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The Interplay between Autophagy and Virus Pathogenesis—The Significance of Autophagy in Viral Hepatitis and Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers. Cells 2022; 11:cells11050871. [PMID: 35269494 PMCID: PMC8909602 DOI: 10.3390/cells11050871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a process focused on maintaining the homeostasis of organisms; nevertheless, the role of this process has also been widely documented in viral infections. Thus, xenophagy is a selective form of autophagy targeting viruses. However, the relation between autophagy and viruses is ambiguous—this process may be used as a strategy to fight with a virus, but is also in favor of the virus’s replication. In this paper, we have gathered data on autophagy in viral hepatitis and viral hemorrhagic fevers and the relations impacting its viral pathogenesis. Thus, autophagy is a potential therapeutic target, but research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which the virus interacts with the autophagic machinery. These studies must be performed in specific research models other than the natural host for many reasons. In this paper, we also indicate Lagovirus europaeus virus as a potentially good research model for acute liver failure and viral hemorrhagic disease.
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Siri M, Dastghaib S, Zamani M, Rahmani-Kukia N, Geraylow KR, Fakher S, Keshvarzi F, Mehrbod P, Ahmadi M, Mokarram P, Coombs KM, Ghavami S. Autophagy, Unfolded Protein Response, and Neuropilin-1 Cross-Talk in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: What Can Be Learned from Other Coronaviruses. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5992. [PMID: 34206057 PMCID: PMC8199451 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is caused by the 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2 virus. This severe acute respiratory syndrome is currently a global health emergency and needs much effort to generate an urgent practical treatment to reduce COVID-19 complications and mortality in humans. Viral infection activates various cellular responses in infected cells, including cellular stress responses such as unfolded protein response (UPR) and autophagy, following the inhibition of mTOR. Both UPR and autophagy mechanisms are involved in cellular and tissue homeostasis, apoptosis, innate immunity modulation, and clearance of pathogens such as viral particles. However, during an evolutionary arms race, viruses gain the ability to subvert autophagy and UPR for their benefit. SARS-CoV-2 can enter host cells through binding to cell surface receptors, including angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and neuropilin-1 (NRP1). ACE2 blockage increases autophagy through mTOR inhibition, leading to gastrointestinal complications during SARS-CoV-2 virus infection. NRP1 is also regulated by the mTOR pathway. An increased NRP1 can enhance the susceptibility of immune system dendritic cells (DCs) to SARS-CoV-2 and induce cytokine storm, which is related to high COVID-19 mortality. Therefore, signaling pathways such as mTOR, UPR, and autophagy may be potential therapeutic targets for COVID-19. Hence, extensive investigations are required to confirm these potentials. Since there is currently no specific treatment for COVID-19 infection, we sought to review and discuss the important roles of autophagy, UPR, and mTOR mechanisms in the regulation of cellular responses to coronavirus infection to help identify new antiviral modalities against SARS-CoV-2 virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morvarid Siri
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (M.S.); (M.Z.)
| | - Sanaz Dastghaib
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7193635899, Iran;
| | - Mozhdeh Zamani
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (M.S.); (M.Z.)
| | - Nasim Rahmani-Kukia
- Department of Biochemistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (N.R.-K.); (S.F.); (F.K.)
| | | | - Shima Fakher
- Department of Biochemistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (N.R.-K.); (S.F.); (F.K.)
| | - Fatemeh Keshvarzi
- Department of Biochemistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (N.R.-K.); (S.F.); (F.K.)
| | - Parvaneh Mehrbod
- Influenza and Respiratory Viruses Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran 1316943551, Iran;
| | - Mazaher Ahmadi
- Faculty of Chemistry, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan 6517838695, Iran;
| | - Pooneh Mokarram
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (M.S.); (M.Z.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (N.R.-K.); (S.F.); (F.K.)
| | - Kevin M. Coombs
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada;
| | - Saeid Ghavami
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; (M.S.); (M.Z.)
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, Katowice School of Technology, 40-555 Katowice, Poland
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3
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Autophagy in hepatitis B or C virus infection: An incubator and a potential therapeutic target. Life Sci 2020; 242:117206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.117206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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4
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Abstract
Autophagy plays an important role in the fight against viral infection, which can directly remove the virus, interact with the viral protein, and at the same time regulate the innate and adaptive immunity and promote virus clearance. The virus has also evolved autophagy, which evades, antagonizes and utilizes autophagy, and regulates autophagy pathways, affects autophagy maturation, changes autophagy small body environment or changes the body's immune response type to promote or inhibit autophagy. This chapter introduces the possible mechanisms of autophagy during pathogen infection such as human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis virus, in order to provide new methods for the prevention and treatment of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichuan Xiao
- Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wei Cai
- Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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5
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Jin S. The Cross-Regulation Between Autophagy and Type I Interferon Signaling in Host Defense. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1209:125-144. [PMID: 31728868 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-0606-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The production of type I interferons (IFNs) is one of the hallmarks of intracellular antimicrobial program. Typical type I IFN response activates the Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway, which results in the transcription of plentiful IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) to establish the comprehensive antiviral states. Type I IFN signaling should initiate timely to provoke innate and adaptive immune responses for effective elimination of the invading pathogens. Meanwhile, a precise control must come on the stage to restrain the persistent activation of type I IFN responses to avoid attendant toxicity. Autophagy, a conserved eukaryotic degradation system, mediated by a number of autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, plays an essential role in the clearance of invading microorganism and manipulation of type I responses. Autophagy modulates type I IFN responses through regulatory integration with innate immune signaling pathways, and by removing endogenous ligands of innate immune sensors. Moreover, selective autophagy governs the choice of innate immune factors as specific cargoes for degradation, thus tightly monitoring the type I IFN responses. This review will focus on the cross-regulation between autophagy and type I IFN signaling in host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouheng Jin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, Guangdong, China.
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Tian Y, Wang ML, Zhao J. Crosstalk between Autophagy and Type I Interferon Responses in Innate Antiviral Immunity. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020132. [PMID: 30717138 PMCID: PMC6409909 DOI: 10.3390/v11020132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy exhibits dual effects during viral infections, promoting the clearance of viral components and activating the immune system to produce antiviral cytokines. However, some viruses impair immune defenses by collaborating with autophagy. Mounting evidence suggests that the interaction between autophagy and innate immunity is critical to understanding the contradictory roles of autophagy. Type I interferon (IFN-I) is a crucial antiviral factor, and studies have indicated that autophagy affects IFN-I responses by regulating IFN-I and its receptors expression. Similarly, IFN-I and interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) products can harness autophagy to regulate antiviral immunity. Crosstalk between autophagy and IFN-I responses could be a vital aspect of the molecular mechanisms involving autophagy in innate antiviral immunity. This review briefly summarizes the approaches by which autophagy regulates antiviral IFN-I responses and highlights the recent advances on the mechanisms by which IFN-I and ISG products employ autophagy against viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Tian
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China.
| | - Ming-Li Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China.
- Wuhu Interferon Bio-Products Industry Research Institute Co., Ltd., Wuhu 241000, China.
| | - Jun Zhao
- Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China.
- Wuhu Interferon Bio-Products Industry Research Institute Co., Ltd., Wuhu 241000, China.
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7
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Ke PY. Diverse Functions of Autophagy in Liver Physiology and Liver Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E300. [PMID: 30642133 PMCID: PMC6358975 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20020300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process by which eukaryotic cells eliminate cytosolic materials through vacuole-mediated sequestration and subsequent delivery to lysosomes for degradation, thus maintaining cellular homeostasis and the integrity of organelles. Autophagy has emerged as playing a critical role in the regulation of liver physiology and the balancing of liver metabolism. Conversely, numerous recent studies have indicated that autophagy may disease-dependently participate in the pathogenesis of liver diseases, such as liver hepatitis, steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the functions of autophagy in hepatic metabolism and the contribution of autophagy to the pathophysiology of liver-related diseases. Moreover, the impacts of autophagy modulation on the amelioration of the development and progression of liver diseases are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Yuan Ke
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan.
- Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan.
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Zhang MQ, Li JR, Peng ZG, Zhang JP. Differential Effects of Autophagy-Related 10 Protein on HCV Replication and Autophagy Flux Are Mediated by Its Cysteine 44 and Cysteine 135. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2176. [PMID: 30319633 PMCID: PMC6165859 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy-related 10 (ATG10) is essential for autophagy since it promotes ATG5-ATG12 complex formation. Our previous study found that there are two isoforms of the ATG10 protein, ATG10 (a longer one) and ATG10S, which have identical sequences except an absence of a 36-amino acid fragment (peptide B) in ATG10S, yet exhibit distinct effects on HCV genome replication. Here, we report the existence of two amino acids, cysteine at residue 44 and 135 (Cys44 and Cys135, respectively), in ATG10 being related to differential effects of ATG10 on HCV replication and autophagy flux. Through a series of ATG10 mutation experiments and protein modeling prediction, we found that Cys44 was involved in the dual role of the two isoforms of ATG10 protein on HCV replication and autophagy flux, and that Cys135 plays similar roles as Cys44, but the disulfide bond of Cys44-Cys135 was not verified in the ATG10 protein. Further analyses by full HCV virion infection confirmed the roles of -SH of Cys44 and Cys135 on HCV replication. ATG10 with deleted or mutated Cys44 and/or Cys135 could activate expression of innate immunity-related genes, including il28a, irf-3, irf-7, and promote complete autophagy by driving autophagosomes to interact with lysosomes via IL28A-mediation. Subcellular localization assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay showed that ATG10 with the sulfydryl deletion or substitution of Cys44 and Cys135 could translocate into the nucleus and bind to promoter of IL28A gene; the results indicated that ATG10 with Cys44 and/or Cys135 absence might act as transcriptional factors to trigger the expression of anti-HCV immunological genes, too. In conclusion, our findings provide important information for understanding the differential roles on HCV replication and autophagy flux between ATG10 and ATG10S, and how the structure-function relationship of ATG10 transformed by a single -SH group loss on Cys44 and Cys135 in ATG10 protein, which may be a new target against HCV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao-Qing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, National Health Commission (NHC), Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Rui Li
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, National Health Commission (NHC), Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Zong-Gen Peng
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, National Health Commission (NHC), Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jing-Pu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, National Health Commission (NHC), Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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Khan M, Imam H, Siddiqui A. Subversion of cellular autophagy during virus infection: Insights from hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses. LIVER RESEARCH 2018; 2:146-156. [PMID: 31803515 PMCID: PMC6892584 DOI: 10.1016/j.livres.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a self-eating process, in which the damaged or excessed cell organelles and misfolded protein aggregates are removed from the cellular microenvironment. Autophagy is generally thought of as a pro-survival mechanism which is not only important for balancing energy supply at times of nutrient deprivation but also in the removal of various stress stimuli to ensure homeostasis. In addition to the target materials of "self" origin, autophagy can also eliminate intracellular pathogens and acts as a defense mechanism to curb infections. In addition, autophagy is linked to the host cell's innate immune response. However, viruses have evolved various strategies to manipulate and overtake host cell machinery to establish productive replication and maintain infectious process. In fact, replication of many viruses has been found to be autophagy-dependent and suppression of autophagy can potentially affect the viral replication. Thus, autophagy can either serve as an anti-viral defense mechanism or a pro-viral process that supports viral replication. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are known to co-opt cellular autophagy process as a pro-viral tool. Both viruses also induce mitophagy, which contributes to the establishment of chronic hepatitis. This review focuses on the roles of autophagy and mitophagy in the chronic liver disease pathogenesis associated with HBV and HCV infections.
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Abdoli A, Alirezaei M, Mehrbod P, Forouzanfar F. Autophagy: The multi-purpose bridge in viral infections and host cells. Rev Med Virol 2018; 28:e1973. [PMID: 29709097 PMCID: PMC7169200 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy signaling pathway is involved in cellular homeostasis, developmental processes, cellular stress responses, and immune pathways. The aim of this review is to summarize the relationship between autophagy and viruses. It is not possible to be fully comprehensive, or to provide a complete "overview of all viruses". In this review, we will focus on the interaction of autophagy and viruses and survey how human viruses exploit multiple steps in the autophagy pathway to help viral propagation and escape immune response. We discuss the role that macroautophagy plays in cells infected with hepatitis C virus, hepatitis B virus, rotavirus gastroenteritis, immune cells infected with human immunodeficiency virus, and viral respiratory tract infections both influenza virus and coronavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asghar Abdoli
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDSPasteur Institute of IranTehranIran
| | - Mehrdad Alirezaei
- Department of Immunology and Microbial ScienceThe Scripps Research InstituteLa JollaCaliforniaUSA
| | - Parvaneh Mehrbod
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses Dept.Pasteur Institute of IranTehranIran
| | - Faezeh Forouzanfar
- University of Strasbourg, EA7292, DHPIInstitute of Parasitology and Tropical Pathology StrasbourgFrance
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11
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Viret C, Rozières A, Faure M. Autophagy during Early Virus–Host Cell Interactions. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:1696-1713. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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12
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Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Autophagy and Host Innate Immune Response. Viruses 2017; 9:v9080224. [PMID: 28805674 PMCID: PMC5580481 DOI: 10.3390/v9080224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process that is important for maintaining cellular homeostasis. This pathway in hepatocytes is stimulated and controlled by the hepatitis C virus (HCV)—upon infection—to promote its own replication. HCV induces autophagy indirectly and directly through different mechanisms and temporally controls the autophagic flux. This enables the virus to maximize its replication and attenuate the innate immune responses that it activates. In this review, we discuss the relationship between HCV and autophagy, and the crosstalk between HCV-induced autophagy and host innate immune responses.
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13
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Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process by which cells remove protein aggregates and damaged organelles for recycling. It can also be used by cells to remove intracellular microbial pathogens, including viruses, in a process known as xenophagy. However, many viruses have developed mechanisms to subvert this intracellular antiviral response and even use this pathway to support their own replications. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one such virus and is an important human pathogen that can cause severe liver diseases. Recent studies indicated that HCV could activate the autophagic pathway to support its replication. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the interplay between HCV and autophagy and how this interplay affects HCV replication and host innate immune responses.
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Rey-Jurado E, Riedel CA, González PA, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. Contribution of autophagy to antiviral immunity. FEBS Lett 2015; 589:3461-70. [PMID: 26297829 PMCID: PMC7094639 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although identified in the 1960's, interest in autophagy has significantly increased in the past decade with notable research efforts oriented at understanding as to how this multi-protein complex operates and is regulated. Autophagy is commonly defined as a "self-eating" process evolved by eukaryotic cells to recycle senescent organelles and expired proteins, which is significantly increased during cellular stress responses. In addition, autophagy can also play important roles during human diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders. Furthermore, novel findings suggest that autophagy contributes to the host defense against microbial infections. In this article, we review the role of macroautophagy in antiviral immune responses and discuss molecular mechanisms evolved by viral pathogens to evade this process. A role for autophagy as an effector mechanism used both, by innate and adaptive immunity is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Rey-Jurado
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudia A Riedel
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo A González
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Susan M Bueno
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Departamento de Inmunología Clínica y Reumatología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; INSERM U1064, Nantes, France.
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15
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Abstract
The autophagy pathway represents an evolutionarily conserved cell recycling process that is activated in response to nutrient deprivation and other stress signals. Over the years, it has been linked to an array of cellular functions. Equally, a wide range of cell-intrinsic, as well as extracellular, factors have been implicated in the induction of the autophagy pathway. Microbial infections represent one such factor that can not only activate autophagy through specific mechanisms but also manipulate the response to the invading microbe’s advantage. Moreover, in many cases, particularly among viruses, the pathway has been shown to be intricately involved in the replication cycle of the pathogen. Conversely, autophagy also plays a role in combating the infection process, both through direct destruction of the pathogen and as one of the key mediating factors in the host defense mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity. Further, the pathway also plays a role in controlling the pathogenesis of infectious diseases by regulating inflammation. In this review, we discuss various interactions between pathogens and the cellular autophagic response and summarize the immunological functions of the autophagy pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayura Desai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Rong Fang
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Jiaren Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, USA
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Autophagy in HCV infection: keeping fat and inflammation at bay. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:265353. [PMID: 25162004 PMCID: PMC4138948 DOI: 10.1155/2014/265353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is one of the main causes of chronic liver disease. Viral persistence and pathogenesis rely mainly on the ability of HCV to deregulate specific host processes, including lipid metabolism and innate immunity. Recently, autophagy has emerged as a cellular pathway, playing a role in several aspects of HCV infection. This review summarizes current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms that link the HCV life cycle with autophagy machinery. In particular, we discuss the role of HCV/autophagy interaction in dysregulating inflammation and lipid homeostasis and its potential for translational applications in the treatment of HCV-infected patients.
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García A, Feng Y, Parry NMA, McCabe A, Mobley MW, Lertpiriyapong K, Whary MT, Fox JG. Helicobacter pylori infection does not promote hepatocellular cancer in a transgenic mouse model of hepatitis C virus pathogenesis. Gut Microbes 2013; 4:577-90. [PMID: 23929035 PMCID: PMC3928167 DOI: 10.4161/gmic.26042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infect millions of people and can induce cancer. We investigated if H. pylori infection promoted HCV-associated liver cancer. Helicobacter-free C3B6F1 wild-type (WT) and C3B6F1-Tg(Alb1-HCVN)35Sml (HT) male and female mice were orally inoculated with H. pylori SS1 or sterile media. Mice were euthanized at ~12 mo postinoculation and samples were collected for analyses. There were no significant differences in hepatocellular tumor promotion between WT and HT mice; however, HT female mice developed significantly larger livers with more hepatic steatosis than WT female mice. H. pylori did not colonize the liver nor promote hepatocellular tumors in WT or HT mice. In the stomach, H. pylori induced more corpus lesions in WT and HT female mice than in WT and HT male mice, respectively. The increased corpus pathology in WT and HT female mice was associated with decreased gastric H. pylori colonization, increased gastric and hepatic interferon gamma expression, and increased serum Th1 immune responses against H. pylori. HT male mice appeared to be protected from H. pylori-induced corpus lesions. Furthermore, during gastric H. pylori infection, HT male mice were protected from gastric antral lesions and hepatic steatosis relative to WT male mice and these effects were associated with increased serum TNF-α. Our findings indicate that H. pylori is a gastric pathogen that does not promote hepatocellular cancer and suggest that the HCV transgene is associated with amelioration of specific liver and gastric lesions observed during concurrent H. pylori infection in mice.
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Marchal JA, Carrasco E, Ramirez A, Jiménez G, Olmedo C, Peran M, Agil A, Conejo-García A, Cruz-López O, Campos JM, García MÁ. Bozepinib, a novel small antitumor agent, induces PKR-mediated apoptosis and synergizes with IFNα triggering apoptosis, autophagy and senescence. Drug Des Devel Ther 2013; 7:1301-13. [PMID: 24194639 PMCID: PMC3815003 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s51354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bozepinib [(RS)-2,6-dichloro-9-[1-(p-nitrobenzenesulfonyl)-1,2,3,5-tetrahydro-4,1-benzoxazepin-3-yl]-9H-purine] is a potent antitumor compound that is able to induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells. In the present study, we show that bozepinib also has antitumor activity in colon cancer cells, showing 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values lower than those described for breast cancer cells and suggesting great potential of this synthetic drug in the treatment of cancer. We identified that the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is a target of bozepinib, being upregulated and activated by the drug. However, p53 was not affected by bozepinib, and was not necessary for induction of apoptosis in either breast or colon cancer cells. In addition, the efficacy of bozepinib was improved when combined with the interferon-alpha (IFNα) cytokine, which enhanced bozepinib-induced apoptosis with involvement of protein kinase PKR. Moreover, we report here, for the first time, that in combined therapy, IFNα induces a clear process of autophagosome formation, and prior treatment with chloroquine, an autophagy inhibitor, is able to significantly reduce IFNα/bozepinib-induced cell death. Finally, we observed that a minor population of caspase 3-deficient MCF-7 cells persisted during long-term treatment with lower doses of bozepinib and the bozepinib/IFNα combination. Curiously, this population showed β-galactosidase activity and a percentage of cells arrested in S phase, that was more evident in cells treated with the bozepinib/IFNα combination than in cells treated with bozepinib or IFNα alone. Considering the resistance of some cancer cells to conventional chemotherapy, combinations enhancing the diversity of the cell death outcome might succeed in delivering more effective and less toxic chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Antonio Marchal
- Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute, Centre for Biomedical Research, Spain ; Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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19
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Billerbeck E, de Jong Y, Dorner M, de la Fuente C, Ploss A. Animal models for hepatitis C. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 369:49-86. [PMID: 23463197 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-27340-7_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis C remains a global epidemic. Approximately 3 % of the world's population suffers from chronic hepatitis C, which is caused by hepatitis C virus (HCV)-a positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the Flaviviridae family. HCV has a high propensity for establishing a chronic infection. If untreated chronic HCV carriers can develop severe liver disease including fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Antiviral treatment is only partially effective, costly, and poorly tolerated. A prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine for HCV does not exist. Mechanistic studies of virus-host interactions, HCV immunity, and pathogenesis as well as the development of more effective therapies have been hampered by the lack of a suitable small animal model. Besides humans, chimpanzees are the only species that is naturally susceptible to HCV infection. While experimentation in these large primates has yielded valuable insights, ethical considerations, limited availability, genetic heterogeneity, and cost limit their utility. In search for more tractable small animal models, numerous experimental approaches have been taken to recapitulate parts of the viral life cycle and/or aspects of viral pathogenesis that will be discussed in this review. Exciting new models and improvements in established models hold promise to further elucidate our understanding of chronic HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Billerbeck
- Center for the Study of Hepatitis C, The Rockefeller University, NY, USA
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20
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Czaja MJ, Ding WX, Donohue TM, Friedman SL, Kim JS, Komatsu M, Lemasters JJ, Lemoine A, Lin JD, Ou JHJ, Perlmutter DH, Randall G, Ray RB, Tsung A, Yin XM. Functions of autophagy in normal and diseased liver. Autophagy 2013; 9:1131-58. [PMID: 23774882 DOI: 10.4161/auto.25063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy has emerged as a critical lysosomal pathway that maintains cell function and survival through the degradation of cellular components such as organelles and proteins. Investigations specifically employing the liver or hepatocytes as experimental models have contributed significantly to our current knowledge of autophagic regulation and function. The diverse cellular functions of autophagy, along with unique features of the liver and its principal cell type the hepatocyte, suggest that the liver is highly dependent on autophagy for both normal function and to prevent the development of disease states. However, instances have also been identified in which autophagy promotes pathological changes such as the development of hepatic fibrosis. Considerable evidence has accumulated that alterations in autophagy are an underlying mechanism of a number of common hepatic diseases including toxin-, drug- and ischemia/reperfusion-induced liver injury, fatty liver, viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the roles that autophagy plays in normal hepatic physiology and pathophysiology with the intent of furthering the development of autophagy-based therapies for human liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Czaja
- Department of Medicine; Marion Bessin Liver Research Center; Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Bronx, NY USA
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21
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Faure M, Lafont F. Pathogen-induced autophagy signaling in innate immunity. J Innate Immun 2013; 5:456-70. [PMID: 23652193 DOI: 10.1159/000350918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity induces rapid responses to fight invading pathogens. To eliminate intracellular bacteria or viruses, innate cellular responses lead to the production of nuclear factor-κB-dependent inflammatory cytokines, inflammasome activation, type I interferon synthesis, and/or eventually death of the infected cells. Autophagy emerged as another component of innate immunity, as it offers an immediate autonomous cell defense mechanism by degrading intracellular pathogens. In addition, autophagy participates in the regulation of immune and inflammatory cell responses. Instead of providing a comprehensive status of the art that has already been addressed elsewhere, we chose to highlight some recent issues brought up in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Faure
- International Center for Infectiology Research, Inserm U1111, CNRS UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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22
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Suppression of autophagy enhanced growth inhibition and apoptosis of interferon-β in human glioma cells. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 47:1000-10. [PMID: 23329343 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8403-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Interferon-beta (IFN-β) is a cytokine with anti-viral, anti-proliferative, and immunomodulatory effects. In this study, we investigated the effects of IFN-β on the induction of autophagy and the relationships among autophagy, growth inhibition, and apoptosis induced by IFN-β in human glioma cells. We found that IFN-β induced autophagosome formation and conversion of microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) protein, whereas it inhibited cell growth through caspase-dependent cell apoptosis. The Akt/mTOR signaling pathway was involved in autophagy induced by IFN-β. A dose- and time-dependent increase of p-ERK 1/2 expression was also observed in human glioma cells treated with IFN-β. Autophagy induced by IFN-β was suppressed when p-ERK1/2 was impaired by treatment with U0126. We also demonstrated that suppression of autophagy significantly enhanced growth inhibition and cell apoptosis induced by IFN-β, whereas inhibition of caspase-dependent cell apoptosis impaired autophagy induced by IFN-β. Collectively, these findings indicated that autophagy induced by IFN-β was associated with the Akt/mTOR and ERK 1/2 signaling pathways, and inhibition of autophagy could enhance the growth inhibitory effects of IFN-β and increase apoptosis in human glioma cells. Together, these findings support the possibility that autophagy inhibitors may improve IFN-β therapy for gliomas.
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23
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Hou L, Jie Z, Desai M, Liang Y, Soong L, Wang T, Sun J. Early IL-17 production by intrahepatic T cells is important for adaptive immune responses in viral hepatitis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2013; 190:621-9. [PMID: 23233727 PMCID: PMC3538895 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to examine the interactions among the innate and adaptive immune components of the liver parenchyma during acute viral hepatitis. Mice were i.v. infected with a recombinant adenovirus, and within the first 24 h of infection, we found a transient but significant accumulation of IL-17 and IL-23 in the liver. In vivo neutralization of these interleukins alleviated the liver injury. Further investigations showed that IL-17 neutralization halted the intrahepatic accumulation of CTLs and Th1 cells. A majority of the IL-17-producing cells in the liver were γδ T cells. Additionally, intrahepatic IL-17(+) γδ T cells, but not the IFN-γ(+) ones, preferentially expressed IL-7Rα (CD127) on their surface, which coincided with an elevation of hepatocyte-derived IL-7 at 12 h postinfection. IL-7Rα blockade in vivo severely impeded the expansion of IL-17-producing cells after viral infection. In vitro, IL-7 synergized with IL-23 and directly stimulated IL-17 production from γδ T cells in response to TCRγδ stimulation. Finally, type I IFN (IFN-I) signaling was found to be critical for hepatic IL-7 induction. Collectively, these results showed that the IFN-I/IL-7/IL-17 cascade was important in priming T cell responses in the liver. Moreover, the highly coordinated cross talk among hepatocytes and innate and adaptive immune cells played a critical role in anti-viral immunity in hepatitis.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptive Immunity
- Animals
- Female
- Hepatitis, Viral, Animal/immunology
- Hepatitis, Viral, Animal/metabolism
- Hepatitis, Viral, Animal/pathology
- Hepatocytes/immunology
- Hepatocytes/metabolism
- Interferon Type I/metabolism
- Interleukin-17/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-17/immunology
- Interleukin-23/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-23/immunology
- Interleukin-7/metabolism
- Liver/immunology
- Liver/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifei Hou
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Zuliang Jie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Mayura Desai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Yuejin Liang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Lynn Soong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
- Department of Pathology, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Tian Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
- Department of Pathology, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
| | - Jiaren Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
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Ni HM, Williams JA, Yang H, Shi YH, Fan J, Ding WX. Targeting autophagy for the treatment of liver diseases. Pharmacol Res 2012; 66:463-74. [PMID: 22871337 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway that can degrade bulk cytoplasm and superfluous or damaged organelles, such as mitochondria, to maintain cellular homeostasis. It is now known that dysregulation of autophagy can cause pathogenesis of numerous human diseases. Here, we discuss the critical roles that autophagy plays in the pathogenesis of liver diseases such as non-alcoholic and alcoholic fatty liver, drug-induced liver injury, protein aggregate-related liver diseases, viral hepatitis, fibrosis, aging and liver cancer. In particular, we discuss the emerging therapeutic potential by pharmacological modulation of autophagy for these liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Min Ni
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, United States
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25
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Abstract
The liver has vital metabolic and clearance functions that involve the uptake of nutrients, waste products and pathogens from the blood. In addition, its unique immunoregulatory functions mediated by local expression of co-inhibitory receptors and immunosuppressive mediators help to prevent inadvertent organ damage. However, these tolerogenic properties render the liver an attractive target site for pathogens. Although most pathogens that reach the liver via the blood are eliminated or controlled by local innate and adaptive immune responses, some pathogens (such as hepatitis viruses) can escape immune control and persist in hepatocytes, causing substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. Here, we review our current knowledge of the mechanisms of liver targeting by pathogens and describe the interplay between pathogens and host factors that promote pathogen elimination and maintain organ integrity or that allow pathogen persistence.
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26
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Thoen LFR, Guimarães ELM, Dollé L, Mannaerts I, Najimi M, Sokal E, van Grunsven LA. A role for autophagy during hepatic stellate cell activation. J Hepatol 2011; 55:1353-60. [PMID: 21803012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2011.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Autophagy is a metabolic process that degrades and recycles intracellular organelles and proteins with many connections to human disease and physiology. We studied the role of autophagy during hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, a key event in liver fibrogenesis. METHODS Analysis of the autophagic flux during in vitro activation of primary mouse HSCs was performed using a DsRed-GFP-LC3B encoding plasmid. The effect of autophagy inhibition by bafilomycin A1 on the in vitro activation process of human and mouse HSCs was examined by measuring proliferation, presence of activation markers by RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, and Western blotting. Analysis of lipid droplet and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 beta (LC3B) colocalization in the presence of PDGF-BB was investigated by immunocytochemistry. RESULTS A significant increased autophagic flux was observed during culture induced mouse HSC activation. Treatment of mouse HSCs and human HSCs with autophagy inhibitor bafilomycin A1 results in a significant decreased proliferation and expression of activation markers. In addition, lipid droplets and LC3B colocalization was increased after PDGF-BB treatment in quiescent HSCs. CONCLUSIONS During HSC activation, autophagic flux is increased. The demonstration of partly inhibition of in vitro HSC activation after treatment with an autophagy inhibitor unveils a potential new therapeutic strategy for liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien F R Thoen
- Department of Cell Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, Brussels 1090, Belgium
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Sun J, Desai MM, Soong L, Ou JHJ. IFN-α/β and autophagy: tug-of-war between HCV and the host. Autophagy 2011; 7:1394-6. [PMID: 21997372 DOI: 10.4161/auto.7.11.17514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infects approximately 130 million people worldwide. The clinical sequelae of this chronic disease include cirrhosis, functional failure and carcinoma of the liver. HCV induces autophagy, a fundamental cellular process for maintaining homeostasis and mediating innate immune response, and also inhibits autophagic protein degradation and suppresses antiviral immunity. In addition to this ploy, the HCV serine protease composed of the viral non-structural proteins 3/4A (NS3/4A) can enzymatically digest two cellular proteins, mitochondria-associated anti-viral signaling protein (MAVS) and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain containing adaptor inducing IFN-β (TRIF). Since these two proteins are the adaptor molecules in the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and TLR3 pathways, respectively, their cleavage has been suggested as a pivotal mechanism by which HCV blunts the IFN-α/β signaling and antiviral responses. Thus far, how HCV perturbs autophagy and copes with IFN-α/β in the liver remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaren Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, USA.
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