Identification of a Brazil-nut allergen in transgenic soybeans

A review and outlook on expression of animal proteins in plants

This review delves into the multifaceted technologies, benefits and considerations surrounding the expression of animal proteins in plants, emphasizing its potential role in advancing global nutrition, enhancing sustainability, while being mindful of the safety considerations. As the world's population continues to grow and is projected to reach 9 billion people by 2050, there is a growing need for alternative protein sources that can meet nutritional demands while minimizing environmental impact. Plant expression of animal proteins is a cutting-edge biotechnology approach that allows crops to produce proteins traditionally derived from animals, offering a sustainable and resource-efficient manner of producing these proteins that diversifies protein production and increases food security. In the United States, it will be important for there to be clear guidance in order for these technologies to reach consumers. As consumer demand for sustainable and alternative food sources rise, biotechnologies can offer economic opportunities, making this emerging technology a key player in the market landscape.

Molecular farming navigates a complex regulatory landscape

Molecular farming, the practice of engineering plants to produce recombinant proteins, presents novel challenges and opportunities for domestic markets and international trade. This article explores the multifaceted risks associated with these biotechnological advancements, including public health concerns related to recombinant animal proteins produced in plants, cross-contamination and unintended allergens, and the necessity for stringent identity preservation systems to avoid past failures. On the global stage, the trade of such genetically engineered crops brings about unique regulatory concerns, underscoring the need for internationally harmonized policies and reevaluating existing low-level presence (LLP) thresholds to address unexpected allergens. Moreover, molecular farming ventures into complex religious and ethical territories, particularly affecting communities with strict dietary laws, such as Islamic, Jewish, and those following vegan or vegetarian lifestyles. Addressing these concerns requires a collaborative approach among scientists, regulatory bodies, industry leaders, and religious figures, aiming to foster an inclusive dialogue that navigates the ethical, religious, and environmental implications of integrating animal proteins into plant-based systems. Such efforts are essential for ensuring the responsible development of molecular farming technologies, contributing to a future of sustainable, secure, and inclusive food systems that respect diverse cultural and ethical values.

Allergic to bureaucracy? Regulatory allergenicity assessments of novel food: Motivations, challenges, compromises, and possibilities

New sources of proteins are essential to meet the demands of the growing world population and evolving food trends. Assessing the allergenicity of proteins in novel food (NF) poses a significant food safety regulatory challenge. The Codex Alimentarius Commission presented an allergenicity assessment protocol for genetically modified (GM) foods, which can also be adapted for NF. Since no single laboratory test can adequately predict the allergenic potential of NF, the protocol follows a weight-of-evidence approach, evaluated by experts, as part of a risk management process. Regulatory bodies worldwide have adopted this safety protocol, which, among other things, promotes global harmonization. This review unravels the reliability and various motivations, terms, concepts, and approaches of allergenicity assessments, aiming to enhance understanding among manufacturers and the public. Health Canada, Food Safety Commission JAPAN, and Food Standards Australia New Zealand were surveyed, focusing on the European Food Safety Authority and the US Food Safety Administration for examples of scientific opinions regarding allergenicity assessments for novel and GM foods, from 2019 to 2023. According to our findings, current regulatory allergenicity assessments for NF approval primarily rely on literature reviews. Only a few of the NF assessments proactively presented additional tests. We recommend conducting bioinformatic analyses on NF when a panel of experts deems that there is insufficient prior scientific research.

Processes for regulating genetically modified and gene edited plants

Innovation in agriculture has been essential in improving productivity of crops and forages to support a growing population, improving living standards while contributing toward maintaining environment integrity, human health, and wellbeing through provision of more nutritious, varied, and abundant food sources. A crucial part of that innovation has involved a range of techniques for both expanding and exploiting the genetic potential of plants. However, some techniques used for generating new variation for plant breeders to exploit are deemed higher risk than others despite end products of both processes at times being for all intents and purposes identical for the benefits they provide. As a result, public concerns often triggered by poor communication from innovators, resulting in mistrust and suspicion has, in turn, caused the development of a range of regulatory systems. The logic and motivations for modes of regulation used are reviewed and how the benefits from use of these technologies can be delivered more efficiently and effectively is discussed.

Genetic engineering and genome editing in plants, animals and humans: Facts and myths

Human history is inextricably linked to the introduction of desirable heritable traits in plants and animals. Selective breeding (SB) predates our historical period and has been practiced since the advent of agriculture and farming more than ten thousand years ago. Since the 1970s, methods of direct plant and animal genome manipulation are constantly being developed. These are collectively described as "genetic engineering" (GE). Plant GE aims to improve nutritional value, insect resistance and weed control. Animal GE has focused on livestock improvement and disease control. GE applications also involve medical improvements intended to treat human disease. The scientific consensus built around marketed products of GE organisms (GEOs) is usually well established, noting significant benefits and low risks. GEOs are exhaustively scrutinized in the EU and many non-EU countries for their effects on human health and the environment, but scrutiny should be equally applied to all previously untested organisms derived directly from nature or through selective breeding. In fact, there is no evidence to suggest that natural or selectively bred plants and animals are in principle safer to humans than GEOs. Natural and selectively bred strains evolve over time via genetic mutations that can be as risky to humans and the environment as the mutations found in GEOs. Thus, previously untested plant and animal strains aimed for marketing should be proven useful or harmful to humans only upon comparative testing, regardless of their origin. Highlighting the scientific consensus declaring significant benefits and rather manageable risks provided by equitably accessed GEOs, can mitigate negative predispositions by policy makers and the public. Accordingly, we provide an overview of the underlying technologies and the scientific consensus to help resolve popular myths about the safety and usefulness of GEOs.

Genetically engineered crops for sustainably enhanced food production systems

Genetic modification of crops has substantially focused on improving traits for desirable outcomes. It has resulted in the development of crops with enhanced yields, quality, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. With the advent of introducing favorable traits into crops, biotechnology has created a path for the involvement of genetically modified (GM) crops into sustainable food production systems. Although these plants heralded a new era of crop production, their widespread adoption faces diverse challenges due to concerns about the environment, human health, and moral issues. Mitigating these concerns with scientific investigations is vital. Hence, the purpose of the present review is to discuss the deployment of GM crops and their effects on sustainable food production systems. It provides a comprehensive overview of the cultivation of GM crops and the issues preventing their widespread adoption, with appropriate strategies to overcome them. This review also presents recent tools for genome editing, with a special focus on the CRISPR/Cas9 platform. An outline of the role of crops developed through CRSIPR/Cas9 in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) by 2030 is discussed in detail. Some perspectives on the approval of GM crops are also laid out for the new age of sustainability. The advancement in molecular tools through plant genome editing addresses many of the GM crop issues and facilitates their development without incorporating transgenic modifications. It will allow for a higher acceptance rate of GM crops in sustainable agriculture with rapid approval for commercialization. The current genetic modification of crops forecasts to increase productivity and prosperity in sustainable agricultural practices. The right use of GM crops has the potential to offer more benefit than harm, with its ability to alleviate food crises around the world.

Removing the major allergen Bra j I from brown mustard (Brassica juncea) by CRISPR/Cas9

Food allergies are a major health issue worldwide. Modern breeding techniques such as genome editing via CRISPR/Cas9 have the potential to mitigate this by targeting allergens in plants. This study addressed the major allergen Bra j I, a seed storage protein of the 2S albumin class, in the allotetraploid brown mustard (Brassica juncea). Cotyledon explants of an Indian gene bank accession (CR2664) and the German variety Terratop were transformed using Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboring binary vectors with multiple single guide RNAs to induce either large deletions or frameshift mutations in both Bra j I homoeologs. A total of 49 T₀ lines were obtained with up to 3.8% transformation efficiency. Four lines had large deletions of 566 up to 790 bp in the Bra j IB allele. Among 18 Terratop T₀  lines, nine carried indels in the targeted regions. From 16 analyzed CR2664 T₀  lines, 14 held indels and three had all four Bra j I alleles mutated. The majority of the CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations were heritable to T₁ progenies. In some edited lines, seed formation and viability were reduced and seeds showed a precocious development of the embryo leading to a rupture of the testa already in the siliques. Immunoblotting using newly developed Bra j I-specific antibodies revealed the amount of Bra j I protein to be reduced or absent in seed extracts of selected lines. Removing an allergenic determinant from mustard is an important first step towards the development of safer food crops.

Soybean allergy: characteristics, mechanisms, detection and its reduction through novel food processing techniques

Human beings have consumed soybean as an excellent food source for thousand years due to its rich protein, fatty acids, minerals, and fibers. However, soybeans were recognized as one of the big eight allergens resulting in allergic symptoms and even could lead to death. With the increasing demand for soybean products, the challenges caused by soybean allergy need to be solved urgently. This review detailly described the pathogenesis and clinical characteristics of soybean allergy, and also the advantages and disadvantages of four different diagnostic methods were summarized. The major soybean allergens and their structures were summarized. Three types of soybean allergy including Type I, III, and IV, which could trigger allergic reactions were reported in this review. Summary in four different diagnostic methods showed that double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge is recognized as a gold standard for diagnosing soybean allergy. Three types of processing techniques in reducing soybean allergy were discussed, and the results concluded that some novel food processing techniques such as ultrasound, cold-plasma treatment, showed potential application in the reduction of soybean allergenicity. Further, some suggestions regarding the management and treatment of food allergies were addressed in this review.

Whole-genome resequencing using next-generation and Nanopore sequencing for molecular characterization of T-DNA integration in transgenic poplar 741

BACKGROUND

The molecular characterization information of T-DNA integration is not only required by public risk assessors and regulators, but is also closely related to the expression of exogenous and endogenous genes. At present, with the development of sequencing technology, whole-genome resequencing has become an attractive approach to identify unknown genetically modified events and characterise T-DNA integration events.

RESULTS

In this study, we performed genome resequencing of Pb29, a transgenic high-resistance poplar 741 line that has been commercialized, using next-generation and Nanopore sequencing. The results revealed that there are two T-DNA insertion sites, located at 9,283,905-9,283,937 bp on chromosome 3 (Chr03) and 10,868,777-10,868,803 bp on Chr10. The accuracy of the T-DNA insertion locations and directions was verified using polymerase chain reaction amplification. Through sequence alignment, different degrees of base deletions were detected on the T-DNA left and right border sequences, and in the flanking sequences of the insertion sites. An unknown fragment was inserted between the Chr03 insertion site and the right flanking sequence, but the Pb29 genome did not undergo chromosomal rearrangement. It is worth noting that we did not detect the API gene in the Pb29 genome, indicating that Pb29 is a transgenic line containing only the BtCry1AC gene. On Chr03, the insertion of T-DNA disrupted a gene encoding TAF12 protein, but the transcriptional abundance of this gene did not change significantly in the leaves of Pb29. Additionally, except for the gene located closest to the T-DNA integration site, the expression levels of four other neighboring genes did not change significantly in the leaves of Pb29.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides molecular characterization information of T-DNA integration in transgenic poplar 741 line Pb29, which contribute to safety supervision and further extensive commercial planting of transgenic poplar 741.

Challenges of automation and scale: Bioinformatics and the evaluation of proteins to support genetically modified product safety assessments

Bioinformatic analyses of protein sequences play an important role in the discovery and subsequent safety assessment of insect control proteins in Genetically Modified (GM) crops. Due to the rapid adoption of high-throughput sequencing methods over the last decade, the number of protein sequences in GenBank and other public databases has increased dramatically. Many of these protein sequences are the product of whole genome sequencing efforts, coupled with automated protein sequence prediction and annotation pipelines. Published genome sequencing studies provide a rich and expanding foundation of new source organisms and proteins for insect control or other desirable traits in GM products. However, data generated by automated pipelines can also confound regulatory safety assessments that employ bioinformatics. Largely this issue does not arise due to underlying sequence, but rather its annotation or associated metadata, and the downstream integration of that data into existing repositories. Observations made during bioinformatic safety assessments are described.

Plant Biosystems Design Research Roadmap 1.0

Human life intimately depends on plants for food, biomaterials, health, energy, and a sustainable environment. Various plants have been genetically improved mostly through breeding, along with limited modification via genetic engineering, yet they are still not able to meet the ever-increasing needs, in terms of both quantity and quality, resulting from the rapid increase in world population and expected standards of living. A step change that may address these challenges would be to expand the potential of plants using biosystems design approaches. This represents a shift in plant science research from relatively simple trial-and-error approaches to innovative strategies based on predictive models of biological systems. Plant biosystems design seeks to accelerate plant genetic improvement using genome editing and genetic circuit engineering or create novel plant systems through de novo synthesis of plant genomes. From this perspective, we present a comprehensive roadmap of plant biosystems design covering theories, principles, and technical methods, along with potential applications in basic and applied plant biology research. We highlight current challenges, future opportunities, and research priorities, along with a framework for international collaboration, towards rapid advancement of this emerging interdisciplinary area of research. Finally, we discuss the importance of social responsibility in utilizing plant biosystems design and suggest strategies for improving public perception, trust, and acceptance.

Genetically modified foods and food allergy

Genetic modification of foods is one of the many ways of processing that can enhance foods to increase desirable qualities, such as herbicide tolerance, bacteria and insect resistance, improved nutritional value, and delayed ripening. However, a theoretical potential to increase the allergenicity of food proteins has been the subject of concern from critics. To prevent adverse effects from genetically modified (GM) crops, national and international organizations tightly regulate their production and recommend rigorous safety testing. Some safety tests were developed to assess potential allergenicity by studying the product's similarity to known allergenic proteins, its resistance to pepsin digestion, and its binding to immunoglobulin E (IgE) from sera of patients with known relevant allergies. To date, these safety assessments have only identified rare GM foods with the potential to lead to immunologic reactions. These foods were stopped from being marketed commercially, and the products on the market now have passed required safety assessments. The rise in the prevalence of food allergy preceded the commercialization of GM foods and has also occurred in countries with limited access to GM crops, which highlights a lack of causative association between the two. Several studies provided further reassurance with no evidence of higher potency in specific IgE binding to GM foods. There are no studies that demonstrate adverse reactions due to GM food consumption, and GM foods may have the beneficial potential to silence major allergenic proteins. Therefore, physicians and other health-care professionals should counsel patients that the scientific data do not support an increased risk of allergic responses to GM foods.

Evaluating the potential allergenicity of dietary proteins using model strong to non-allergenic proteins in germ-free mice

Currently no validated animal model is predictive of human responses in ranking purified dietary proteins in the prevalence or potency of food allergy in humans. Since the gastrointestinal microbiota is thought to influence oral tolerance, we hypothesize that a germ-free mouse model will more accurately predict atopic human responses than conventional mice. Germ-free C3H/HeN mice were immunized with 60 μg Ara h 2, BLG, or LOX by three weekly intraperitoneal (IP) injections with alum adjuvant. One week following the final immunization an IP challenge of 500 μg of Ara h 2, BLG, or LOX was administered. Thirty minutes post-challenge clinical scores were graded and body temperatures recorded. The presence of protein-specific IgE and mast cell protease concentrations in mouse sera were determined using ELISA. Upon challenge germ-free mice sensitized with Ara h 2 and BLG exhibited significantly more severe clinical scores compared to germ-free mice immunized with LOX. Hypothermic responses in challenged mice differed between the three proteins post-challenge. Results indicate that this model can differentiate between potent and non-allergens based on temperature drop, clinical scores, and biomarkers. Additional proteins with known human exposure and allergenicity are needed to confirm the predictive accuracy.

Soy and Isoflavone Consumption and Multiple Health Outcomes: Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Observational Studies and Randomized Trials in Humans

SCOPE

To assess the existing evidence of associations between consumption of soy and isoflavone and multiple health outcomes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This is an umbrella review of meta-analyses and systematic reviews of randomized trials and observational studies in humans. 114 Meta-analyses and systematic reviews are identified with 43 unique outcomes. Soy and isoflavone consumption seems more beneficial than harmful for a series of health outcomes. Beneficial associations are identified for cancers, cardiovascular disease, gynecological, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine, neurological, and renal outcomes, particularly in perimenopausal women. Harmful association is only found for gastric cancer (RR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.02-1.36) for high intake of miso soup (1-5 cups per day) in male.

CONCLUSION

Generally, soy and isoflavone consumption is more beneficial than harmful. The results herein support promoting soy intake as part of a healthy diet. Randomized controlled trials are necessary to confirm this finding.

QTL Mapping for Protein and Sulfur-Containing Amino Acid Contents Using a High-Density Bin-Map in Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.)

Soybean provides essential protein and amino acids for humans and animals, while sulfur-containing amino acids (SAA), including methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys), are very limited. In this study, we constructed a high-density bin-map with 3420 bin markers using 676 857 SNPs of a recombinant-inbred line (RIL) population derived from a cross between Kefeng no. 1 and Nannong 1138-2. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping was performed for Cys, Met, SAA, and the protein content using this high-density bin-map. Twenty-five QTLs linked to these four traits were identified, and four genomic regions located on chromosomes (Chr) 07, 08, 15, and 20 were overlapped by multiple QTLs. Among them, bin 115-124 located on Chr 15 was associated with all four traits and was a novel locus with a high LOD value. These findings will provide a basis for nutritional quality improvement using marker-assisted selection breeding and clarify the genetic mechanisms of SAA and protein in soybean.

Scientists vs laypeople: How genetically modified food is discussed on a Chinese Q&A website

This study examines messages contributed by scientists and laypeople to an online discussion about genetically modified food in China with the aim to understand whether and how scientists and laypeople apply different communication strategies with regard to framing, interaction features, and writing style. Both answers (N = 100) and comments (N = 2416) related to genetically modified food on Zhihu, the most popular social Q&A site in China, were analyzed. The analysis reveals that though there were no significant attitude differences between scientists and laypeople, the two groups tended to frame genetically modified food from quite different perspectives. Also, although scientist users were not perfect rationalists during online discussions, they were more likely to be both high-quality content contributors and active discussion facilitators.

Are current EU policies on GMOs justified?

The European Court of Justice's recent ruling that the new techniques for crop development are to be considered as genetically modified organisms under the European Union's regulations exacerbates the need for a critical evaluation of those regulations. The paper analyzes the regulation from the perspective of moral and political philosophy. It considers whether influential arguments for restrictions of genetically modified organisms provide cogent justifications for the policies that are in place, in particular a pre-release authorization requirement, mandatory labelling, and de facto bans (in the form of withholding or opting out of authorizations). It is argued that arguments pertaining to risk can justify some form of pre-release authorization scheme, although not necessarily the current one, but that neither de facto bans nor mandatory labelling can be justified by reference to common arguments concerning naturalness, agricultural policy (in particular the promotion of organic farming), socio-economic effects, or consumers' right to choose.

Impact of co-expression of maize 11 and 18 kDa δ-zeins and 27 kDa γ-zein in transgenic soybeans on protein body structure and sulfur amino acid content

The methionine-rich seed storage proteins of maize have been expressed in transgenic plants as a means to improve the overall sulfur amino acid content of seed. Previous attempts to increase the sulfur amino acid content of soybean seeds by this approach has met with limited success. It has been shown co-expression of different class of zeins can result in their stable accumulation in transgenic plants. In this study, conventional crosses between transgenic plants individually expressing 11, 18 kDa δ-zeins and 27 kDa γ-zein were made to obtain plants that simultaneously express both the δ-zein and γ-zein. Transmission electron microscopic observation of thin-sections of transgenic soybean seeds revealed that the zeins accumulated in ER-derived protein bodies (PBs) which were found sparsely scattered in cytoplasm. The size of these PBs varied from 0.2 to 0.6 μm in soybean plants individually expressing 11, 18 kDa δ-zeins and 27 kDa γ-zein. In contrast, soybeans co-expressing the 18 kDa δ-zein and 27 kDa γ-zein the PBs was 3-4 times larger. Electron microscopic observation also revealed the sequestration of PBs inside the vacuoles where they could be subjected to degradation by vacuolar proteases. Amino acid analysis of transgenic soybean individually expressing 11, 18 kDa δ-zeins and 27 kDa γ-zein revealed only a minimal increase in the overall methionine content compared to the wild-type. In contrast, plants co-expressing 18 kDa δ-zein and 27 kDa γ-zein showed a significant increase (27%) in the methionine content compared to the control seeds.

Scientific mistakes from the agri-food biotech critics

Critics of the use of advanced biotechnologies in the agri-food sector ("New Breeding Techniques", comprising CRISPR) demand a strict regulation of any such method, even more severe than rules applied to so-called "Genetically Modified Organisms" (i.e. recombinant DNA processes and products). But their position is unwarranted, since it relies on faulty arguments.While most life scientists have always explained that the trigger for regulation should be the single product and its phenotypic traits, opponents insist that the target should be certain biotech processes.The antagonists maintain that NBTs are inherently risky: this belief is exactly the opposite of a long-standing, overwhelming scientific consensus. NBTs involve unpredictable effects, but it is the same for the results of any other technique. The critics wrongly equate "unintended" with "harmful" and misunderstand two meanings of "risk": the "risk" of not achieving satisfactory results does not automatically translate into health or environment "risks". Generic claims that allergenic or toxic properties are a hidden danger of outcomes from NBTs are unsubstantiated - as they would be for traditional techniques.Among several errors, we criticize the misuse of the Precautionary principle, a misplaced alarm about "uncontrolled spreading" of genetically engineered cultivars and the groundless comparison of (hypothetical) agricultural products from NBTs with known toxic substances.In order to "save" traditional techniques from "GMO"-like regulations, while calling for the enforcement of similar sectarian rules for the NBTs, the dissenters engage in baseless, unscientific distinctions.Important and necessary socio-economic, ethical and legal considerations related to the use of agri-food biotechnologies (older and newer) are outside the scope of this paper, which mostly deals with arguments from genetics, biology, and evolutionary theory that are provided by those who are suspicious of NBTs. Yet, we will provide some hints on two additional facets of the debate: the possible motivations for certain groups to embrace views which are utterly anti-scientific, and the shaky regulatory destiny of NBTs in the European Union.

Tree nut allergens

Tree nuts are considered as part of a healthy diet due to their high nutritional quality. However, they are also a potent source of allergenic proteins inducing IgE mediated hypersensitivity often causing serious, life-threatening reactions. The reported prevalence of tree nut allergy is up to 4.9% worldwide. The general term "tree nuts" comprises a number of nuts, seeds, and drupes, derived from trees from different botanical families. For hazelnut and walnut several allergens have been identified which are already partly applied in component resolved diagnosis, while for other tree nuts such as macadamia, coconut, and Brazil nut only individual allergens were identified and data on additional allergenic proteins are missing. This review summarizes the current knowledge on tree nut allergens and describes their physicochemical and immunological characterization and clinical relevance.

Prospects of Understanding the Molecular Biology of Disease Resistance in Rice

Rice is one of the important crops grown worldwide and is considered as an important crop for global food security. Rice is being affected by various fungal, bacterial and viral diseases resulting in huge yield losses every year. Deployment of resistance genes in various crops is one of the important methods of disease management. However, identification, cloning and characterization of disease resistance genes is a very tedious effort. To increase the life span of resistant cultivars, it is important to understand the molecular basis of plant host-pathogen interaction. With the advancement in rice genetics and genomics, several rice varieties resistant to fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens have been developed. However, resistance response of these varieties break down very frequently because of the emergence of more virulent races of the pathogen in nature. To increase the durability of resistance genes under field conditions, understanding the mechanismof resistance response and its molecular basis should be well understood. Some emerging concepts like interspecies transfer of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and transgenerational plant immunitycan be employed to develop sustainable broad spectrum resistant varieties of rice.

Allergenic sensitization versus elicitation risk criteria for novel food proteins

The value of criteria used in the weight-of-evidence assessment of allergenic risk of genetically modified (GM) crops has been debated. This debate may originate, in part, from not specifying if the criteria are intended to contribute to the assessment of sensitization risk or elicitation risk. Here, this distinction is explicitly discussed in the context of exposure and hazard. GM crops with structural relationships with known allergens or sourced from an organism known to cause allergy (hazard) are screened for IgE-antibody reactivity using serum from sensitized individuals. If IgE reactivity is observed, the GM crop is not developed. While digestive and heat stability impact exposure and thus the elicitation risk to sensitized individuals, these attributes are not interpretable relative to sensitization risk. For novel food proteins with no identified hazard, heat stability cannot be validly assessed because relevant IgE antibodies are not available. Likewise, the uncertain and sometime non-monotonic dose relationship between oral exposure to allergens and sensitization makes digestive stability a poor predictor of sensitization risk. It is hoped that by explicitly distinguishing between sensitization risk and elicitation risk, some of the debate surrounding the weight-of evidence criteria for predicting the allergenic risk of GM crops can be resolved.

Brazil nut meal and spray-dried egg powders as alternatives to synthetic methionine in organic laying hen diets

The United States organic poultry industry is currently facing a limitation on dietary inclusion of synthetic methionine (Met). This study investigated Brazil nut protein powder (BNPP), spray-dried egg white (SDEW), and spray-dried egg blend (70:30 albumen: yolk) (SDEB) as alternatives to synthetic Met in organic laying hen diets. A total of 270 Hy-Line Brown laying hens was fed 5 diets from 22 to 38 wk of age, with 6 replicates of 3 adjacent cages per diet and 3 hens per cage. Diets included a commercial control (COM) (non-organic with standard CP and synthetic Met), an organic control (ORG) (with no synthetic Met, but higher CP to meet Met requirements), and 3 organic treatment diets with no synthetic Met, but including BNPP, SDEW, or SDEB at levels to meet Met requirements. Egg production and quality, body weight (BW), feed intake, and manure nutrients and ammonia were assessed. Data were analyzed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS, with Tukey's test used for multiple mean comparisons, and P ≤ 0.05 was deemed statistically significant. Body weight was greatest for the COM diet, and feed conversion improved for hens fed egg-based diets compared to controls. Egg weight and production did not differ between COM and treatment diets. The SDEW diet had greater albumen height and Haugh units compared to ORG and BNPP diets and greater percent albumen compared to COM and BNPP diets. Specific gravity was greatest for BNPP fed hens. Manure DM and potash were highest from COM and BNPP diets, respectively. Both egg-based diets increased ammonia flux relative to the COM diet. The BNPP and egg-based diets were lower in cost for $/metric tonne, $/dozen eggs, and $/kg of eggs compared to the ORG diet. The ingredients assessed herein could, therefore, cost-effectively replace synthetic Met in organic hen diets without negatively impacting egg production.

Navigating through the Jungle of Allergens: Features and Applications of Allergen Databases

The increasing number of available data on allergenic proteins demanded the establishment of structured, freely accessible allergen databases. In this review article, features and applications of 6 of the most widely used allergen databases are discussed. The WHO/IUIS Allergen Nomenclature Database is the official resource of allergen designations. Allergome is the most comprehensive collection of data on allergens and allergen sources. AllergenOnline is aimed at providing a peer-reviewed database of allergen sequences for prediction of allergenicity of proteins, such as those planned to be inserted into genetically modified crops. The Structural Database of Allergenic Proteins (SDAP) provides a database of allergen sequences, structures, and epitopes linked to bioinformatics tools for sequence analysis and comparison. The Immune Epitope Database (IEDB) is the largest repository of T-cell, B-cell, and major histocompatibility complex protein epitopes including epitopes of allergens. AllFam classifies allergens into families of evolutionarily related proteins using definitions from the Pfam protein family database. These databases contain mostly overlapping data, but also show differences in terms of their targeted users, the criteria for including allergens, data shown for each allergen, and the availability of bioinformatics tools.

A critical assessment of regulatory triggers for products of biotechnology: Product vs. process

Regulatory policies governing the safety of genetic engineering (rDNA) and the resulting products (GMOs) have been contentious and divisive, especially in agricultural applications of the technologies. These tensions led to vastly different approaches to safety regulation in different jurisdictions, even though the intent of regulations—to assure public and environmental safety—are common worldwide, and even though the international scientific communities agree on the basic principles of risk assessment and risk management. So great are the political divisions that jurisdictions cannot even agree on the appropriate triggers for regulatory capture, whether product or process. This paper reviews the historical policy and scientific implications of agricultural biotechnology regulatory approaches taken by the European Union, USA and Canada, using their respective statutes and regulations, and then critically assesses the scientific underpinnings of each.

Food Allergy and Food Poisoning

Taken into account data from which is considered a product not safe, estimate the safe level of a contaminant on food, for example, always have many unavoidable uncertainties. It cannot be overemphasized enough, that this also happens as in any other human activity. In most cases, we hope, to define as clearly as possible the eventual risk associated with particular conditions of exposure to a given substance in food. There are numerous toxic compounds that reside naturally in certain foods that unable these to be consumed above certain limits or even are fully prohibited in some other countries. Chapter starts with a clear explanation of differences and relationships between food allergy and food poisoning, continued with main allergens in food and main toxics. Finally, authors summarize different origins of toxins and allergens (natural from foods, from additives, pollutants and food processing).

Food Allergy and Food Poisoning

Taken into account data from which is considered a product not safe, estimate the safe level of a contaminant on food, for example, always have many unavoidable uncertainties. It cannot be overemphasized enough, that this also happens as in any other human activity. In most cases, we hope, to define as clearly as possible the eventual risk associated with particular conditions of exposure to a given substance in food. There are numerous toxic compounds that reside naturally in certain foods that unable these to be consumed above certain limits or even are fully prohibited in some other countries. Chapter starts with a clear explanation of differences and relationships between food allergy and food poisoning, continued with main allergens in food and main toxics. Finally, authors summarize different origins of toxins and allergens (natural from foods, from additives, pollutants and food processing).

Subchronic Immunotoxicity Assessment of Genetically Modified Virus-Resistant Papaya in Rats

Papaya is an important fruit that provides a variety of vitamins with nutritional value and also holds some pharmacological properties, including immunomodulation. Genetically modified (GM) papaya plants resistant to Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) infection have been generated by cloning the coat protein gene of the PRSV which can be used as a valuable strategy to fight PRSV infection and to increase papaya production. In order to assess the safety of GM papaya as a food, this subchronic study was conducted to assess the immunomodulatory responses of the GM papaya line 823-2210, when compared with its parent plant of non-GM papaya, Tainung-2 (TN-2), in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Both non-GM and GM 823-2210 papaya fruits at low (1 g/kg bw) and high (2 g/kg bw) dosages were administered via daily oral gavage to male and female rats consecutively for 90 days. Immunophenotyping, mitogen-induced splenic cell proliferation, antigen-specific antibody response, and histopathology of the spleen and thymus were evaluated at the end of the experiment. Results of immunotoxicity assays revealed no consistent difference between rats fed for 90 days with GM 823-2210 papaya fruits, as opposed to those fed non-GM TN-2 papaya fruits, suggesting that with regard to immunomodulatory responses, GM 823-2210 papaya fruits maintain substantial equivalence to fruits of their non-GM TN-2 parent.

Reasonable Foreseeability and Liability in Relation to Genetically Modified Organisms

This article examines problems that may arise when addressing liability resulting from the genetic modification of microbes, animals, and plants. More specifically, it evaluates how uncertainties relating to the outcomes of these biotechnological innovations affect—or may affect—the courts' application of the reasonable foreseeability requirement and, hence, liability under the tort of negligence. The article also examines how concern expressed by society about injuries feared to result from these genetically modified products could have an impact on the way the courts assess reasonable foreseeability in this area.

What Characteristics Confer Proteins the Ability to Induce Allergic Responses? IgE Epitope Mapping and Comparison of the Structure of Soybean 2S Albumins and Ara h 2

Ara h 2, a peanut 2S albumin, is associated with severe allergic reactions, but a homologous protein, soybean 2S albumin, is not recognized as an important allergen. Structural difference between these proteins might explain this clinical discrepancy. Therefore, we mapped sequential epitopes and compared the structure of Ara h 2, Soy Al 1, and Soy Al 3 (Gly m 8) to confirm whether structural differences account for the discrepancy in clinical responses to these two proteins. Commercially synthesized peptides covering the full length of Ara h 2 and two soybean 2S albumins were analyzed by peptide microarray. Sera from 10 patients with peanut and soybean allergies and seven non-atopic controls were examined. The majority of epitopes in Ara h 2 identified by microarray are consistent with those identified previously. Several regions in the 2S albumins are weakly recognized by individual sera from different patients. A comparison of allergenic epitopes on peanut and soybean proteins suggests that loop-helix type secondary structures and some amino acids with a large side chain including lone electron pair, such as arginine, glutamine, and tyrosine, makes the peptides highly recognizable by the immune system. By utilizing the peptide microarray assay, we mapped IgE epitopes of Ara h 2 and two soybean 2S albumins. The use of peptide microarray mapping and analysis of the epitope characteristics may provide critical information to access the allergenicity of food proteins.

AllergenOnline: A peer-reviewed, curated allergen database to assess novel food proteins for potential cross-reactivity

SCOPE

Increasingly regulators are demanding evaluation of potential allergenicity of foods prior to marketing. Primary risks are the transfer of allergens or potentially cross-reactive proteins into new foods. AllergenOnline was developed in 2005 as a peer-reviewed bioinformatics platform to evaluate risks of new dietary proteins in genetically modified organisms (GMO) and novel foods.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The process used to identify suspected allergens and evaluate the evidence of allergenicity was refined between 2010 and 2015. Candidate proteins are identified from the NCBI database using keyword searches, the WHO/IUIS nomenclature database and peer reviewed publications. Criteria to classify proteins as allergens are described. Characteristics of the protein, the source and human subjects, test methods and results are evaluated by our expert panel and archived. Food, inhalant, salivary, venom, and contact allergens are included. Users access allergen sequences through links to the NCBI database and relevant references are listed online. Version 16 includes 1956 sequences from 778 taxonomic-protein groups that are accepted with evidence of allergic serum IgE-binding and/or biological activity.

CONCLUSION

AllergenOnline provides a useful peer-reviewed tool for identifying the primary potential risks of allergy for GMOs and novel foods based on criteria described by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (2003).

A tripartite approach identifies the major sunflower seed albumins

We have used a combination of genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic approaches to identify the napin-type albumin genes in sunflower and define their contributions to the seed albumin pool. Seed protein content is determined by the expression of what are typically large gene families. A major class of seed storage proteins is the napin-type, water soluble albumins. In this work we provide a comprehensive analysis of the napin-type albumin content of the common sunflower (Helianthus annuus) by analyzing a draft genome, a transcriptome and performing a proteomic analysis of the seed albumin fraction. We show that although sunflower contains at least 26 genes for napin-type albumins, only 15 of these are present at the mRNA level. We found protein evidence for 11 of these but the albumin content of mature seeds is dominated by the encoded products of just three genes. So despite high genetic redundancy for albumins, only a small sub-set of this gene family contributes to total seed albumin content. The three genes identified as producing the majority of sunflower seed albumin are potential future candidates for manipulation through genetics and breeding.

Safety assessment of foods from genetically modified crops in countries with developing economies

Population growth particularly in countries with developing economies will result in a need to increase food production by 70% by the year 2050. Biotechnology has been utilized to produce genetically modified (GM) crops for insect and weed control with benefits including increased crop yield and will also be used in emerging countries. A multicomponent safety assessment paradigm has been applied to individual GM crops to determine whether they as safe as foods from non-GM crops. This paper reviews methods to assess the safety of foods from GM crops for safe consumption from the first generation of GM crops. The methods can readily be applied to new products developed within country and this paper will emphasize the concept of data portability; that safety data produced in one geographic location is suitable for safety assessment regardless of where it is utilized.

Discovery of highly conserved unique peanut and tree nut peptides by LC-MS/MS for multi-allergen detection

Proteins unique to peanuts and various tree nuts have been extracted, subjected to trypsin digestion and analysis by liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, in order to find highly conserved peptides that can be used as markers to detect peanuts and tree nuts in food. The marker peptide sequences chosen were those found to be present in both native (unroasted) and thermally processed (roasted) forms of peanuts and tree nuts. Each peptide was selected by assuring its presence in food that was processed or unprocessed, its abundance for sensitivity, sequence size, and uniqueness for peanut and each specific variety of tree nut. At least two peptides were selected to represent peanut, almond, pecan, cashew, walnut, hazelnut, pine nut, Brazil nut, macadamia nut, pistachio nut, chestnut and coconut; to determine the presence of trace levels of peanut and tree nuts in food by a novel multiplexed LC-MS method.