtained from iodine density map (ECV-iodine) can be used to estimate hepatic fibrosis grade and to compare performance with ECV measured using Hounsfield units (ECV-HU).

METHODS

From December 2016 to March 2019, patients who underwent liver resection or biopsy within four weeks after spectral liver CT were included. ECV-iodine and ECV-HU were calculated using the equilibrium phase. Within each of these, comparison of ECVs was made for different fibrosis grades (F0 - 1 vs. F2 - 3 vs. F4) and also for patients with compensated and decompensated cirrhosis. The diagnostic performance of ECVs in detecting clinically significant fibrosis (≥ F2) and cirrhosis (F4) was assessed using ROC analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 144 patients (men = 98, mean age 58.1 ± 11.5 years) were included. The ECV-iodine value was significantly higher in cirrhosis (33.6 ± 6.8 %) than those with F0 - 1 (25.0 ± 3.7 %) or F2 - 3 (28.3 ± 3.4 %, P < 0.001 for all). It was significantly higher in decompensated cirrhosis than those with compensated cirrhosis (36.5 ± 7.2 % vs. 30.7 ± 5.0 %, respectively; P < 0.001). The AUC of ECV-iodine was 0.82 for detecting F2 or above (cut-off value, > 26.9 %) and 0.81 for detecting cirrhosis (cut-off value, > 29 %). ECV-iodine had a significantly higher AUC than ECV-HU for detecting F2 or above (AUC: 0.69, P <  0.001) and cirrhosis (AUC: 0.74, P =  0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

ECV-iodine from spectral CT was able to detect clinically significant hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis.

Liver donor age affects hepatocyte function through age-dependent changes in decellularized liver matrix

The only treatment available for end stage liver diseases is orthotopic liver transplantation. Although there is a big donor scarcity, many donor livers are discarded as they do not qualify for transplantation. Alternatively, decellularization of discarded livers can potentially render them transplantable upon recellularization and functional testing. The success of this approach will heavily depend on the quality of decellularized scaffolds which might show variability due to factors including age. Here we assessed the age-dependent differences in liver extracellular matrix (ECM) using rat and human livers. We show that the liver matrix has higher collagen and glycosaminoglycan content and a lower growth factor content with age. Importantly, these changes lead to deterioration in primary hepatocyte function potentially due to ECM stiffening and integrin-dependent signal transduction. Overall, we show that ECM changes with age and these changes significantly affect cell function thus donor age should be considered as an important factor for bioengineering liver substitutes.

Space of Disse: a stem cell niche in the liver

Recent evidence indicates that the plasticity of preexisting hepatocytes and bile duct cells is responsible for the appearance of intermediate progenitor cells capable of restoring liver mass after injury without the need of a stem cell compartment. However, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exist in all organs and are associated with blood vessels which represent their perivascular stem cell niche. MSCs are multipotent and can differentiate into several cell types and are known to support regenerative processes by the release of immunomodulatory and trophic factors. In the liver, the space of Disse constitutes a stem cell niche that harbors stellate cells as liver resident MSCs. This perivascular niche is created by extracellular matrix proteins, sinusoidal endothelial cells, liver parenchymal cells and sympathetic nerve endings and establishes a microenvironment that is suitable to maintain stellate cells and to control their fate. The stem cell niche integrity is important for the behavior of stellate cells in the normal, regenerative, aged and diseased liver. The niche character of the space of Disse may further explain why the liver can become an organ of extra-medullar hematopoiesis and why this organ is frequently prone to tumor metastasis.

Pathophysiology of hepatic Na+/H+ exchange (Review)

Na+/H+ exchangers (NHEs) are a family of membrane proteins that contribute to exchanging one intracellular proton for one extracellular sodium. The family of NHEs consists of nine known members, NHE1-9. Each isoform represents a different gene product that has unique tissue expression, membrane localization, physiological effects, pathological regulation and sensitivity to drug inhibitors. NHE1 was the first to be discovered and is often referred to as the 'housekeeping' isoform of the NHE family. NHEs are not only involved in a variety of physiological processes, including the control of transepithelial Na+ absorption, intracellular pH, cell volume, cell proliferation, migration and apoptosis, but also modulate complex pathological events. Currently, the vast majority of review articles have focused on the role of members of the NHE family in inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal infectious diarrhea and digestive system tumorigenesis, but only a few reviews have discussed the role of NHEs in liver disease. Therefore, the present review described the basic biology of NHEs and highlighted their physiological and pathological effects in the liver.

The liver fibrosis niche: Novel insights into the interplay between fibrosis-composing mesenchymal cells, immune cells, endothelial cells, and extracellular matrix

Liver fibrosis is a hepatic wound-healing response caused by chronic liver diseases that include viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, and cholestatic liver disease. Liver fibrosis eventually progresses to cirrhosis that is histologically characterized by an abnormal liver architecture that includes distortion of liver parenchyma, formation of regenerative nodules, and a massive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM). Despite intensive investigations into the underlying mechanisms of liver fibrosis, developments of anti-fibrotic therapies for liver fibrosis are still unsatisfactory. Recent novel experimental approaches, such as single-cell RNA sequencing and proteomics, have revealed the heterogeneity of ECM-producing cells (mesenchymal cells) and ECM-regulating cells (immune cells and endothelial cells). These approaches have accelerated the identification of fibrosis-specific subpopulations among these cell types. The ECM also consists of heterogenous components. Their production, degradation, deposition, and remodeling are dynamically regulated in liver fibrosis, further affecting the functions of cells responsible for fibrosis. These cellular and ECM elements cooperatively form a unique microenvironment: a fibrotic niche. Understanding the complex interplay between these elements could lead to a better understanding of underlying fibrosis mechanisms and to the development of effective therapies.

Decellularized hepatic extracellular matrix hydrogel attenuates hepatic stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis results from excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins that distort the hepatic architecture. Progression of liver fibrosis results in cirrhosis and liver failure, and often, liver transplantation is required. The decellularized liver tissue contains different components that mimic the natural hepatic environment. We hypothesized that a decellularized liver hydrogel can be used to replace the necrotic hepatocytes and damaged ECM. Therefore, our aim in this study is to develop a therapy for treating liver fibrosis. Mice livers were decellularized and processed to form a hepatic hydrogel. We evaluated the biocompatibility and bioactivity of the hydrogel. The ability of the hydrogel to enhance the migration of hepatocytes and endothelial cells was investigated. Human hepatic stellate cell line (LX-2) activated by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) was used as in vitro model for fibrogenesis. Then, the hydrogel was injected into the liver parenchyma of mice after the induction of liver fibrosis using thioacetamide. The resulting hydrogel maintained a complex composition, which included glycosaminoglycans, collagen, elastin, and growth factors. Hepatocytes and endothelial cells were shown to migrate toward the hydrogel in vitro. Liver hydrogel improved TGF-β1-induced LX-2 cells activation via blocking the TGF-β1/Smad pathway. The matrix was delivered successfully in vivo and enhanced the reduction of fibrosis and recovery to a nearly normal structure. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the liver hydrogel can be utilized as an injectable biomaterial for liver tissue engineering in order to reduce the degree of fibrosis.

Let-7i-5p Regulation of Cell Morphology and Migration Through Distinct Signaling Pathways in Normal and Pathogenic Urethral Fibroblasts

microRNAs regulate subcellular functions through distinct molecular mechanisms. In this study, we used normal and pathogenic fibroblasts in pelvic fracture urethral distraction defects (PFUDD) patients. PFUDD is a common disease that could severely affect patients’ life quality, yet little is known about the molecular mechanism associated with pathogenic fibrosis in PFUDD. Our data showed that let-7i-5p performs a multi-functional role in distinct signaling transduction pathways involved in cell morphology and cell migration in both normal and pathogenic fibroblasts. By analyzing the molecular mechanism associated with its functions, we found that let-7i-5p regulates through its direct target genes involved in collagen metabolism, cell proliferation and differentiation, TGF-beta signaling, DNA repair and ubiquitination, gene silencing and oxygen homeostasis. We conclude that let-7i-5p plays an essential role in regulating cell shape and tissue elasticity, cell migration, cell morphology and cytoskeleton, and could serve as a potential target for clinical treatment of urethral stricture patients.

Role of epidermal growth factor receptor in liver injury and lipid metabolism: Emerging new roles for an old receptor

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is conventionally known to play a crucial role in hepatocyte proliferation, liver regeneration and is also associated with hepatocellular carcinogenesis. In addition to these proliferative roles, EGFR has also implicated in apoptotic cell death signaling in various hepatic cells, mitochondrial dysfunction and acute liver necrosis in a clinically relevant murine model of acetaminophen overdose, warranting further comprehensive exploration of this paradoxical role of EGFR in hepatotoxicity. Apart from ligand dependent activation, EGFR can also be activated in ligand-independent manner, which is mainly associated to liver injury. Recent evidence has also emerged demonstrating important role of EGFR in lipid and fatty acid metabolism in quiescent and regenerating liver. Based on these findings, EGFR has also been shown to play an important role in steatosis in clinically relevant murine NAFLD models via regulating master transcription factors governing fatty acid synthesis and lipolysis. Moreover, several lines of evidences indicate that EGFR is also involved in hepatocellular injury, oxidative stress, inflammation, direct stellate cell activation and fibrosis in chronic liver injury models, including repeated CCl₄ exposure, high-fat diet and fast-food diet models. In addition to briefly summarizing role of EGFR in liver regeneration, this review comprehensively discusses all these non-conventional emerging roles of EGFR. Considering evidences of multi-facet role of EGFR at various levels in these pathophysiological process, EGFR can be a promising therapeutic target for various liver diseases, including acute liver failure and NAFLD, requiring further exploration. These roles of EGFR are relevant for alcoholic liver diseases (ALD) as well, thus providing a valid rationale for future investigations exploring a role of EGFR in ALD.

The glucose degradation product methylglyoxal induces immature angiogenesis in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis

The accumulation of glucose degradation products (GDPs) can lead to tissue damage in patients with diabetes and those undergoing long-term peritoneal dialysis (PD). Angiogenesis is occasionally observed in the peritoneal membrane of patients undergoing PD, where it is associated with failure of ultrafiltration. To investigate the mechanism underlying the influence of angiogenesis on fluid absorption, we evaluated the effects of accumulation of the glucose degradation product methylglyoxal (MGO) on angiogenesis in vitro, and analyzed the association with angiogenesis in the peritoneal membrane. To this end, we measured the levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB in cultured endothelial and smooth muscle cells after administration of MGO. The expression of PDGF-BB mRNA and protein decreased significantly after exposure to MGO, while the expression of VEGF mRNA increased (both P < 0.01). The expression of PDGF-Rβ mRNA in cultured smooth muscle cells did not change after administration of MGO, although the expression of VEGF mRNA increased (P < 0.01). We also evaluated the associations between the number of capillary vessels, peritoneal function, and the degree of MGO deposition using peritoneum samples collected from patients undergoing PD. The number of immature capillary vessels was significantly associated with peritoneal dysfunction and the degree of MGO accumulation (both P < 0.01). In conclusion, MGO enhances the production of VEGF and suppresses the production of PDGF-BB, potentially leading to disturbance of angiogenesis in the peritoneal membrane. Accumulation of MGO in the peritoneum may cause immature angiogenesis and peritoneal dysfunction.

AGAP2: Modulating TGFβ1-Signaling in the Regulation of Liver Fibrosis

AGAP2 (Arf GAP with GTP-binding protein-like domain, Ankyrin repeat and PH domain 2) isoform 2 is a protein that belongs to the Arf GAP (GTPase activating protein) protein family. These proteins act as GTPase switches for Arfs, which are Ras superfamily members, being therefore involved in signaling regulation. Arf GAP proteins have been shown to participate in several cellular functions including membrane trafficking and actin cytoskeleton remodeling. AGAP2 is a multi-tasking Arf GAP that also presents GTPase activity and is involved in several signaling pathways related with apoptosis, cell survival, migration, and receptor trafficking. The increase of AGAP2 levels is associated with pathologies as cancer and fibrosis. Transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) is the most potent pro-fibrotic cytokine identified to date, currently accepted as the principal mediator of the fibrotic response in liver, lung, and kidney. Recent literature has described that the expression of AGAP2 modulates some of the pro-fibrotic effects described for TGF-β1 in the liver. The present review is focused on the interrelated molecular effects between AGAP2 and TGFβ1 expression, presenting AGAP2 as a new player in the signaling of this pro-fibrotic cytokine, thereby contributing to the progression of hepatic fibrosis.

Neovascularization is a key feature of liver fibrosis progression: anti-angiogenesis as an innovative way of liver fibrosis treatment

Liver fibrosis affects over 100 million people in the world; it represents a multifactorial, fibro-inflammatory disorder characterized by exacerbated production of extracellular matrix with consequent aberration of hepatic tissue. The aetiology of this disease is very complex and seems to involve a broad spectrum of factors including the lifestyle, environment factors, genes and epigenetic changes. More evidences indicate that angiogenesis, a process consisting in the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, plays a crucial role in the progression of liver fibrosis. Central to the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis is the hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) which represent a crossroad among inflammation, fibrosis and angiogenesis. Quiescent HSCs can be stimulated by a host of growth factors, pro-inflammatory mediators produced by damaged resident liver cell types, as well as by hypoxia, contributing to neoangiogenesis, which in turn can be a bridge between acute and chronic inflammation. As matter of fact, studies demonstrated that neutralization of vascular endothelial growth factor as well as other proangiogenic agents can attenuate the progression of liver fibrosis. With this review, our intent is to discuss the cause and the role of angiogenesis in liver fibrosis focusing on the current knowledge about the impact of anti-angiogenetic therapies in this pathology.

Raw and vinegar processed Curcuma wenyujin regulates hepatic fibrosis via bloking TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways and up-regulation of MMP-2/TIMP-1 ratio

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. (CW), a variety of Curumae Rhizoma, which documented in China Pharmacopeia, has long been used as plant medicine for its traditional effect on promoting Qi, activating blood stagnation and expelling blood stasis. Nowadays, it is often used in clinic for extraordinary effect on liver diseases. It is worthy to be noted that CW processed with vinegar has been applied in clinic for 1500 years which started in the northern and southern dynasties.

AIM OF STUDY

Liver fibrosis is a worldwide clinical issue. It is worth developing a multi-target and multicellular approach which is high efficiency and low side effects for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis. The anti-hepatic fibrosis molecular mechanisms of CW and vinegar Curcuma wenyujin (VCW) need to be explored and elucidated. Furthermore, the study aimed to discuss the efficiency and mechanism differences between CW and VCW in hepatic fibrosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Biochemical assays and histopathology were adopted to evaluate the anti-hepatic fibrosis effect of CW and VCW. The TGF-β/Smad signaling involving TGF-β1, TGF-βRⅠ, TGF-βRⅡ and Smad2, Smad3, Smad7 in fibrosis is examined, which is a critical step towards the evaluation of anti-hepatic fibrosis agents. Meanwhile, the MMP/TIMP balance is a potential therapy target by modulating extracellular matrix, which is also examined. Both CW and VCW inhibit the activation and proliferation of hepatic stellate cells and induce apoptosis via blocking TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways. Additionally, the level of MMP-2/TIMP-1 regulated significantly, which suggest CW and VCW participate in the degradation process, and maintain the formation and production of extracellular matrix.

CONCLUSION

Raw and vinegar processed Curcuma wenyujin regulates hepatic fibrosis via bloking TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways and up-regulation of MMP-2/TIMP-1 ratio. And VCW has more exhibition than CW.