The effects of aflatoxin on the reproductive system of roosters

Aflatoxin B1 exposure deteriorates immune abnormalities in a BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mouse model of autism by increasing inflammatory mediators' production in CD19-expressing cells

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficiencies in communication, repetitive and stereotyped behavioral patterns, and difficulties in reciprocal social engagement. The presence of immunological dysfunction in ASD has been well established. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a prevalent mycotoxin found in food and feed, causing immune toxicity and hepatotoxicity. AFB1 is significantly elevated in several regions around the globe. Existing research indicates that prolonged exposure to AFB1 results in neurological problems. The BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mice, which were used as an autism model, exhibit the primary behavioral traits that define ASD, such as repeated, stereotyped behaviors and impaired social interactions. The main objective of this work was to assess the toxic impact of AFB1 in BTBR mice. This work aimed to examine the effects of AFB1 on the expression of Notch-1, IL-6, MCP-1, iNOS, GM-CSF, and NF-κB p65 by CD19+ B cells in the spleen of the BTBR using flow cytometry. We also verified the impact of AFB1 exposure on the mRNA expression levels of Notch-1, IL-6, MCP-1, iNOS, GM-CSF, and NF-κB p65 in the brain of BTBR mice using real-time PCR. The findings of our study showed that the mice treated with AFB1 in the BTBR group exhibited a substantial increase in the presence of CD19+Notch-1+, CD19+IL-6+, CD19+MCP-1+, CD19+iNOS+, CD19+GM-CSF+, and CD19+NF-κB p65+ compared to the mice in the BTBR group that were treated with saline. Our findings also confirmed that administering AFB1 to BTBR mice leads to elevated mRNA expression levels of Notch-1, IL-6, MCP-1, iNOS, GM-CSF, and NF-κB p65 in the brain, in comparison to BTBR mice treated with saline. The data highlight that exposure to AFB1 worsens immunological abnormalities by increasing the expression of inflammatory mediators in BTBR mice.

Pathological effects of feeding aflatoxin-contaminated feed on immune status and reproductive performance of juvenile white leghorn males and its mitigation with ∝-tocopherol and Moringa oleifera

This study was planned to detect the adverse pathological consequences of aflatoxin B1 in White Leghorn (WLH) layer breeder males. Eight-week-old male layer cockerels were separated into six experimental categories: A group was kept as negative control, offered with normal feed only; group B was fed with 400 ppb amount of aflatoxin, while groups F and D fed with normal feed and supplemented with vitamin E 100 ppm and 1% Moringa oleifera, respectively, whereas groups E and C were fed with 400 ppb aflatoxin containing feed and ameliorated with vitamin E 100 ppm and 1% Moringa oleifera, respectively. This study was continued for 2 months and immunologic disorders and reproductive parameters were observed during the trial. To find out immunological status lymphoproliferative response to phytohemagglutinin-P (PHA-P), antibody titers against sheep red blood cells (SRBCs) and carbon clear assay were performed by collecting samples from five birds from each group. The whole data was measured by ANOVA test, and group means were compared by DMR test by using M-Stat C software. Regarding the reproductive status, spermatogenesis, blood testosterone level, testes weight, testes histology, sperm motility, and morphology were negatively affected by aflatoxins, but these deviations positively ameliorated by vitamin E and Moringa. Vitamin E and Moringa found advantageous in boosting the immune status of affected bird. All the immunological parameters including antibody titers against sheed red blood cells, lymphoproliferative response to avian tuberculin and phagocytic potential of macrophages were suppressed by AFB1 however in control, Moringa and vitamin E groups these immunological responses were significantly higher.

The protective effect of 3-indolepropanoic acid on aflatoxin B1-induced systemic perturbation of the liver and kidney function in rats

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is known to derange the hepatorenal system by redox, DNA adduct formation and apoptotic networks. Endogenous 3-indole propionic acid (3-IPA) is a metabolite of tryptophan metabolism by gut microbiota that can protect against redox imbalance, inflammation and cellular lipid damage. We investigated the beneficial effect of 3-IPA against AFB1-mediated organ toxicity in male rats post 28 days of consecutive treatment. The 3-IPA (25 and 50 mg/kg) was orally administered alongside AFB1 (50 μg/kg) treatment. Biochemical and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were utilised to examine biomarkers of hepatorenal function, oxidative status and inflammation. DNA damage and apoptosis were also assessed, and histological staining techniques were used to investigate hepatorenal tissues for pathological indicators. The 3-IPA supplementation abated AFB1-mediated increases in biomarkers of hepatic and renal dysfunction in rat serum. Co-administration of 3-IPA further reduced AFB1-induced redox imbalance (by upregulating antioxidant mediators and enzymes [GSH, TSH, Trx, Trx-R, SOD, CAT, GPx and GST]; reducing reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation and DNA adduct [RONS, LPO and 8-OH-dG] formation; suppressing pro-inflammatory and apoptotic mediators [XO, MPO, NO, IL-1β and Casp -9 and -3]; and upregulating the level of interleukin 10 (IL-10). Moreover, treatment with 3-IPA lessened hepatorenal tissue injuries. These findings suggest that augmenting 3-IPA endogenously from tryptophan metabolism may provide a novel strategy to forestall xenobiotics-mediated hepatorenal toxicity, including AFB1.

Mitigative Potential of Novel <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> TISTR 2076 against the Aflatoxins-Associated Oxidative Stress and Histopathological Alterations in Liver and Kidney of Broiler Chicks during the Entire Growth Period

Aflatoxins are the secondary metabolites produced by <i>Aspergillus flavus</i> and <i>Aspergillus parasiticus</i> and have severe pathological effects on the health of human and animals. The present study was designed to investigate the toxicopathological changes induced by aflatoxins and mitigative potential of <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> in broiler birds. One hundred and eighty broiler chicks at one day of age was procured from the local market, and chicks were equally divided into six groups with thirty birds in each group. These birds were treated with aflatoxins (300 and 600 µg/kg) and <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> (1 × 10⁸ cfu/kg of feed) in different combinations. The first group was kept as the control, and only a basal diet was provided to birds (BD). In the second group (AF1), the first level of aflatoxins (300 µg/kg) was fed to the birds. In the third group (AF2), the second level of aflatoxins (600 µg/kg) was fed to birds. In the fourth group (AF1LP), <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> was given with first level of aflatoxins. In the fifth group (AF2LP), <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> was given with the second level of aflatoxins, and in the 6th group (BDLP), <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> alone was fed to the chicks. This experimental study was continued for 42 days. Birds were slaughtered after 42 days, and different parameters were assessed. Parameters studied were gain in body weight, organ weight along with some histopathological, hematological, biochemical parameters and residues of aflatoxins in liver and kidney. <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> improved the body weight gain and restored the relative organ weight. Hepatic and renal biomarkers returned to normal concentrations, serum proteins were restored in combination group AF1LP, and partial amelioration was observed in the AF2LP group. Red blood cells, white blood cells, hemoglobin centration and packed cell volume became normalized in the AF1LP group, while partial amelioration was observed in the AF2LP group. LP also reduced the concentration of aflatoxin residues in liver kidney and improved the TAC concentrations. The results of this study elucidated the mitigative potential of <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i> against serum biochemical, histopathological, hematological and toxicopathological changes induced by aflatoxins in the chicks.

Aflatoxin B1 exposure disrupts organelle distribution in mouse oocytes

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a secondary metabolite produced by the fungus Aspergillus, which is ubiquitous in moldy grain products. Aflatoxin B1 has been reported to possess hepatotoxicity, renal toxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Previous studies have shown that AFB1 is toxic to mammalian oocytes. However, the potential toxicity of AFB1 on the organelles of mouse oocytes is unknown. In this study, we found that exposure to AFB1 significantly reduced mouse oocyte development capacity. Further analysis showed that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) failed to accumulate around the spindle, and scattered in the cytoplasm under AFB1 exposure. Similar to the ER, the Golgi apparatus showed a uniform localization pattern following AFB1 treatment. In addition, we found that AFB1 exposure caused the condensation of lysosomes in the cytoplasm, presenting as a clustered or spindle peripheral-localization pattern, which indicated that protein modification, transport, and degradation were affected. Mitochondrial distribution was also altered by AFB1 treatment. In summary, our study showed that AFB1 exposure had toxic effects on the distribution of mouse oocyte organelles, which further led to a decline in oocyte quality.

Caffeic acid mitigates aflatoxin B1-mediated toxicity in the male rat reproductive system by modulating inflammatory and apoptotic responses, testicular function, and the redox-regulatory systems

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB₁ ) is a toxic metabolite of public health concern. The present study investigates the protective effects of caffeic acid (CA) against AFB₁ -induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the hypothalamus, epididymis, and testis of male rats. Five experimental rat cohorts (n = 6) were treated per os for 28 consecutive days as follows: Control (Corn oil 2 ml/kg body weight), AFB1 alone (50μg/kg), CA alone (40 mg/kg) and the co-treated rat cohorts (AFB₁ : 50μg/kg + CA1: 20 or 40 mg/kg). Following sacrifice, the biomarkers of hypothalamic, epididymal, and testicular toxicities, antioxidant enzyme activities, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, as well as levels of nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen and nitrogen (RONS) species and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were analysed spectrophotometrically. Besides, the concentration of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), Bcl-2 and Bax proteins were assessed using ELISA. Results showed that the AFB₁ -induced decrease in biomarkers of testicular, epididymal and hypothalamic toxicity was significantly (p < .05) alleviated in rats coexposed to CA. Moreover, the reduction of antioxidant status and the increase in RONS and LPO were lessened (p < .05) in rats co-treated with CA. AFB₁ mediated increase in TNF-α, Bax, NO and MPO activity were reduced (p< .05) in the hypothalamus, epididymis, and testis of rats coexposed to CA. In addition, Bcl-2 levels were reduced in rats treated with CA dose-dependently. Light microscopic examination showed that histopathological lesions severity induced by AFB₁ were alleviated in rats coexposed to CA. Taken together, the amelioration of AFB₁ -induced neuronal and reproductive toxicities by CA involves anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic mechanisms in rats. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The beneficial antioxidant effects of caffeic acid (CA) are attributed to CA delocalized aromatic rings and free electrons, easily donated to stabilize reactive oxygen species. We report in vivo findings on CA and AfB1 mediated oxidative stress and reproductive dysfunction in rats. CA conjugated esters including chlorogenic acids are widely distributed in plants, and they act as a dietary source of natural defense against infections. CA can chelate heavy metals and reduce production of damaging free radicals to cellular macromolecules. Along these lines, CA can stabilize aflatoxin B1-epoxide as well and avert deleterious conjugates from forming with deoxyribonucleic acids. Hence CA, as a dietary phytochemical can protect against the damaging effects of toxins including aflatoxin B1 that contaminate food. CA dose-dependently abated oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic stimuli, improved functional characteristics of spermatozoa and reproductive hormone levels, and prevented histological alterations in experimental rats' hypothalamus and reproductive organs brought about by AFB1 toxicity.

Mycotoxins binder supplementation alleviates aflatoxin B1 toxic effects on the immune response and intestinal barrier function in broilers

This experiment was conducted to evaluate whether a commercial mycotoxins-binder, XL, could effectively attenuate the negative effects of Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) on growth performance, immunological function, and intestinal health in birds. Two hundred forty 1-day-old Arbor Acres broiler chickens were randomly divided into 4 treatments using a 2 × 2 factorial randomized design with 2 levels of dietary mycotoxins binder (0 or 2g /kg) and 2 AFB₁ supplemented levels (0 or 200 μg/kg) from 0 to 42 d. Results showed that AFB₁ exposure impaired growth performance by decreasing BWG in 1–21 d and 1–42 d, decreasing FI in 1–21 d, increasing FCR in 1–21 d and 1–42 d (P < 0.05). Broilers fed AFB₁- contaminated diet impaired the immune function, as evident by decreasing IgA contents, Newcastle disease antibody titers in serum, and sIgA contents of jejunal mucosa at 21 d (P < 0.05). On the other hand, AFB₁ challenge significantly increased the gene expression of proinflammatory factors in spleen at 21 d and liver at 42 d, and significantly decreased claudin-1 expression at 42 d and occludin expression at 21 d, and increased claudin-2 at 21 d in jejunum of broiler chickens (P < 0.05) compared to the basal diet group. Dietary XL supplementation significantly decreased the gene expression of IL-6 in spleen at 21 d and IL-1β in liver at 42 d, cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) expression in liver at 21 d of broilers (P < 0.05) compared with the nonsupplemented birds, regardless of AFB₁ challenged or not. Inclusion of 2 g/kg XL increased serum ALB at 42 d, IgM and IgA at 42 d, Newcastle disease antibody titer level at 35 d (P < 0.05). Dietary XL addition enhanced intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of claudin-1 at 21 d and Occludin at 42 d (P < 0.05) in jejunum. Conclusively, 2 g/kg mycotoxins-binder can relieve the toxic effect of AFB₁ on broilers.

Expression of cyclin D1, p21, and estrogen receptor alpha in aflatoxin G1-induced disturbance in testicular tissue of albino mice

Background and purpose

Aflatoxin (AF) is a mycotoxin produced by various strains of the Aspergillus family. AFG1 as one of the most important types is highly found in cereals and grains. AF affects sperm production or even its quality. This study was designed to test the effects of AFG1 on mice testicular tissue.

Experimental approach

Twenty-four Albino mice were divided into four groups of 6 each; a control group (0.2 mL corn oil and ethanol), three treatment groups with different periods (20 μg/kg AFG1 for 7, 15, and 35 consecutive days). All treatments were applied intraperitoneally. Biosynthesis of cyclin D1, p21, and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) proteins was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. Levels of cyclin D1, p21, and ERα mRNA were evaluated by the real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique. Tubular differentiation index (TDI), reproductive index (RI), and spermiogenesis indices were also analyzed.

Findings/Results

AFG1 increased the percentage of seminiferous tubules with negative TDI, RI, and SPI compared to the control group (P < 0.05). RT-PCR and IHC analyses illustrated time-dependent enhancement in p21 expression and cyclin D1 biosynthesis in AFG1-treated groups significantly (P < 0.05). While the protein and mRNA levels of ERα were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in a time-dependent manner.

Conclusion and implications

The chronic exposure to AFG1 reduced the expression and synthesis of ERα, increased the expression and synthesis of p21 and cyclin D1, impaired apoptosis, which in turn could impair spermatogenesis.

Anti-mycotoxigenic properties of probiotic Bacillus spp. in Japanese quails

The current study was conducted to evaluate the anti-mycotoxigenic effects of previously isolated Bacillus spp. in Japanese quails. A total of 240-day-old Japanese quails were assigned in to six treatments and four replicates. Dietary treatments included the following: negative control (basal diet), positive control (basal diet + 2.5 ppm afltatoxin B₁), probiotic treatments (basal diet + 2.5 ppm afltatoxin B₁), and 10⁸ cfu/ml of different Bacillus spp. (B. megaterium, B. subtilis, or B. laterosporus) in drinking water and treatment P (basal diet + 2.5 ppm afltatoxin B₁ and 2.5 ppm Polysorb®). Body weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were not affected by dietary treatments (P > 0.05). Carcass yield significantly increased in B. megaterium and B. subtilis treatments compared with positive control. Supplementation of B. megaterium significantly increased testes, uterus and oviduct weights, skin response to 2,4-dinitro 1-chlorobenzene and phytohemagglutinin, and antibody production against sheep red blood cells (P < 0.05). B. megaterium could significantly increase bursa weight and decrease liver weight compared with positive control (P < 0.05). B. megaterium, B. laterosporus, and Polysorb treatments significantly decreased H:L and aspartate aminotransferase activity in aflatoxin B₁ fed control (P < 0.05). B. megaterium and B. laterosporus significantly increased tibia weight, length, radius, index, and ash content compared with positive control (P < 0.05). All dietary additives significantly reduced meat oxidation, total aerobic bacteria, and spore forming bacteria of ileal content compared with positive control (P < 0.05). Ileal lactic acid bacteria significantly increased in B. megaterium treatment (P < 0.05). Totally, B. megaterium might be a promising probiotic with a comparable afltatoxin B₁ removal potential to commercial toxin binder (Polysorb).

Red-Crowned Crane (Grus japonensis) Reproduction Was Improved by Inhibiting Mycotoxins with Montmorillonite in Feed

The red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) is a vulnerable bird species. Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by filamentous fungi and are considered as naturally unavoidable contaminants in animal feed. Our recent survey indicated that feeds designed for captive red-crowned cranes were contaminated with mycotoxins. This study was conducted to investigate the protective effects of the mycotoxin binder montmorillonite on the reproductive behavior, sex hormone levels, and egg quality of red-crowned cranes. Twelve pairs of G. japonensis were divided into four groups, and each group was fed one of the following: a selected diet (with extra low levels of mycotoxins), a regular diet, a selected diet with 0.5% montmorillonite added, or a regular diet with 0.5% montmorillonite added. Consumption of the regular diet decreased courtship and mating behaviors, testosterone concentration, egg weight, and shell thickness. However, feed supplementation with montmorillonite increased the courtship, mating behaviors and testosterone concentration during the pre-breeding period, as well as egg weight and shell thickness. These findings suggest that the addition of dietary montmorillonite is effective for controlling mycotoxins in the feed, resulting in improvements in reproductive behaviors, testosterone concentrations, and some egg quality parameters of the red-crowned crane.

Effects of aflatoxin B1 on reproductive performance of farmed Nile tilapia

This study evaluated the effect of dietary aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) on growth, milt and egg quality in matured Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Triplicate groups of Nile tilapia (initial body weight 24.1 ± 2.6 g) were fed with either of four diets (Diets 1 to 4) designed to contain 0, 20, 200 and 2000 μg AFB₁ kg⁻¹ diets for 24 weeks. After 24 weeks of AFB₁ exposure, growth was significantly (P <0.05) different between the control and the AFB₁ exposed treatments in both sexes. No significant differences were observed in 17β-oestradiol, absolute fecundity, oocytes volume and diameters between AFB₁ exposure groups and the control group. However, we observed a significant reduction in relative fecundity and gonad somatic index (GSI) in females fed 2000 μg AFB₁ kg⁻¹ diet. On the other hand, we observed significant differences (P <0.05) in gonadosomatic index (GSI), testosterone, milt count and motility between males in the control group and AFB₁ treatments. We conclude that rearing Nile tilapia with aflatoxin-contaminated diets for a prolonged period affects milt quality, fecundity (at higher doses) and growth performance. This implies that for optimal seed production, provision of aflatoxin free diets should be part of the management practices in Nile tilapia hatcheries.

Harmful Effects and Control Strategies of Aflatoxin B₁ Produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus Strains on Poultry: Review

The presence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in poultry diets decreases the hatchability, hatchling weight, growth rate, meat and egg production, meat and egg quality, vaccination efficiency, as well as impairing the feed conversion ratio and increasing the susceptibility of birds to disease and mortality. AFB₁ is transferred from poultry feed to eggs, meat, and other edible parts, representing a threat to the health of consumers because AFB₁ is carcinogenic and implicated in human liver cancer. This review considers how AFB₁ produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus strains can affect the immune system, antioxidant defense system, digestive system, and reproductive system in poultry, as well as its effects on productivity and reproductive performance. Nutritional factors can offset the effects of AFB₁ in poultry and, thus, it is necessary to identify and select suitable additives to address the problems caused by AFB₁ in poultry.

Encapsulation of cinnamon essential oil in whey protein enhances the protective effect against single or combined sub-chronic toxicity of fumonisin B1 and/or aflatoxin B1 in rats

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) are fungal metabolites that frequently co-occur in foodstuffs and are responsible for mycotoxicosis and several primary cancers. Cinnamon essential oil (CEO) has a spacious range of benefit effects but also has some limitations owing to its strong taste or its interaction with some drugs. This study aimed to use the cinnamon oil emulsion droplets (COED) for the protection against oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity in male Sprague-Dawley rats sub-chronically exposed to FB₁ and/or AFB₁. The composition of CEO was identified using GC-MS then was encapsulated using whey protein as wall material. Male rats were divided into eight groups and treated orally for 8 weeks as follows: control group, AFB₁-trreated group (80 μg/kg b.w), FB₁-treated group (100 mg/kg b.w), FB₁ plus AFB₁-treated group, and the groups treated with COED plus FB₁ and/or AFB₁. Blood and samples of the kidney, liver, and testis were collected for different analysis and histopathological examination. The GC-MS analysis revealed that cinnamaldehyde, α-copaene, trans-cinnamaldehyde, caryophyllene, and delta-cadinene were the main compounds in COE. The average size of COED was 235 ± 1.4 nm and the zeta potential was - 6.24 ± 0.56. Treatment with FB₁ and/or AFB₁ induced significant disturbances in the serum biochemical analysis, oxidative stress parameters, DNA fragmentation, gene expression, and testosterone and severe pathological changes in the tested organs. Moreover, treatment with both mycotoxins induced synergistic toxic effects. COED did not induce toxic effects and could normalize the majority of the tested parameters and improve the histological picture in rats treated with FB₁ and/or AFB₁. It could be concluded that COED induce potential protective effects against the single or combined exposure to FB₁ and AFB₁.

Human Microglial Cells Undergo Proapoptotic Induction and Inflammatory Activation upon in vitro Exposure to a Naturally Occurring Level of Aflatoxin B1

OBJECTIVE

Knowledge regarding interactions of AFB1 with the human nervous system and how a naturally occurring level of AFB1 could potentially induce neuroimmune dysregulation is very limited. To assess the cellular effects of AFB1 on the human brain, we used the human microglia cell line CHME5 as a model to pinpoint its potential in vivo translation.

METHODS

We used the CHME5 cell line culture system, multiplex qPCR, (chemi)bioluminescence, Luminex ELISA, and flow cytometry assays to evaluate the toxic effects of a naturally occurring level of AFB1 on human microglia.

RESULTS

A low concentration of AFB1 upregulates the mRNA expression of many proinflammatory molecules, such as TLRs, MyD88, NFκB, and CxCr4, induces intracellular ATP depletion, and increases caspase-3/7 activity at different time points following exposure to the toxin. Furthermore, AFB1-exposed microglia secreted significantly higher levels of IFN-γ and GM-CSF after treatment. We also observed a slight increase in the percentage of apoptotic microglia (annexin V+/PI-) at 48 h posttreatment.

CONCLUSION

Our work confirmed that the environmentally relevant level of AFB1 could cause an inflammatory reaction in human microglial cells that is potentially harmful or toxic to the homeostasis of the human central nervous system and might increase susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases.

Sex-Related Differences in Hematological Parameters and Organosomatic Indices of Oreochromis niloticus Exposed to Aflatoxin B1 Diet

A 24-week feeding experiment was conducted to assess whether males and females of Oreochromis niloticus exhibit differences in their hematological responses and organosomatic indices to dietary AFB₁ contamination. Triplicate groups of O. niloticus (initial body weight: 24.1 ± 0.6 g) were fed with four diets (Diets 1 to 4) containing 0, 20, 200, and 2,000 μg AFB₁ kg^-1. A significant decrease (P < 0.05) in hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cells (RBC), and hematocrit (Hct) was observed in AFB₁ exposure groups, with the lowest levels recorded in the 2000 μg AFB₁ kg^-1 treatment. A significant increase in mean white blood cells (WBC), neutrophils, and lymphocytes was observed in AFB₁ exposure groups. No sex-related differences in RBC, WBC, lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils levels were observed. However, hemoglobin and hematocrit values for female O. niloticus were significantly lower than those for male O. niloticus. Organosomatic indices showed that the relative liver, kidney, and spleen weights were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the AFB₁ supplemented group than in the control group. However, the effect of aflatoxin on organosomatic indices does not depend on sex but rather depends on the dose of aflatoxin in the diet. These results provide useful information for monitoring changes in the health status of male and female O. niloticus.

Nigella sativa (black cumin seed) as a biological detoxifier in diet contaminated with aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ) is a common feed contaminant that adversely affects bird performance and product quality. A total of 600 7-day-old quail chicks were randomly allotted to eight experimental groups in a completely randomized design with five replicate pens and 15 quails per pen. Experimental treatments including two levels of AFB₁ (0 and 2.5 mg/kg) and 4 levels of Nigella sativa (NS) (0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% of diet) were offered from 7 to 35 days of age to quail chicks. Although feeding of AFB₁ impaired gain (G) and feed conversion ratio, dietary NS increased G (p < 0.05). Relative weight of bursa of Fabricius increased with incremental levels of NS (p < 0.05). AFB₁ decreased the size of heart, but incremental levels of NS increased the relative weight of heart (p < 0.05). The liver hypertrophy was observed in birds receiving AFB₁ (p < 0.05). The birds in AFB₁ group had smaller testes than other groups (p < 0.05). Hematocrit value in birds fed AFB₁ was lower than that in other groups (p < 0.05) and incremental levels of NS increased blood hematocrit (p < 0.05). Amount of malondialdehyde (MDA) in meat samples of the birds fed AFB₁ was higher than those did not receive toxin but incremental levels of NS decreased the MDA concentration in affected birds (p < 0.05). AFB₁ suppressed the humoral immunity of the birds while NS augmented the antibody titres against sheep red blood cell and Newcastle disease virus antigens (p < 0.05). AFB₁ decreased lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and spore-forming bacteria (SFB) but increased Escherichia coli (E. coli; p < 0.05). However, NS increased LAB and SFB but decreased the E. coli populations (p < 0.05). This study revealed that NS as a biological detoxifier could relatively attenuate the negative effects of AFB₁ in quails.

Prenatal exposure to aflatoxin B1: developmental, behavioral, and reproductive alterations in male rats

Previous studies have shown that aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) inhibits androgen biosynthesis as a result of its ability to form a high-affinity complex with the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. The results of the present study demonstrate the postnatal effects of in utero exposure to AfB1 in the rat. Pregnant Wistar rats were given 10, 20, or 50 μg AfB1/kg body weight daily from gestation day (GD) 12 to GD 19. At parturition, newborns were observed for clinical signs and survival. All animals were born alive and initially appeared to be active. Male pups from control and AfB1-exposed animals were weaned and maintained up to postnatal day (PD) 100. Litter size, birth weight, sex ratio, survival rate, and crown-rump length of the pups were significantly decreased in AfB1-exposed rats when compared to controls. Elapsed time (days) for testes to descend into the scrotal sac was significantly delayed in experimental pups when compared to control pups. Behavioral observations such as cliff avoidance, negative geotaxis, surface rightening activity, ascending wire mesh, open field behavior, and exploratory and locomotory activities were significantly impaired in experimental pups. Body weights and the indices of testis, cauda epididymis, prostate, seminal vesicles, and liver were significantly reduced on PD 100 in male rats exposed to AfB1 during embryonic development when compared with controls. Significant reduction in the testicular daily sperm production, epididymal sperm count, and number of viable, motile, and hypo-osmotic tail coiled sperm was observed in experimental rats. The levels of serum testosterone and activity levels of testicular hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases were significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner with a significant increase in the serum follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in experimental rats. Deterioration in the testicular and cauda epididymal architecture was observed in experimental rats. The results of fertility studies revealed a significant decrease in the mating index in experimental rats with an increase in the pre- and post-implantation losses in rats mated with prenatal AfB1-exposed males, indicating poor male reproductive performance. These results indicate that in utero exposure to AfB1 severely compromised postnatal development of neonatal rats, and caused a delay in testes descent and reduction in steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis that were accomplished by suppressed reproduction at adulthood.

Renin mRNA is upregulated in testes and testicular cells in response to treatment with aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) has been shown to affect fertility in many species; however, the exact molecular mechanisms associated with the disruption are not known. Our objectives were to determine changes in testicular gene expression due to exposure to AFB(1) and to investigate which cell types were affected by treatment with AFB(1). Male mice 4 wk of age were administered a daily placebo (control; N = 9) or 50 μg/kg AFB(1) (AFB(1) treated; N = 10) daily for 45 days. Males were then mated to four females each for 8 days. Male mice were characterized as being "Tolerant" (N = 3) or "Intolerant" (N = 3) to the effects of AFB(1) based on positive terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining in the testes and the number of pups sired. Tolerant males produced a similar average number of fetuses (mean ± SEM) (12.5 ± 1.2) per male as selected control males (13.4 ± 1.2), but more fetuses (P = 0.01) than Intolerant males (7.6 ± 1.2). The number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling-positive cells in Intolerant males tended to be (P = 0.10) greater (136.5 ± 27.2) than in Tolerant (55.0 ± 22.2) and selected control (54.3 ± 22.2) males. Affymetrix microarray (Sunnyvale, CA, USA) analysis revealed differential expression (P < 0.05) of 193 extra cellular space and signaling genes, 49 signal transduction genes, 45 immune regulation genes, and 230 cell differentiation genes in the testis. Renin was commonly represented amongst many clusters and was chosen for further analyses. Upregulation (P < 0.001) of Renin in Tolerant mice (N = 3) compared with Intolerant mice (N = 3) was confirmed by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (P = 0.05). This upregulation (P = 0.01) was also observed in representative AFB(1) treated males (N = 8) compared with control males (N = 8) selected for real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. Spermatogonia cultured in vitro and treated with 0, 5, 10, or 20 μg/mL AFB(1) (N = 6 per treatment) resulted in a 10-fold upregulation (P = 0.01) of Renin message at the 20 μg/mL level, whereas Leydig tumor cells showed similar differences (P = 0.03) in message for Renin in treated (10 and 20 μg/mL) versus control cell cultures. Based on these results, we inferred a role for Renin at the molecular level in the response to the adverse effects of AFB(1) in male mice.

Evaluation of the detoxifying effect of yeast glucomannan on aflatoxicosis in broilers as assessed by gross examination and histopathology

We evaluated the efficacy of yeast glucomannan (Mycosorb), incorporated into the diet at 0.5 and 1 g/kg, in reducing the detrimental effects of 2 mg aflatoxin/kg diet on growing broiler chicks from 1 to 21 d of age. A total of 240 male broiler chicks (Ross-308) was divided into 6 treatment groups [Control, Aflatoxin (AF), Yeast glucomannan (YG; 0.5 g/kg), AF plus YG (0.5 g/kg), YG (1 g/kg), and AF plus YG (1 g/kg)]. Ten chicks from each of the 6 groups were slaughtered and pathological examinations were performed on the liver, bursa of Fabricius, thymus, spleen and kidney. The aflatoxin treatment caused moderate to severe hydropic/fatty degeneration in the hepatocytes of the liver and the tubular epithelium of the kidneys, and follicular depletion in the bursa of Fabricius, thymus and spleen. Yeast glucomannan added to the aflatoxin-containing diet at 0.5 and 1 g/kg diminished the severity of pathological changes, slightly and moderately, respectively. The number of affected organs was also reduced in the group given 1 g/kg yeast glucomannan, compared to the aflatoxin group. These results show that yeast glucomannan effectively diminished the adverse effects of aflatoxin on the pathological changes and that the higher concentration of yeast glucomannan (1 g/kg) was more effective than the lower concentration (0.5 g/kg) and itself had no adverse effect.

Phytic Acid Exposure Alters AflatoxinB1-induced Reproductive and Oxidative Toxicity in Albino Rats (Rattus norvegicus)

The increased use of feed in Egypt's aquaculture and animal industries raises concerns about the possible presence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs. The use of alternative medicine, such as botanicals and nutritional supplements, has become popular with inflammatory cases. The present study aimed to testify the role played by phytic acid (IP6) in enhancing the reproductive and oxidative toxicity induced in aflatoxinB1 (AFB1) treated white male albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) throughout treatment and withdrawal periods. One hundred and twenty white male albino rats were grouped into four groups. Group 1, was injected with 300 μg kg⁻¹ body wt of AFB1 once every 3 days for 15 days and left uninjected for another 15 days to study the withdrawal effect. Group 2, was injected with 300 μg kg⁻¹ body wt of AFB1 once every 3 days for 15 days and treated simultaneously with IP6 daily for another 15 days. Group 3, was treated daily with IP6 (40 mg kg⁻¹ body wt) for 15 days and with no treatment for other 15 days. Group 4, injected with equivalent volume of sterile phosphate buffer saline solution as a control group. Sera were taken at the experimental intervals and assayed for testosterone hormone, follicular-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) to determine the toxicological impact of AFB1 and the possibility of amelioration by phytic acid on the reproductive performance of the studied animal. The effects of AFB1 treatment on the absolute and relative weight of testis as well as its histopathologic effect on the testis and the possibility of amelioration by IP6 treatment were evaluated. The activities of enzymatic and non-enzymatic anti-oxidants, in addition to lipid peroxidation were measured in the testis’ homogenate of AFB1-treated rats. A decrease in sex hormone levels, an increase in testicular lipid peroxidation product levels and a significant decrease in testicular glutathione content, catalase and total peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities were recorded. The histopathologic alterations revealed a degeneration and highly mitotic division within the spermatogenic nuclei, in addition to some karyomegaly and nuclear pyknosis. It is concluded that the reduction in the toxicity of free radicals by phytic acid might be responsible for the protective influence observed.

Exposure of garden birds to aflatoxins in Britain

Aflatoxins are potent biological toxins that have been shown to exert a range of acute and chronic pathological effects. Multiple mortality events of waterfowl caused by acute aflatoxicosis have been documented in the USA. However, international concern has recently been expressed regarding the potential effects of chronic exposure of wildlife species to low levels of dietary aflatoxin. This study documents for the first time the presence of hepatic aflatoxin residues in British wild birds: two passerine species, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and greenfinch (Carduelis chloris). Further research is required to investigate the source of the dietary aflatoxins and their pathological significance, if any, for wild birds in Britain.

Evaluation of pathological changes in broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100 ppb) and clinoptilolite exposure

This study was conducted to evaluate the pathological changes in broilers fed a diet containing low-levels of aflatoxin (AF) and clinoptilolite (CLI) until 42 days of age. A total of 576 one-day-old Ross-308 type broiler chicks were treated with varying levels of AF and CLI (15 g kg(-1)). The gross and histopathological changes in the liver, kidneys, spleen, thymus and bursa of Fabricius were investigated and relative organ weights were calculated. Compared to controls, significant changes (P<0.05), such as slight to moderate hydropic degeneration and/or fatty change (8 cases of 10), bile-duct hyperplasia (7 of 10) and periportal fibrosis (5 of 10), were found in chicks fed 100 ppb AF-containing diet. No gross-pathological changes were observed in any treatments. The addition of CLI to the 100 ppb AF-containing diet significantly decreased the number of affected broilers and/or the severity of lesions (hydropic degeneration and bile-duct hyperplasia) in the livers (P<0.05). The addition of CLI to the AF-free diet did not produce any significant lesions compared with the controls.