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Ji Y, Yang C, Pang X, Yan Y, Wu Y, Geng Z, Hu W, Hu P, Wu X, Wang K. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in Alzheimer's disease: effects on neural and synaptic rehabilitation. Neural Regen Res 2025; 20:326-342. [PMID: 38819037 DOI: 10.4103/nrr.nrr-d-23-01201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease resulting from deficits in synaptic transmission and homeostasis. The Alzheimer's disease brain tends to be hyperexcitable and hypersynchronized, thereby causing neurodegeneration and ultimately disrupting the operational abilities in daily life, leaving patients incapacitated. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is a cost-effective, neuro-modulatory technique used for multiple neurological conditions. Over the past two decades, it has been widely used to predict cognitive decline; identify pathophysiological markers; promote neuroplasticity; and assess brain excitability, plasticity, and connectivity. It has also been applied to patients with dementia, because it can yield facilitatory effects on cognition and promote brain recovery after a neurological insult. However, its therapeutic effectiveness at the molecular and synaptic levels has not been elucidated because of a limited number of studies. This study aimed to characterize the neurobiological changes following repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment, evaluate its effects on synaptic plasticity, and identify the associated mechanisms. This review essentially focuses on changes in the pathology, amyloidogenesis, and clearance pathways, given that amyloid deposition is a major hypothesis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Apoptotic mechanisms associated with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation procedures and different pathways mediating gene transcription, which are closely related to the neural regeneration process, are also highlighted. Finally, we discuss the outcomes of animal studies in which neuroplasticity is modulated and assessed at the structural and functional levels by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, with the aim to highlight future directions for better clinical translations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Ji
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Chaoyi Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Xuerui Pang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Yibing Yan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Yue Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Zhi Geng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Wenjie Hu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Panpan Hu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Xingqi Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
- Department of Psychology and Sleep Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
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Cummings JL, Osse AML, Kinney JW, Cammann D, Chen J. Alzheimer's Disease: Combination Therapies and Clinical Trials for Combination Therapy Development. CNS Drugs 2024; 38:613-624. [PMID: 38937382 PMCID: PMC11258156 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-024-01103-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex multifaceted disease. Recently approved anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies slow disease progression by approximately 30%, and combination therapy appears necessary to prevent the onset of AD or produce greater slowing of cognitive and functional decline. Combination therapies may address core features, non-specific co-pathology commonly occurring in patients with AD (e.g., inflammation), or non-AD pathologies that may co-occur with AD (e.g., α-synuclein). Combination therapies may be advanced through co-development of more than one new molecular entity or through add-on strategies including an approved agent plus a new molecular entity. Addressing add-on combination therapy is currently urgent since patients on anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies may be included in clinical trials for experimental agents. Phase 1 information must be generated for each agent in combination drug development. Phase 2 and Phase 3 of add-on therapies may contrast the new molecular entity, the approved agent as standard of care, and the combination. More complex development programs including standard or modified combinatorial designs are required for co-development of two or more new molecular entities. Biomarkers are markedly affected by anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies, and these effects must be anticipated in add-on trials. Examining target engagement biomarkers and comparing the magnitude and sequence of biomarker changes in those receiving more than one therapy, compared with those on monotherapy, may be informative. Using network-based medicine approaches, computational strategies may identify rational combinations using disease and drug effect network mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Cummings
- Chambers-Grundy Center for Transformative Neuroscience, Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV, Las Vegas, NV, USA.
- Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV), Las Vegas, NV, USA.
- , 1380 Opal Valley Street, Henderson, NV, 89052, USA.
| | - Amanda M Leisgang Osse
- Chambers-Grundy Center for Transformative Neuroscience, Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV, Las Vegas, NV, USA
- Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV), Las Vegas, NV, USA
| | - Jefferson W Kinney
- Chambers-Grundy Center for Transformative Neuroscience, Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV, Las Vegas, NV, USA
- Department of Brain Health, School of Integrated Health Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV), Las Vegas, NV, USA
| | - Davis Cammann
- Nevada Institute of Personalized Medicine, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV), Las Vegas, NV, USA
| | - Jingchun Chen
- Nevada Institute of Personalized Medicine, University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV), Las Vegas, NV, USA
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Chu H, Huang C, Guan Y, Xie F, Chen M, Guo Q. The associations between nutritional status and physical frailty and Alzheimer's disease plasma biomarkers in older cognitively unimpaired adults with positive of amyloid-β PET. Clin Nutr 2024; 43:1647-1656. [PMID: 38810424 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2024.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS It has been revealed good nutritional status and no physical frailty, which are modifiable lifestyle factors, are linked to less cognitive decline and a lower risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We aimed to investigate the associations between nutritional status and physical frailty and plasma AD biomarkers, especially the Tau-associated biomarkers in older cognitively unimpaired (CU) adults with higher β-amyloid (Aβ) burden. METHODS The nutritional status and physical frailty were assessed via Mini-Nutritional Assessment Short-Form (MNA-SF) and Fried frailty index. The participants underwent the examination of plasma AD biomarkers and 18F-florbetapir PET scan as well as 18F-MK6240 PET in the validation cohort. Correlation and multiple linear regression analyses were used to investigate the associations between nutritional status and frailty and AD biomarkers. RESULTS Two cohorts were included in our study. A total of 129 participants with Aβ-PET positive were enrolled in the development cohort. Multiple linear regression analysis showed MNA-SF scores, normal nutritional status, Fried frailty index scores, frailty and some domains of frailty including weight loss, maximal grip strength and exhaustion were associated with plasma p-Tau-181. Furthermore, weight loss, Fried frailty index scores and frailty were associated with higher Aβ-PET standard uptake value ratio. We further performed subgroup analyses stratified by age, sex and apolipoprotein E ε4 genotype to investigate the beneficial characteristics of nutrition and frailty in the special subgroups. Validation cohort contained 38 Aβ-PET positive participants. MNA-SF scores, normal nutritional status, Fried frailty index scores and frailty were associated with Tau burden evaluated by 18F-MK6240 PET Braak-like stages. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicates that normal nutritional status and no physical frailty may be associated with expected trend of plasma AD biomarkers, especially less Tau pathology in older CU adults with Aβ deposition. Adjusting to these characteristics of nutrition and physical frailty may help reduce the risk of AD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heling Chu
- Department of Gerontology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chuyi Huang
- Health Management Center, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yihui Guan
- PET Center, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang Xie
- PET Center, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Meirong Chen
- Department of Neurorehabilitation High Dependency Unit, Jiangwan Hospital, Shanghai, China.
| | - Qihao Guo
- Department of Gerontology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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Aranda-Abreu GE, Rojas-Durán F, Hernández-Aguilar ME, Herrera-Covarrubias D, Chí-Castañeda LD, Toledo-Cárdenas MR, Suárez-Medellín JM. Alzheimer's Disease: Cellular and Pharmacological Aspects. Geriatrics (Basel) 2024; 9:86. [PMID: 39051250 DOI: 10.3390/geriatrics9040086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease was described more than 100 years ago and despite the fact that several molecules are being tested for its treatment, which are in phase III trials, the disease continues to progress. The main problem is that these molecules function properly in healthy neurons, while neuronal pathology includes plasma membrane disruption, malfunction of various organelles, and hyperphosphorylation of Tau and amyloid plaques. The main objective of this article is the discussion of a neuronal restoration therapy, where molecules designed for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease would probably be more effective, and the quality of life of people would be better.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fausto Rojas-Durán
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91192, Mexico
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Coimbra JRM, Resende R, Custódio JBA, Salvador JAR, Santos AE. BACE1 Inhibitors for Alzheimer's Disease: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives. J Alzheimers Dis 2024:JAD240146. [PMID: 38943390 DOI: 10.3233/jad-240146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Abstract
Disease-modifying therapies (DMT) for Alzheimer's disease (AD) are highly longed-for. In this quest, anti-amyloid therapies take center stage supported by genetic facts that highlight an imbalance between production and clearance of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) in AD patients. Indeed, evidence from basic research, human genetic and biomarker studies, suggests the accumulation of Aβ as a driver of AD pathogenesis and progression. The aspartic protease β-site AβPP cleaving enzyme (BACE1) is the initiator for Aβ production. Underpinning a critical role for BACE1 in AD pathophysiology are the elevated BACE1 concentration and activity observed in the brain and body fluids of AD patients. Therefore, BACE1 is a prime drug target for reducing Aβ levels in early AD. Small-molecule BACE1 inhibitors have been extensively developed for the last 20 years. However, clinical trials with these molecules have been discontinued for futility or safety reasons. Most of the observed adverse side effects were due to other aspartic proteases cross-inhibition, including the homologue BACE2, and to mechanism-based toxicity since BACE1 has substrates with important roles for synaptic plasticity and synaptic homeostasis besides amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP). Despite these setbacks, BACE1 persists as a well-validated therapeutic target for which a specific inhibitor with high substrate selectivity may yet to be found. In this review we provide an overview of the evolution in BACE1 inhibitors design pinpointing the molecules that reached advanced phases of clinical trials and the liabilities that precluded adequate trial effects. Finally, we ponder on the challenges that anti-amyloid therapies must overcome to achieve clinical success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judite R M Coimbra
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rosa Resende
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José B A Custódio
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jorge A R Salvador
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Armanda E Santos
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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Iwatsubo T. Development of disease-modifying therapies against Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2024. [PMID: 38842037 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.13681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
To successfully develop disease-modifying therapies (DMT) against Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is important to target the mild stage of the disease, before the pathological changes progress and dementia symptoms are fully manifested. To this end, the AD Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), a large-scale observational study, was initiated in the U.S. with the goal of development of DMT that are effective in the early stages of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) by utilizing imaging and biomarkers. In Japan, J-ADNI enrolled and followed up 537 patients, mainly with MCI, and established a platform for evaluation including amyloid PET, and demonstrated a high similarity in the clinical course of amyloid-positive MCI (prodromal AD) in Japan and the U.S. In 2023, the anti-Aβ antibody lecanemab successfully completed a Phase III clinical trial for early AD (prodromal AD + mild AD dementia) and was granted regulatory approval and made available both in the US and Japan. Also, phase III trial of donanemab was completed successful. The J-TRC study was initiated in Japan as a "trial ready cohort (TRC)" consisting of participants who met the eligibility criteria for participation in preclinical and prodromal AD trials. Based on such a platform, the development of DMT for AD will progress more rapidly in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Iwatsubo
- Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Japan
- National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan
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Chen J, Rao J, Lu H, Lu M, Wang C, Cao Y. Network pharmacology and experimental verification to explore the effect of Hedyotis diffusa on Alzheimer's disease. Chem Biol Drug Des 2024; 103:e14558. [PMID: 38828741 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.14558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the active components and the effect of Hedyotis diffusa (HD) against Alzheimer's disease (AD) via network pharmacology, molecular docking, and experimental evaluations. We conducted a comprehensive screening process using the TCMSP, Swiss Target Prediction, and PharmMapper databases to identify the active components and their related targets in HD. In addition, we collected potential therapeutic targets of AD from the Gene Cards, Drugbank, and OMIM databases. Afterward, we utilized Cytoscape to establish both protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks and compound-target (C-T) networks. To gain further insights into the functional aspect, we performed GO and KEGG pathway analyses using the David database. Next, we employed Autodock vina to estimate the binding force between the components and the hub genes. To validate our network pharmacology findings, we conducted relevant experiments on Caenorhabditis elegans, further confirming the reliability of our results. Then a total of six active compounds and 149 therapeutic targets were detected. Through the analysis of the association between active compounds, therapeutic targets, and signaling pathways, it was observed that the therapeutic effect of HD primarily encompassed the inhibition of Aβ, suppression of AChE activity, and mitigating oxidative stress. Additionally, our investigation revealed that the key active compounds in HD primarily consisted of iridoids, which exhibited resistance against AD by acting on the Alzheimer's disease pathway and the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- JingXu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - JiaLi Rao
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Hao Lu
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Min Lu
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - ChengCheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yan Cao
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry on Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Compound Prescription, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Ossenkoppele R, Teunissen CE. Fluid Biomarker Changes After Amyloid-β-Targeting Drugs. JAMA Neurol 2024; 81:579-581. [PMID: 38683615 DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.1103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Rik Ossenkoppele
- Neurology, Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Clinical Memory Research Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Meshref M, Ghaith HS, Hammad MA, Shalaby MMM, Ayasra F, Monib FA, Attia MS, Ebada MA, Elsayed H, Shalash A, Bahbah EI. The Role of RIN3 Gene in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis: a Comprehensive Review. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:3528-3544. [PMID: 37995081 PMCID: PMC11087354 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03802-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a globally prevalent form of dementia that impacts diverse populations and is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration and impairments in executive memory. Although the exact mechanisms underlying AD pathogenesis remain unclear, it is commonly accepted that the aggregation of misfolded proteins, such as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles, plays a critical role. Additionally, AD is a multifactorial condition influenced by various genetic factors and can manifest as either early-onset AD (EOAD) or late-onset AD (LOAD), each associated with specific gene variants. One gene of particular interest in both EOAD and LOAD is RIN3, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor. This gene plays a multifaceted role in AD pathogenesis. Firstly, upregulation of RIN3 can result in endosomal enlargement and dysfunction, thereby facilitating the accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides in the brain. Secondly, RIN3 has been shown to impact the PICLAM pathway, affecting transcytosis across the blood-brain barrier. Lastly, RIN3 has implications for immune-mediated responses, notably through its influence on the PTK2B gene. This review aims to provide a concise overview of AD and delve into the role of the RIN3 gene in its pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Meshref
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | | | | | | | - Faris Ayasra
- Faculty of Medicine, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
| | | | - Mohamed S Attia
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | | | - Hanaa Elsayed
- Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Ali Shalash
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Eshak I Bahbah
- Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Damietta, Egypt.
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Rajendran K, Krishnan UM. Mechanistic insights and emerging therapeutic stratagems for Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2024; 97:102309. [PMID: 38615895 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2024.102309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), a multi-factorial neurodegenerative disorder has affected over 30 million individuals globally and these numbers are expected to increase in the coming decades. Current therapeutic interventions are largely ineffective as they focus on a single target. Development of an effective drug therapy requires a deep understanding of the various factors influencing the onset and progression of the disease. Aging and genetic factors exert a major influence on the development of AD. Other factors like post-viral infections, iron overload, gut dysbiosis, and vascular dysfunction also exacerbate the onset and progression of AD. Further, post-translational modifications in tau, DRP1, CREB, and p65 proteins increase the disease severity through triggering mitochondrial dysfunction, synaptic loss, and differential interaction of amyloid beta with different receptors leading to impaired intracellular signalling. With advancements in neuroscience tools, new inter-relations that aggravate AD are being discovered including pre-existing diseases and exposure to other pathogens. Simultaneously, new therapeutic strategies involving modulation of gene expression through targeted delivery or modulation with light, harnessing the immune response to promote clearance of amyloid deposits, introduction of stem cells and extracellular vesicles to replace the destroyed neurons, exploring new therapeutic molecules from plant, marine and biological sources delivered in the free state or through nanoparticles and use of non-pharmacological interventions like music, transcranial stimulation and yoga. Polypharmacology approaches involving combination of therapeutic agents are also under active investigation for superior therapeutic outcomes. This review elaborates on various disease-causing factors, their underlying mechanisms, the inter-play between different disease-causing players, and emerging therapeutic options including those under clinical trials, for treatment of AD. The challenges involved in AD therapy and the way forward have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayalvizhi Rajendran
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India
| | - Uma Maheswari Krishnan
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India; School of Arts, Sciences, Humanities & Education, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401, India.
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Zakaria N, Wan Harun WMRS, Mohammad Latif MA, Azaman SNA, Abdul Rahman MB, Faujan NH. Effects of anthocyanidins on the conformational transition of Aβ (1-42) peptide: Insights from molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. J Mol Graph Model 2024; 129:108732. [PMID: 38412813 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2024.108732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Recent evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies has shown that anthocyanins and anthocyanidins can reduce and inhibit the amyloid beta (Aβ) species, one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, their inhibition mechanisms on Aβ species at molecular details remain elusive. Therefore, in the present study, molecular modelling methods were employed to investigate their inhibitory mechanisms on Aβ(1-42) peptide. The results highlighted that anthocyanidins effectively inhibited the conformational transitions of helices into beta-sheet (β-sheet) conformation within Aβ(1-42) peptide by two different mechanisms: 1) the obstruction of two terminals from coming into contact due to the binding of anthocyanidins with residues of N- and second hydrophobic core (SHC)-C-terminals, and 2) the prevention of the folding process due to the binding of anthocyanidin with the central polar (Asp23 and Lys28) and native helix (Asp23, Lys28, and Leu34) residues. These new findings on the inhibition of β-sheet formation by targeting both N- and SHC-C-terminals, and the long-established target, D23-K28 salt bridge residues, not with the conventional central hydrophobic core (CHC) as reported in the literature, might aid in designing more potent inhibitors for AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norzalina Zakaria
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Macromolecular Simulation Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Integrated Chemical Biophysics Research, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Muhammad Alif Mohammad Latif
- Center of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Macromolecular Simulation Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Integrated Chemical Biophysics Research, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Siti Nor Ani Azaman
- Center of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Basyaruddin Abdul Rahman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Macromolecular Simulation Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Integrated Chemical Biophysics Research, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nur Hana Faujan
- Center of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Macromolecular Simulation Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; Natural Medicine and Product Research Laboratory, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Sarazin M, Lagarde J, El Haddad I, de Souza LC, Bellier B, Potier MC, Bottlaender M, Dorothée G. The path to next-generation disease-modifying immunomodulatory combination therapies in Alzheimer's disease. NATURE AGING 2024; 4:761-770. [PMID: 38839924 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-024-00630-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The cautious optimism following recent anti-amyloid therapeutic trials for Alzheimer's disease (AD) provides a glimmer of hope after years of disappointment. Although these encouraging results represent discernible progress, they also highlight the need to enhance further the still modest clinical efficacy of current disease-modifying immunotherapies. Here, we highlight crucial milestones essential for advancing precision medicine in AD. These include reevaluating the choice of therapeutic targets by considering the key role of both central neuroinflammation and peripheral immunity in disease pathogenesis, refining patient stratification by further defining the inflammatory component within the forthcoming ATN(I) (amyloid, tau and neurodegeneration (and inflammation)) classification of AD biomarkers and defining more accurate clinical outcomes and prognostic biomarkers that better reflect disease heterogeneity. Next-generation immunotherapies will need to go beyond the current antibody-only approach by simultaneously targeting pathological proteins together with innate neuroinflammation and/or peripheral-central immune crosstalk. Such innovative immunomodulatory combination therapy approaches should be evaluated in appropriately redesigned clinical therapeutic trials, which must carefully integrate the neuroimmune component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Sarazin
- Department of Neurology of Memory and Language, GHU Paris Psychiatrie & Neurosciences, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France.
- Université Paris-Cité, Paris, France.
- Université Paris-Saclay, BioMaps, Service Hospitalier Frédéric Joliot, CEA, CNRS, Inserm, Orsay, France.
| | - Julien Lagarde
- Department of Neurology of Memory and Language, GHU Paris Psychiatrie & Neurosciences, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
- Université Paris-Cité, Paris, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, BioMaps, Service Hospitalier Frédéric Joliot, CEA, CNRS, Inserm, Orsay, France
| | - Inès El Haddad
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, CRSA, Immune System and Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Leonardo Cruz de Souza
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Neurologia Cognitiva e do Comportamento, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bertrand Bellier
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, CRSA, Immune System and Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Claude Potier
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) UMR 7225, INSERM U1127, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Michel Bottlaender
- Université Paris-Saclay, BioMaps, Service Hospitalier Frédéric Joliot, CEA, CNRS, Inserm, Orsay, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, UNIACT, Neurospin, Joliot Institute, CEA, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Guillaume Dorothée
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, CRSA, Immune System and Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France.
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Volloch V, Rits-Volloch S. ACH2.0/E, the Consolidated Theory of Conventional and Unconventional Alzheimer's Disease: Origins, Progression, and Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6036. [PMID: 38892224 PMCID: PMC11172602 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 05/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The centrality of amyloid-beta (Aβ) is an indisputable tenet of Alzheimer's disease (AD). It was initially indicated by the detection (1991) of a mutation within Aβ protein precursor (AβPP) segregating with the disease, which served as a basis for the long-standing Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis (ACH) theory of AD. In the intervening three decades, this notion was affirmed and substantiated by the discovery of numerous AD-causing and AD-protective mutations with all, without an exception, affecting the structure, production, and intraneuronal degradation of Aβ. The ACH postulated that the disease is caused and driven by extracellular Aβ. When it became clear that this is not the case, and the ACH was largely discredited, a new theory of AD, dubbed ACH2.0 to re-emphasize the centrality of Aβ, was formulated. In the ACH2.0, AD is caused by physiologically accumulated intraneuronal Aβ (iAβ) derived from AβPP. Upon reaching the critical threshold, it triggers activation of the autonomous AβPP-independent iAβ generation pathway; its output is retained intraneuronally and drives the AD pathology. The bridge between iAβ derived from AβPP and that generated independently of AβPP is the neuronal integrated stress response (ISR) elicited by the former. The ISR severely suppresses cellular protein synthesis; concurrently, it activates the production of a small subset of proteins, which apparently includes components necessary for operation of the AβPP-independent iAβ generation pathway that are absent under regular circumstances. The above sequence of events defines "conventional" AD, which is both caused and driven by differentially derived iAβ. Since the ISR can be elicited by a multitude of stressors, the logic of the ACH2.0 mandates that another class of AD, referred to as "unconventional", has to occur. Unconventional AD is defined as a disease where a stressor distinct from AβPP-derived iAβ elicits the neuronal ISR. Thus, the essence of both, conventional and unconventional, forms of AD is one and the same, namely autonomous, self-sustainable, AβPP-independent production of iAβ. What distinguishes them is the manner of activation of this pathway, i.e., the mode of causation of the disease. In unconventional AD, processes occurring at locations as distant from and seemingly as unrelated to the brain as, say, the knee can potentially trigger the disease. The present study asserts that these processes include traumatic brain injury (TBI), chronic traumatic encephalopathy, viral and bacterial infections, and a wide array of inflammatory conditions. It considers the pathways which are common to all these occurrences and culminate in the elicitation of the neuronal ISR, analyzes the dynamics of conventional versus unconventional AD, shows how the former can morph into the latter, explains how a single TBI can hasten the occurrence of AD and why it takes multiple TBIs to trigger the disease, and proposes the appropriate therapeutic strategies. It posits that yet another class of unconventional AD may occur where the autonomous AβPP-independent iAβ production pathway is initiated by an ISR-unrelated activator, and consolidates the above notions in a theory of AD, designated ACH2.0/E (for expanded ACH2.0), which incorporates the ACH2.0 as its special case and retains the centrality of iAβ produced independently of AβPP as the driving agent of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sophia Rits-Volloch
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Kim AY, Al Jerdi S, MacDonald R, Triggle CR. Alzheimer's disease and its treatment-yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1399121. [PMID: 38868666 PMCID: PMC11167451 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1399121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Alois Alzheimer described the first patient with Alzheimer's disease (AD) in 1907 and today AD is the most frequently diagnosed of dementias. AD is a multi-factorial neurodegenerative disorder with familial, life style and comorbidity influences impacting a global population of more than 47 million with a projected escalation by 2050 to exceed 130 million. In the USA the AD demographic encompasses approximately six million individuals, expected to increase to surpass 13 million by 2050, and the antecedent phase of AD, recognized as mild cognitive impairment (MCI), involves nearly 12 million individuals. The economic outlay for the management of AD and AD-related cognitive decline is estimated at approximately 355 billion USD. In addition, the intensifying prevalence of AD cases in countries with modest to intermediate income countries further enhances the urgency for more therapeutically and cost-effective treatments and for improving the quality of life for patients and their families. This narrative review evaluates the pathophysiological basis of AD with an initial focus on the therapeutic efficacy and limitations of the existing drugs that provide symptomatic relief: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEI) donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA) receptor allosteric modulator, memantine. The hypothesis that amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau are appropriate targets for drugs and have the potential to halt the progress of AD is critically analyzed with a particular focus on clinical trial data with anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies (MABs), namely, aducanumab, lecanemab and donanemab. This review challenges the dogma that targeting Aβ will benefit the majority of subjects with AD that the anti-Aβ MABs are unlikely to be the "magic bullet". A comparison of the benefits and disadvantages of the different classes of drugs forms the basis for determining new directions for research and alternative drug targets that are undergoing pre-clinical and clinical assessments. In addition, we discuss and stress the importance of the treatment of the co-morbidities, including hypertension, diabetes, obesity and depression that are known to increase the risk of developing AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Y. Kim
- Medical Education, Weill Cornell Medicine—Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - R. MacDonald
- Health Sciences Library, Weill Cornell Medicine—Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | - C. R. Triggle
- Department of Pharmacology and Medical Education, Weill Cornell Medicine—Qatar, Doha, Qatar
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Cao Z, Kong F, Ding J, Chen C, He F, Deng W. Promoting Alzheimer's disease research and therapy with stem cell technology. Stem Cell Res Ther 2024; 15:136. [PMID: 38715083 PMCID: PMC11077895 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-024-03737-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent form of dementia leading to memory loss, reduced cognitive and linguistic abilities, and decreased self-care. Current AD treatments aim to relieve symptoms and slow disease progression, but a cure is elusive due to limited understanding of the underlying disease mechanisms. MAIN CONTENT Stem cell technology has the potential to revolutionize AD research. With the ability to self-renew and differentiate into various cell types, stem cells are valuable tools for disease modeling, drug screening, and cell therapy. Recent advances have broadened our understanding beyond the deposition of amyloidβ (Aβ) or tau proteins in AD to encompass risk genes, immune system disorders, and neuron-glia mis-communication, relying heavily on stem cell-derived disease models. These stem cell-based models (e.g., organoids and microfluidic chips) simulate in vivo pathological processes with extraordinary spatial and temporal resolution. Stem cell technologies have the potential to alleviate AD pathology through various pathways, including immunomodulation, replacement of damaged neurons, and neurotrophic support. In recent years, transplantation of glial cells like oligodendrocytes and the infusion of exosomes have become hot research topics. CONCLUSION Although stem cell-based models and therapies for AD face several challenges, such as extended culture time and low differentiation efficiency, they still show considerable potential for AD treatment and are likely to become preferred tools for AD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zimeng Cao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Fanshu Kong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Jiaqi Ding
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Chunxia Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China.
| | - Fumei He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China.
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China.
| | - Wenbin Deng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China.
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Rahimi A, Sameei P, Mousavi S, Ghaderi K, Hassani A, Hassani S, Alipour S. Application of CRISPR/Cas9 System in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04143-2. [PMID: 38639864 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's are some of the most common neurological disorders, which affect millions of people worldwide. Although there have been many treatments for these diseases, there are still no effective treatments to treat or completely stop these disorders. Perhaps the lack of proper treatment for these diseases can be related to various reasons, but the poor results related to recent clinical research also prompted doctors to look for new treatment approaches. In this regard, various researchers from all over the world have provided many new treatments, one of which is CRISPR/Cas9. Today, the CRISPR/Cas9 system is mostly used for genetic modifications in various species. In addition, by using the abilities available in the CRISPR/Cas9 system, researchers can either remove or modify DNA sequences, which in this way can establish a suitable and useful treatment method for the treatment of genetic diseases that have undergone mutations. We conducted a non-systematic review of articles and study results from various databases, including PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus, in recent years. and have investigated new treatment methods in neurodegenerative diseases with a focus on Alzheimer's disease. Then, in the following sections, the treatment methods were classified into three groups: anti-tau, anti-amyloid, and anti-APOE regimens. Finally, we discussed various applications of the CRISPR/Cas-9 system in Alzheimer's disease. Today, using CRISPR/Cas-9 technology, scientists create Alzheimer's disease models that have a more realistic phenotype and reveal the processes of pathogenesis; following the screening of defective genes, they establish treatments for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araz Rahimi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Parsa Sameei
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Sana Mousavi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Kimia Ghaderi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Amin Hassani
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Sepideh Hassani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University Medical Sciences (UMSU), Urmia, Iran.
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
| | - Shahriar Alipour
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Cellular and Molecular Medicine Institute, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University Medical Sciences (UMSU), Urmia, Iran.
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
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Abdallah AE. Review on anti-alzheimer drug development: approaches, challenges and perspectives. RSC Adv 2024; 14:11057-11088. [PMID: 38586442 PMCID: PMC10995770 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra08333k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer is an irreversible progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes failure of cerebral neurons and disability of the affected person to practice normal daily life activities. There is no concrete evidence to identify the exact reason behind the disease, so several relevant hypotheses emerged, highlighting many possible therapeutic targets, such as acetylcholinesterase, cholinergic receptors, N-methyl d-aspartate receptors, phosphodiesterase, amyloid β protein, protein phosphatase 2A, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, β-secretase, γ-secretase, α-secretase, serotonergic receptors, glutaminyl cyclase, tumor necrosis factor-α, γ-aminobutyric acid receptors, and mitochondria. All of these targets have been involved in the design of new potential drugs. An extensive number of these drugs have been studied in clinical trials. However, only galantamine, donepezil, and rivastigmine (ChEIs), memantine (NMDA antagonist), and aducanumab and lecanemab (selective anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies) have been approved for AD treatment. Many drugs failed in the clinical trials to such an extent that questions have been posed about the significance of some of the aforementioned targets. On the contrary, the data of other drugs were promising and shed light on the significance of their targets for the development of new potent anti-alzheimer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah E Abdallah
- Pharmaceutical Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Design Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University 11884 Cairo Egypt
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18
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Volloch V, Rits-Volloch S. On the Inadequacy of the Current Transgenic Animal Models of Alzheimer's Disease: The Path Forward. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2981. [PMID: 38474228 PMCID: PMC10932000 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
For at least two reasons, the current transgenic animal models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) appear to be patently inadequate. They may be useful in many respects, the AD models; however, they are not. First, they are incapable of developing the full spectrum of the AD pathology. Second, they respond spectacularly well to drugs that are completely ineffective in the treatment of symptomatic AD. These observations indicate that both the transgenic animal models and the drugs faithfully reflect the theory that guided the design and development of both, the amyloid cascade hypothesis (ACH), and that both are inadequate because their underlying theory is. This conclusion necessitated the formulation of a new, all-encompassing theory of conventional AD-the ACH2.0. The two principal attributes of the ACH2.0 are the following. One, in conventional AD, the agent that causes the disease and drives its pathology is the intraneuronal amyloid-β (iAβ) produced in two distinctly different pathways. Two, following the commencement of AD, the bulk of Aβ is generated independently of Aβ protein precursor (AβPP) and is retained inside the neuron as iAβ. Within the framework of the ACH2.0, AβPP-derived iAβ accumulates physiologically in a lifelong process. It cannot reach levels required to support the progression of AD; it does, however, cause the disease. Indeed, conventional AD occurs if and when the levels of AβPP-derived iAβ cross the critical threshold, elicit the neuronal integrated stress response (ISR), and trigger the activation of the AβPP-independent iAβ generation pathway; the disease commences only when this pathway is operational. The iAβ produced in this pathway reaches levels sufficient to drive the AD pathology; it also propagates its own production and thus sustains the activity of the pathway and perpetuates its operation. The present study analyzes the reason underlying the evident inadequacy of the current transgenic animal models of AD. It concludes that they model, in fact, not Alzheimer's disease but rather the effects of the neuronal ISR sustained by AβPP-derived iAβ, that this is due to the lack of the operational AβPP-independent iAβ production pathway, and that this mechanism must be incorporated into any successful AD model faithfully emulating the disease. The study dissects the plausible molecular mechanisms of the AβPP-independent iAβ production and the pathways leading to their activation, and introduces the concept of conventional versus unconventional Alzheimer's disease. It also proposes the path forward, posits the principles of design of productive transgenic animal models of the disease, and describes the molecular details of their construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sophia Rits-Volloch
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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19
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De Strooper B, Karran E. New precision medicine avenues to the prevention of Alzheimer's disease from insights into the structure and function of γ-secretases. EMBO J 2024; 43:887-903. [PMID: 38396302 PMCID: PMC10943082 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00057-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Two phase-III clinical trials with anti-amyloid peptide antibodies have met their primary goal, i.e. slowing of Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. However, antibody therapy may not be the optimal therapeutic modality for AD prevention, as we will discuss in the context of the earlier small molecules described as "γ-secretase modulators" (GSM). We review here the structure, function, and pathobiology of γ-secretases, with a focus on how mutations in presenilin genes result in early-onset AD. Significant progress has been made in generating compounds that act in a manner opposite to pathogenic presenilin mutations: they stabilize the proteinase-substrate complex, thereby increasing the processivity of substrate cleavage and altering the size spectrum of Aβ peptides produced. We propose the term "γ-secretase allosteric stabilizers" (GSAS) to distinguish these compounds from the rather heterogenous class of GSM. The GSAS represent, in theory, a precision medicine approach to the prevention of amyloid deposition, as they specifically target a discrete aspect in a complex cell biological signalling mechanism that initiates the pathological processes leading to Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart De Strooper
- Dementia Research Institute, Institute of Neurology, University College London, at the Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 AT, UK.
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
| | - Eric Karran
- Cambridge Research Center, AbbVie, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
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Weathered C, Bardehle S, Yoon C, Kumar N, Leyns CEG, Kennedy ME, Bloomingdale P, Pienaar E. Microglial roles in Alzheimer's disease: An agent-based model to elucidate microglial spatiotemporal response to beta-amyloid. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2024; 13:449-463. [PMID: 38078626 PMCID: PMC10941569 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.13095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques in the brain and widespread neuronal damage. Because of the high drug attrition rates in AD, there is increased interest in characterizing neuroimmune responses to Aβ plaques. In response to AD pathology, microglia are innate phagocytotic immune cells that transition into a neuroprotective state and form barriers around plaques. We seek to understand the role of microglia in modifying Aβ dynamics and barrier formation. To quantify the influence of individual microglia behaviors (activation, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and proliferation) on plaque size and barrier coverage, we developed an agent-based model to characterize the spatiotemporal interactions between microglia and Aβ. Our model qualitatively reproduces mouse data trends where the fraction of microglia coverage decreases as plaques become larger. In our model, the time to microglial arrival at the plaque boundary is significantly negatively correlated (p < 0.0001) with plaque size, indicating the importance of the time to microglial activation for regulating plaque size. In addition, in silico behavioral knockout simulations show that phagocytosis knockouts have the strongest impact on plaque size, but modest impacts on microglial coverage and activation. In contrast, the chemotaxis knockouts had a strong impact on microglial coverage with a more modest impact on plaque volume and microglial activation. These simulations suggest that phagocytosis, chemotaxis, and replication of activated microglia have complex impacts on plaque volume and coverage, whereas microglial activation remains fairly robust to perturbations of these functions. Thus, our work provides insights into the potential and limitations of targeting microglial activation as a pharmacological strategy for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Weathered
- Weldon School of Biomedical EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteIndianaUSA
| | - Sophia Bardehle
- NeuroimmunologyMerck & Co., Inc.RahwayNew JerseyUSA
- Present address:
Cerevel TherapeuticsCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Choya Yoon
- NeuroimmunologyMerck & Co., Inc.RahwayNew JerseyUSA
| | - Niyanta Kumar
- Pharmacokinetics and PharmacodynamicsMerck & Co., Inc.RahwayNew JerseyUSA
- Present address:
Mersana TherapeuticsCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | | | | | - Peter Bloomingdale
- Quantitative Pharmacology and PharmacometricsMerck & Co., Inc.RahwayNew JerseyUSA
- Present address:
Boehringer IngelheimIngelheim am RheinGermany
| | - Elsje Pienaar
- Weldon School of Biomedical EngineeringPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteIndianaUSA
- Regenstrief Center for Healthcare EngineeringWest LafayetteIndianaUSA
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21
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Bai H, Zeng HM, Zhang QF, Hu YZ, Deng FF. Correlative factors of poor prognosis and abnormal cellular immune function in patients with Alzheimer's disease. World J Clin Cases 2024; 12:1063-1075. [PMID: 38464932 PMCID: PMC10921302 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v12.i6.1063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a serious disease causing human dementia and social problems. The quality of life and prognosis of AD patients have attracted much attention. The role of chronic immune inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD is becoming more and more important. AIM To study the relationship among cognitive dysfunction, abnormal cellular immune function, neuroimaging results and poor prognostic factors in patients. METHODS A retrospective analysis of 62 hospitalized patients clinical diagnosed with AD who were admitted to our hospital from November 2015 to November 2020. Collect cognitive dysfunction performance characteristics, laboratory test data and neuroimaging data from medical records within 24 h of admission, including Mini Mental State Examination Scale score, drawing clock test, blood T lymphocyte subsets, and neutrophils and lymphocyte ratio (NLR), disturbance of consciousness, extrapyramidal symptoms, electroencephalogram (EEG) and head nucleus magnetic spectroscopy (MRS) and other data. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine independent prognostic factors. the modified Rankin scale (mRS) was used to determine whether the prognosis was good. The correlation between drug treatment and prognostic mRS score was tested by the rank sum test. RESULTS Univariate analysis showed that abnormal cellular immune function, extrapyramidal symptoms, obvious disturbance of consciousness, abnormal EEG, increased NLR, abnormal MRS, and complicated pneumonia were related to the poor prognosis of AD patients. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the decrease in the proportion of T lymphocytes in the blood after abnormal cellular immune function (odd ratio: 2.078, 95% confidence interval: 1.156-3.986, P < 0.05) was an independent risk factor for predicting the poor prognosis of AD. The number of days of donepezil treatment to improve cognitive function was negatively correlated with mRS score (r = 0.578, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION The decrease in the proportion of T lymphocytes may have predictive value for the poor prognosis of AD. It is recommended that the proportion of T lymphocytes < 55% is used as the cut-off threshold for predicting the poor prognosis of AD. The early and continuous drug treatment is associated with a good prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Bai
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University in China, Duyun 558099, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Hong-Mei Zeng
- Department of Neurology, Guizhou Medical University, Duyun 558099, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Qi-Fang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Yue-Zhi Hu
- Department of Neurology, Guizhou Medical University, Duyun 558099, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Fei-Fei Deng
- Department of Neurology, Guizhou Medical University, Duyun 558099, Guizhou Province, China
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Murphy MP, Buzinova VA, Johnson CE. The amyloid-β peptide: Guilty as charged? Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:166945. [PMID: 37935338 PMCID: PMC10842071 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2023.166945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen both considerable progress and controversy in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) field. After decades of slow to negligible movement towards the development of disease modifying therapies, promising outcomes in recent clinical trials with several monoclonal antibodies targeting various forms of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide have at last opened a possible way forward. In fact, at this point multiple anti-Aβ therapeutics are close to receiving (or have already received) regulatory approval. Although these outcomes are not without some degree of divisiveness, the fact remains that targeting amyloid for removal has finally shown at least modest efficacy in slowing the otherwise relentless progression of the disease. Although the validation of the long standing amyloid cascade hypothesis would seem to be at hand, what remains is the puzzling issue of why - if Aβ indeed causes AD - does removing it from the brain not stop the disease entirely.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Paul Murphy
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and the Sanders-Brown Center on Aging University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
| | - Valeria A Buzinova
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and the Sanders-Brown Center on Aging University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Carrie E Johnson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and the Sanders-Brown Center on Aging University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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Dubbelman MA, Hendriksen HMA, Harrison JE, Vijverberg EGB, Prins ND, Kroeze LA, Ottenhoff L, Van Leeuwenstijn MMSSA, Verberk IMW, Teunissen CE, van de Giessen EM, Van Harten AC, Van Der Flier WM, Sikkes SAM. Cognitive and Functional Change Over Time in Cognitively Healthy Individuals According to Alzheimer Disease Biomarker-Defined Subgroups. Neurology 2024; 102:e207978. [PMID: 38165338 PMCID: PMC10962908 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000207978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES It is unclear to what extent cognitive outcome measures are sensitive to capture decline in Alzheimer disease (AD) prevention trials. We aimed to analyze the sensitivity to changes over time of a range of neuropsychological tests in several cognitively unimpaired, biomarker-defined patient groups. METHODS Cognitively unimpaired individuals from the Amsterdam Dementia Cohort and the SCIENCe project with available AD biomarkers, obtained from CSF, PET scans, and plasma at baseline, were followed over time (4.5 ± 3.1 years, range 0.6-18.9 years). Based on common inclusion criteria for clinical trials, we defined groups (amyloid, phosphorylated tau [p-tau], APOE ε4). Linear mixed models, adjusted for age, sex, and education, were used to estimate change over time in neuropsychological tests, a functional outcome, and 2 cognitive composite measures. Standardized regression coefficients of time in years (βtime) were reported as outcome of interest. We analyzed change over time with full follow-up, as well as with follow-up limited to 1.5 and 3 years. RESULTS We included 387 individuals (aged 61.7 ± 8.6 years; 44% female) in the following (partly overlapping) biomarker groups: APOE ε4 carriers (n = 212), amyloid-positive individuals (n = 109), amyloid-positive APOE ε4 carriers (n = 66), CSF p-tau-positive individuals (n = 127), plasma p-tau-positive individuals (n = 71), and amyloid and CSF p-tau-positive individuals (n = 50), or in a control group (normal biomarkers; n = 65). An executive functioning task showed most decline in all biomarker groups (βtime range -0.30 to -0.71), followed by delayed word list recognition (βtime range -0.18 to -0.50). Functional decline (βtime range -0.17 to -0.63) was observed in all, except the CSF and plasma tau-positive groups. Both composites showed comparable amounts of change (βtime range -0.12 to -0.62) in all groups, except plasma p-tau-positive individuals. When limiting original follow-up duration, many effects disappeared or even flipped direction. DISCUSSION In conclusion, functional, composite, and neuropsychological outcome measures across all cognitive domains detect changes over time in various biomarker-defined groups, with changes being most evident among individuals with more AD pathology. AD prevention trials should use sufficiently long follow-up duration and/or more sensitive outcome measures to optimally capture subtle cognitive changes over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Dubbelman
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Heleen M A Hendriksen
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - John E Harrison
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Everard G B Vijverberg
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Niels D Prins
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lior A Kroeze
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lois Ottenhoff
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mardou M S S A Van Leeuwenstijn
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Inge M W Verberk
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Elsmarieke M van de Giessen
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Argonde C Van Harten
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wiesje M Van Der Flier
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sietske A M Sikkes
- From the Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology (M.A.D., H.M.A.H., J.E.H., E.G.B.V., L.A.K., L.O., M.M.S.S.A.V.L., I.M.W.V., C.E.T., A.C.V.H., W.M.V.D.F., S.A.M.S.), and Departments of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine (E.M.v.d.G.), Epidemiology & Data Science (W.M.V.D.F.), and Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine (I.M.W.V., C.E.T.), Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam Neuroscience; Brain Research Center (N.D.P., L.O.); and Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology (S.A.M.S.), Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Tao QQ, Cai X, Xue YY, Ge W, Yue L, Li XY, Lin RR, Peng GP, Jiang W, Li S, Zheng KM, Jiang B, Jia JP, Guo T, Wu ZY. Alzheimer's disease early diagnostic and staging biomarkers revealed by large-scale cerebrospinal fluid and serum proteomic profiling. Innovation (N Y) 2024; 5:100544. [PMID: 38235188 PMCID: PMC10794110 DOI: 10.1016/j.xinn.2023.100544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β, tau pathology, and biomarkers of neurodegeneration make up the core diagnostic biomarkers of Alzheimer disease (AD). However, these proteins represent only a fraction of the complex biological processes underlying AD, and individuals with other brain diseases in which AD pathology is a comorbidity also test positive for these diagnostic biomarkers. More AD-specific early diagnostic and disease staging biomarkers are needed. In this study, we performed tandem mass tag proteomic analysis of paired cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum samples in a discovery cohort comprising 98 participants. Candidate biomarkers were validated by parallel reaction monitoring-based targeted proteomic assays in an independent multicenter cohort comprising 288 participants. We quantified 3,238 CSF and 1,702 serum proteins in the discovery cohort, identifying 171 and 860 CSF proteins and 37 and 323 serum proteins as potential early diagnostic and staging biomarkers, respectively. In the validation cohort, 58 and 21 CSF proteins, as well as 12 and 18 serum proteins, were verified as early diagnostic and staging biomarkers, respectively. Separate 19-protein CSF and an 8-protein serum biomarker panels were built by machine learning to accurately classify mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to AD from normal cognition with areas under the curve of 0.984 and 0.881, respectively. The 19-protein CSF biomarker panel also effectively discriminated patients with MCI due to AD from patients with other neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, we identified 21 CSF and 18 serum stage-associated proteins reflecting AD stages. Our findings provide a foundation for developing blood-based tests for AD screening and staging in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Qing Tao
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in the Second Affiliated Hospital and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Xue Cai
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Yan-Yan Xue
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in the Second Affiliated Hospital and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Weigang Ge
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Liang Yue
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Xiao-Yan Li
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in the Second Affiliated Hospital and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Rong-Rong Lin
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in the Second Affiliated Hospital and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Guo-Ping Peng
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Wenhao Jiang
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Sainan Li
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Kun-Mu Zheng
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361009, China
| | - Bin Jiang
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361009, China
| | - Jian-Ping Jia
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Tiannan Guo
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzho 310024, China
| | - Zhi-Ying Wu
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in the Second Affiliated Hospital and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311100, China
- MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Shanghai 200031, China
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Mohs R, Bakker A, Rosenzweig‐Lipson S, Rosenblum M, Barton RL, Albert MS, Cohen S, Zeger S, Gallagher M. The HOPE4MCI study: A randomized double-blind assessment of AGB101 for the treatment of MCI due to AD. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA (NEW YORK, N. Y.) 2024; 10:e12446. [PMID: 38356475 PMCID: PMC10865488 DOI: 10.1002/trc2.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In addition to the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the presence of excess neural activity is a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and a prognostic indicator for progression of AD pathology and clinical/cognitive worsening in mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease (MCI due to AD). The HOPE4MCI clinical study tested the efficacy of a therapeutic with demonstrated ability to normalize heightened neural activity in the hippocampus in a randomized controlled trial of 78 weeks duration in patients with MCI due to AD. METHODS One hundred and sixty-four participants were randomized to placebo (n = 83) or AGB101 (n = 81), an extended-release formulation of low dose (220 mg) levetiracetam. The primary endpoint was the change in Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes score (CDR-SB) comparing follow up at 18 months to baseline. The goal of the primary efficacy analysis was to estimate the difference between the AGB101 and placebo arms in the mean change of the primary endpoint. RESULTS The mean change in CDR-SB was estimated to be 1.12 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.66, 1.69) for the AGB101 arm and 1.22 (95% CI: 0.75, 1.78) for the placebo arm. The estimated difference between arms is -0.10 (95% CI: -0.85, 0.58), which was not statistically significant. In a prespecified analysis, the difference was -0.45 (95% CI: -1.43, 0.53) for ApoE-4 noncarriers and -0.10 (95% CI: -0.92, 0.72) for apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-4 carriers. DISCUSSION The possibility that ApoE-4 carriers and noncarriers will respond differently to therapeutic intervention is consistent with recently reported findings from biologics and the present results show further testing of AGB101 in patients with MCI due to AD who are noncarriers of the ApoeE-4 allele is warranted. Conclusions from the HOPE4MCI study are limited primarily due to the small sample size and results can only be regarded as a guide to future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arnold Bakker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of NeurologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of Psychological and Brain SciencesJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | | | - Michael Rosenblum
- Department of BiostatisticsJohns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | | | - Marilyn S. Albert
- Department of NeurologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | | | - Scott Zeger
- Department of BiostatisticsJohns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Michela Gallagher
- AgeneBio, Inc.BaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of Psychological and Brain SciencesJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
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Faquetti ML, Slappendel L, Bigonne H, Grisoni F, Schneider P, Aichinger G, Schneider G, Sturla SJ, Burden AM. Baricitinib and tofacitinib off-target profile, with a focus on Alzheimer's disease. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA (NEW YORK, N. Y.) 2024; 10:e12445. [PMID: 38528988 PMCID: PMC10962475 DOI: 10.1002/trc2.12445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors were recently identified as promising drug candidates for repurposing in Alzheimer's disease (AD) due to their capacity to suppress inflammation via modulation of JAK/STAT signaling pathways. Besides interaction with primary therapeutic targets, JAK inhibitor drugs frequently interact with unintended, often unknown, biological off-targets, leading to associated effects. Nevertheless, the relevance of JAK inhibitors' off-target interactions in the context of AD remains unclear. METHODS Putative off-targets of baricitinib and tofacitinib were predicted using a machine learning (ML) approach. After screening scientific literature, off-targets were filtered based on their relevance to AD. Targets that had not been previously identified as off-targets of baricitinib or tofacitinib were subsequently tested using biochemical or cell-based assays. From those, active concentrations were compared to bioavailable concentrations in the brain predicted by physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. RESULTS With the aid of ML and in vitro activity assays, we identified two enzymes previously unknown to be inhibited by baricitinib, namely casein kinase 2 subunit alpha 2 (CK2-α2) and dual leucine zipper kinase (MAP3K12), both with binding constant (K d) values of 5.8 μM. Predicted maximum concentrations of baricitinib in brain tissue using PBPK modeling range from 1.3 to 23 nM, which is two to three orders of magnitude below the corresponding binding constant. CONCLUSION In this study, we extended the list of baricitinib off-targets that are potentially relevant for AD progression and predicted drug distribution in the brain. The results suggest a low likelihood of successful repurposing in AD due to low brain permeability, even at the maximum recommended daily dose. While additional research is needed to evaluate the potential impact of the off-target interaction on AD, the combined approach of ML-based target prediction, in vitro confirmation, and PBPK modeling may help prioritize drugs with a high likelihood of being effectively repurposed for AD. Highlights This study explored JAK inhibitors' off-targets in AD using a multidisciplinary approach.We combined machine learning, in vitro tests, and PBPK modelling to predict and validate new off-target interactions of tofacitinib and baricitinib in AD.Previously unknown inhibition of two enzymes (CK2-a2 and MAP3K12) by baricitinib were confirmed using in vitro experiments.Our PBPK model indicates that baricitinib low brain permeability limits AD repurposing.The proposed multidisciplinary approach optimizes drug repurposing efforts in AD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L. Faquetti
- Department of Chemistry and Applied BiosciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical SciencesETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Laura Slappendel
- Department of Health Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Hélène Bigonne
- Department of Health Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Francesca Grisoni
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringInstitute for Complex Molecular SystemsEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoventhe Netherlands
- Centre for Living TechnologiesAlliance TU/e, WUR, UU, UMC UtrechtUtrechtthe Netherlands
| | - Petra Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Applied BiosciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical SciencesETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- inSili.com LLCZurichSwitzerland
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Health Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Gisbert Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Applied BiosciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical SciencesETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- ETH Singapore SEC LtdSingaporeSingapore
| | - Shana J. Sturla
- Department of Health Sciences and TechnologyInstitute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Andrea M. Burden
- Department of Chemistry and Applied BiosciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical SciencesETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
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27
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Ten Kate M, Barkhof F, Schwarz AJ. Consistency between Treatment Effects on Clinical and Brain Atrophy Outcomes in Alzheimer's Disease Trials. J Prev Alzheimers Dis 2024; 11:38-47. [PMID: 38230715 PMCID: PMC10994869 DOI: 10.14283/jpad.2023.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Longitudinal changes in volumetric MRI outcome measures have been shown to correlate well with longitudinal changes in clinical instruments and have been widely used as biomarker outcomes in clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease (AD). While instances of discordant findings have been noted in some trials, especially the recent amyloid-removing therapies, the overall relationship between treatment effects on brain atrophy and clinical outcomes, and how it might depend on treatment target or mechanism, clinical instrument or imaging variable is not yet clear. OBJECTIVE To systematically assess the consistency and therapeutic class-dependence of treatment effects on clinical outcomes and on brain atrophy in published reports of clinical trials conducted in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and/or AD. DESIGN Quantitative review of the published literature. The consistency of treatment effects on clinical and brain atrophy outcomes was assessed in terms of statistical agreement with hypothesized equal magnitude effects (e.g., 30% slowing of both) and nominal directional concordance, as a function of therapeutic class. SETTING Interventional randomized clinical trials. PARTICIPANTS MCI or AD trial participants. INTERVENTION Treatments included were those that involved ingestion or injection of a putatively active substance into the body, encompassing both pharmacological and controlled dietary interventions. MEASUREMENTS Each trial included in the analysis reported at least one of the required clinical outcomes (ADAS-Cog, CDR-SB or MMSE) and at least one of the required imaging outcomes (whole brain, ventricular or hippocampal volume). RESULTS Data from 35 trials, comprising 185 pairwise comparisons, were included. Overall, the 95% confidence bounds overlapped with the line of identity for 150/185 (81%) of the imaging-clinical variable pairs. The greatest proportion of outliers was found in trials of anti-amyloid antibodies that have been shown to dramatically reduce the level of PET-detectable amyloid plaques, for which only 13/33 (39%) of observations overlapped the identity line. A Deming regression calculated using all data points yielded a slope of 0.54, whereas if data points from the amyloid remover class were excluded, the Deming regression line had a slope of 0.92. Directional discordance of treatment effects was also most pronounced for the amyloid-removing class, and for comparisons involving ventricular volume. CONCLUSION Our results provide a frame of reference for the interpretation of clinical and brain atrophy results from future clinical trials and highlight the importance of mechanism of action in the interpretation of imaging results.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ten Kate
- Adam J Schwarz, PhD, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Ltd., 40 Landsdowne St., Cambridge MA 02139, USA Tel: (+1) 317 282 3557,
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Guo Y, Sun Y, Li M, Qi WY, Tan L, Tan MS. Amyloid Pathology Modulates the Associations of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms with Cognitive Impairments and Neurodegeneration in Non-Demented Elderly. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 97:471-484. [PMID: 38143362 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The associations between neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been well-studied, yet gaps remain. OBJECTIVE We aimed to examine the associations of four subsyndromes (hyperactivity, psychosis, affective symptoms, and apathy) of NPSs with cognition, neurodegeneration, and AD pathologies. METHODS Totally 1,040 non-demented elderly (48.07% males) from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) were included. We assessed the relationships between NPSs and AD neuropathologies, cognition, neurodegeneration, and clinical correlates in cross-sectional and longitudinal via multiple linear regression, linear mixed effects, and Cox proportional hazard models. Causal mediation analyses were conducted to explore the mediation effects of AD pathologies on cognition and neurodegeneration. RESULTS We found that individuals with hyperactivity, psychosis, affective symptoms, or apathy displayed a poorer cognitive status, a lower CSF amyloid-β (Aβ) level and a higher risk of clinical conversion (p < 0.05). Hyperactivity and affective symptoms were associated with increasing cerebral Aβ deposition (p < 0.05). Except psychosis, the other three subsyndromes accompanied with faster atrophy of hippocampal volume (p < 0.05). Specific NPSs were predominantly associated with different cognitive domains decline through an 8-year follow-up (p < 0.05). Moreover, the relationships between NPSs and cognitive decline, neurodegeneration might be associated with Aβ, the mediation percentage varied from 6.05% to 17.51% (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS NPSs could be strongly associated with AD. The influences of NPSs on cognitive impairments, neurodegeneration might be partially associated with Aβ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Guo
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wan-Yi Qi
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Qingdao, China
| | - Lan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Meng-Shan Tan
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China
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29
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Ratan Y, Rajput A, Pareek A, Jain V, Pareek A, Gupta MM, Kamal MA. Green Synthetic Strategies and Pharmaceutical Applications of Thiazine and its Derivatives: An Updated Review. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2024; 25:1142-1166. [PMID: 37694776 DOI: 10.2174/1389201025666230908141543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Thiazines are a sizable class of organic heterocycles that are notable for their skeletal versatility and relative chemical simplicity, making them among the most flexible sources of biologically active compounds. The term "green synthesis" refers to implementing energy-efficient procedures for the nature-friendly production of materials and chemicals using green solvents, catalysts, and suitable reaction conditions. Considering the importance of green chemistry and the outstanding therapeutic profile of thiazines, the present work was designed to review the recent advances in green chemistry-based synthetic strategies of thiazine and its derivatives. The green synthetic approaches, including microwave-assisted, ultrasound-assisted, and various other synthetic methods for thiazine and its derivatives, were discussed and generalized. In addition, applications of thiazine and its derivatives in pharmaceutical sciences were explained with examples of marketed drugs.The discussed sustainable synthetic methods for thiazines and their derivatives could be useful in developing other medicinally important lead molecules. They could also aid in developing new synthetic schemes and apparatuses that may simplify chemical manufacturing processes and enable novel reactions with minimal by-products while questing for optimal, green solvents. This review can help anyone interested in this fascinating class of heterocycles to make decisions about selecting targets and tasks for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashumati Ratan
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali-304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Aishwarya Rajput
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali-304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Ashutosh Pareek
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali-304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Vivek Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MLSU, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan, India
| | - Aaushi Pareek
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali-304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Madan Mohan Gupta
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, WI
| | - Mohammad Amjad Kamal
- Joint Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare, Institutes for Systems Genetics and West China School of Nursing, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
- Enzymoics, 7Peterlee place, Hebersham, NSW 2770, Novel Global Community Educational Foundation, Australia
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30
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Tijms BM, Vromen EM, Mjaavatten O, Holstege H, Reus LM, van der Lee S, Wesenhagen KEJ, Lorenzini L, Vermunt L, Venkatraghavan V, Tesi N, Tomassen J, den Braber A, Goossens J, Vanmechelen E, Barkhof F, Pijnenburg YAL, van der Flier WM, Teunissen CE, Berven FS, Visser PJ. Cerebrospinal fluid proteomics in patients with Alzheimer's disease reveals five molecular subtypes with distinct genetic risk profiles. NATURE AGING 2024; 4:33-47. [PMID: 38195725 PMCID: PMC10798889 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-023-00550-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is heterogenous at the molecular level. Understanding this heterogeneity is critical for AD drug development. Here we define AD molecular subtypes using mass spectrometry proteomics in cerebrospinal fluid, based on 1,058 proteins, with different levels in individuals with AD (n = 419) compared to controls (n = 187). These AD subtypes had alterations in protein levels that were associated with distinct molecular processes: subtype 1 was characterized by proteins related to neuronal hyperplasticity; subtype 2 by innate immune activation; subtype 3 by RNA dysregulation; subtype 4 by choroid plexus dysfunction; and subtype 5 by blood-brain barrier impairment. Each subtype was related to specific AD genetic risk variants, for example, subtype 1 was enriched with TREM2 R47H. Subtypes also differed in clinical outcomes, survival times and anatomical patterns of brain atrophy. These results indicate molecular heterogeneity in AD and highlight the need for personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betty M Tijms
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Ellen M Vromen
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Olav Mjaavatten
- Proteomics Unit at the University of Bergen, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Henne Holstege
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lianne M Reus
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Sven van der Lee
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Human Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kirsten E J Wesenhagen
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Luigi Lorenzini
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lisa Vermunt
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Vikram Venkatraghavan
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Niccoló Tesi
- Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Human Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Jori Tomassen
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anouk den Braber
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Frederik Barkhof
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Centre for Medical Image Computing, University College London, London, UK
| | - Yolande A L Pijnenburg
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wiesje M van der Flier
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Epidemiology & Data Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Frode S Berven
- Proteomics Unit at the University of Bergen, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Pieter Jelle Visser
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Neurology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC location VUmc, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Limburg, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Volloch V, Rits-Volloch S. Next Generation Therapeutic Strategy for Treatment and Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease and Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline: Transient, Once-in-a-Lifetime-Only Depletion of Intraneuronal Aβ ( iAβ) by Its Targeted Degradation via Augmentation of Intra- iAβ-Cleaving Activities of BACE1 and/or BACE2. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17586. [PMID: 38139415 PMCID: PMC10744314 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the long-standing Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis (ACH) has been largely discredited, its main attribute, the centrality of amyloid-beta (Aβ) in Alzheimer's disease (AD), remains the cornerstone of any potential interpretation of the disease: All known AD-causing mutations, without a single exception, affect, in one way or another, Aβ. The ACH2.0, a recently introduced theory of AD, preserves this attribute but otherwise differs fundamentally from the ACH. It posits that AD is a two-stage disorder where both stages are driven by intraneuronal (rather than extracellular) Aβ (iAβ) albeit of two distinctly different origins. The first asymptomatic stage is the decades-long accumulation of Aβ protein precursor (AβPP)-derived iAβ to the critical threshold. This triggers the activation of the self-sustaining AβPP-independent iAβ production pathway and the commencement of the second, symptomatic AD stage. Importantly, Aβ produced independently of AβPP is retained intraneuronally. It drives the AD pathology and perpetuates the operation of the pathway; continuous cycles of the iAβ-stimulated propagation of its own AβPP-independent production constitute an engine that drives AD, the AD Engine. It appears that the dynamics of AβPP-derived iAβ accumulation is the determining factor that either drives Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline (AACD) and triggers AD or confers the resistance to both. Within the ACH2.0 framework, the ACH-based drugs, designed to lower levels of extracellular Aβ, could be applicable in the prevention of AD and treatment of AACD because they reduce the rate of accumulation of AβPP-derived iAβ. The present study analyzes their utility and concludes that it is severely limited. Indeed, their short-term employment is ineffective, their long-term engagement is highly problematic, their implementation at the symptomatic stages of AD is futile, and their evaluation in conventional clinical trials for the prevention of AD is impractical at best, impossible at worst, and misleading in between. In contrast, the ACH2.0-guided Next Generation Therapeutic Strategy for the treatment and prevention of both AD and AACD, namely the depletion of iAβ via its transient, short-duration, targeted degradation by the novel ACH2.0-based drugs, has none of the shortcomings of the ACH-based drugs. It is potentially highly effective, easily evaluable in clinical trials, and opens up the possibility of once-in-a-lifetime-only therapeutic intervention for prevention and treatment of both conditions. It also identifies two plausible ACH2.0-based drugs: activators of physiologically occurring intra-iAβ-cleaving capabilities of BACE1 and/or BACE2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sophia Rits-Volloch
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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32
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Espay AJ, Herrup K, Kepp KP, Daly T. The proteinopenia hypothesis: Loss of Aβ 42 and the onset of Alzheimer's Disease. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 92:102112. [PMID: 38270185 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.102112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
The dominant protein-lowering strategy in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has failed to provide a clinically-meaningful treatment for patients. We hypothesize that the loss of functional, soluble Aβ42 during the process of aggregation into amyloid is more detrimental to the brain than the corresponding accrual of insoluble amyloid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto J Espay
- James J. and Joan A. Gardner Family Center for Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Karl Herrup
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kasper P Kepp
- Department of Chemistry, Section of Biophysical and Biomedicinal Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Timothy Daly
- Science Norms Democracy, UMR 8011 Sorbonne University, Paris, France; Bioethics Program, FLACSO Argentina, Tucumán 1966, C1050 AAN, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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33
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Doherty T, Yao Z, Khleifat AAL, Tantiangco H, Tamburin S, Albertyn C, Thakur L, Llewellyn DJ, Oxtoby NP, Lourida I, Ranson JM, Duce JA. Artificial intelligence for dementia drug discovery and trials optimization. Alzheimers Dement 2023; 19:5922-5933. [PMID: 37587767 DOI: 10.1002/alz.13428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Drug discovery and clinical trial design for dementia have historically been challenging. In part these challenges have arisen from patient heterogeneity, length of disease course, and the tractability of a target for the brain. Applying big data analytics and machine learning tools for drug discovery and utilizing them to inform successful clinical trial design has the potential to accelerate progress. Opportunities arise at multiple stages in the therapy pipeline and the growing availability of large medical data sets opens possibilities for big data analyses to answer key questions in clinical and therapeutic challenges. However, before this goal is reached, several challenges need to be overcome and only a multi-disciplinary approach can promote data-driven decision-making to its full potential. Herein we review the current state of machine learning applications to clinical trial design and drug discovery, while presenting opportunities and recommendations that can break down the barriers to implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Doherty
- Eisai Europe Ltd, Hatfield, UK
- University of Westminster, London, UK
| | | | - Ahmad A L Khleifat
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | | | - Stefano Tamburin
- University of Verona, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine & Movement Sciences, Verona, Italy
| | - Chris Albertyn
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Lokendra Thakur
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David J Llewellyn
- University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK
- Alan Turing Institute, London, UK
| | - Neil P Oxtoby
- UCL Centre for Medical Image Computing, Department of Computer Science, University College London, London, UK
| | | | | | - James A Duce
- The ALBORADA Drug Discovery Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
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Weng X, Liu S, Li M, Zhang Y, Zhu J, Liu C, Hu H. Differential eye movement features between Alzheimer's disease patients with and without depressive symptoms. Aging Clin Exp Res 2023; 35:2987-2996. [PMID: 37910289 DOI: 10.1007/s40520-023-02595-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accurately diagnosing depressive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients is often challenging. Eye movement parameters have been demonstrated as biomarkers for assessing cognition and psychological conditions. AIM To investigate the differences in eye movement between AD patients with and without depressive symptoms. METHODS Eye movement data of 65 AD patients were compared between the depressed AD (D-AD) and non-depressed AD (nD-AD) groups. Logistic regression analysis was employed to identify diagnostic biomarkers and the ROC curve was plotted. The correlation between eye movement and HAMD-17 scores was assessed by partial correlation analysis. RESULTS The D-AD patients showed longer saccade latency and faster average/peak saccade velocities in the overlap prosaccade test, longer average reaction time and faster average saccade velocity in the gap prosaccade test, longer start-up durations, slower pursuit velocity, more offsets, and larger total offset degrees in the smooth pursuit test, and poorer fixation stability in both the central and lateral fixation tests compared to nD-AD patients. The start-up duration in the smooth pursuit test and the number of offsets in the central fixation test were identified as the diagnostic eye movement parameters for D-AD patients with the area under the ROC curves of 0.8011. Partial correlation analysis revealed that the start-up duration and pursuit velocity in the smooth pursuit test and the total offset degrees in the lateral fixation test were correlated with HAMD-17 scores in D-AD patients. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Eye movement differences may help to differentiate D-AD patients from nD-AD patients in a non-invasive and cost-effective manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofen Weng
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shanwen Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Radiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yingchun Zhang
- Department of Ultrasonography, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiangtao Zhu
- Department of Radiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chunfeng Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hua Hu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, Jiangsu, China.
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35
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Miao Y, Zhang B, Sun X, Ma X, Fang D, Zhang W, Wu T, Xu X, Yu C, Hou Y, Ding Q, Yang S, Fu L, Zhang Z, Bi Y. The Presence and Severity of NAFLD are Associated With Cognitive Impairment and Hippocampal Damage. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2023; 108:3239-3249. [PMID: 37310344 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgad352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Although cognitive impairment in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has received attention in recent years, little is known about detailed cognitive functions in histologically diagnosed individuals. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the association of liver pathological changes with cognitive features and further explore the underlying brain manifestations. METHODS AND PATIENTS We performed a cross-sectional study in 320 subjects who underwent liver biopsy. Among the enrolled participants, 225 underwent assessments of global cognition and cognitive subdomains. Furthermore, 70 individuals received functional magnetic resonance imaging scans for neuroimaging evaluations. The associations among liver histological features, brain alterations, and cognitive functions were evaluated using structural equation model. RESULTS Compared with controls, patients with NAFLD had poorer immediate memory and delayed memory. Severe liver steatosis (odds ratio, 2.189; 95% CI, 1.020-4.699) and ballooning (OR, 3.655; 95% CI, 1.419-9.414) were related to a higher proportion of memory impairment. Structural magnetic resonance imaging showed that patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis exhibited volume loss in left hippocampus and its subregions of subiculum and presubiculum. Task-based magnetic resonance imaging showed that patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis had decreased left hippocampal activation. Path analysis demonstrated that higher NAFLD activity scores were associated with lower subiculum volume and reduced hippocampal activation, and such hippocampal damage contributed to lower delayed memory scores. CONCLUSIONS We are the first to report the presence and severity of NAFLD to be associated with an increased risk of memory impairment and hippocampal structural and functional abnormalities. These findings stress the significance of early cognitive evaluation in patients with NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingwen Miao
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Bing Zhang
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xitai Sun
- Department of General Surgery, Drum Tower Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xuelin Ma
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Da Fang
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Tianyu Wu
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xiang Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Congcong Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yinjiao Hou
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Qun Ding
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Sijue Yang
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Linqing Fu
- Department of Radiology, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Zhou Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Yan Bi
- Department of Endocrinology, Endocrine and Metabolic Disease Medical Center, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China
- Branch of National Clinical Research Centre for Metabolic Diseases, Nanjing 210008, China
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Basak JM, Falk M, Mitchell DN, Coakley KA, Quillinan N, Orfila JE, Herson PS. Targeting BACE1-mediated production of amyloid beta improves hippocampal synaptic function in an experimental model of ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2023; 43:66-77. [PMID: 37150606 PMCID: PMC10638992 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x231159597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Post-stroke cognitive impairment and dementia (PSCID) affects many survivors of large vessel cerebral ischemia. The molecular pathways underlying PSCID are poorly defined but may overlap with neurodegenerative pathophysiology. Specifically, synaptic dysfunction after stroke may be directly mediated by alterations in the levels of amyloid beta (Aβ), the peptide that accumulates in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. In this study, we use the transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) model in young adult mice to evaluate if a large vessel stroke increases brain soluble Aβ levels. We show that soluble Aβ40 and Aβ42 levels are increased in the ipsilateral hippocampus in MCAo mice 7 days after the injury. We also analyze the level and activity of β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), an enzyme that generates Aβ in the brain, and observe that BACE1 activity is increased in the ipsilateral hippocampus of the MCAo mice. Finally, we highlight that treatment of MCAo mice with a BACE1 inhibitor during the recovery period rescues stroke-induced deficits in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. These findings support a molecular pathway linking ischemia to alterations in BACE1-mediated production of Aβ, and encourage future studies that evaluate whether targeting BACE1 activity improves the cognitive deficits seen with PSCID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Basak
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Neuronal Injury and Plasticity Program, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Macy Falk
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Neuronal Injury and Plasticity Program, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Danae N Mitchell
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Neuronal Injury and Plasticity Program, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kelley A Coakley
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Nidia Quillinan
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Neuronal Injury and Plasticity Program, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - James E Orfila
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Paco S Herson
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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37
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Wang S, Fang X, Wen X, Yang C, Yang Y, Zhang T. Prioritization of risk genes for Alzheimer's disease: an analysis framework using spatial and temporal gene expression data in the human brain based on support vector machine. Front Genet 2023; 14:1190863. [PMID: 37867597 PMCID: PMC10587557 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1190863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex disorder, and its risk is influenced by multiple genetic and environmental factors. In this study, an AD risk gene prediction framework based on spatial and temporal features of gene expression data (STGE) was proposed. Methods: We proposed an AD risk gene prediction framework based on spatial and temporal features of gene expression data. The gene expression data of providers of different tissues and ages were used as model features. Human genes were classified as AD risk or non-risk sets based on information extracted from relevant databases. Support vector machine (SVM) models were constructed to capture the expression patterns of genes believed to contribute to the risk of AD. Results: The recursive feature elimination (RFE) method was utilized for feature selection. Data for 64 tissue-age features were obtained before feature selection, and this number was reduced to 19 after RFE was performed. The SVM models were built and evaluated using 19 selected and full features. The area under curve (AUC) values for the SVM model based on 19 selected features (0.740 [0.690-0.790]) and full feature sets (0.730 [0.678-0.769]) were very similar. Fifteen genes predicted to be risk genes for AD with a probability greater than 90% were obtained. Conclusion: The newly proposed framework performed comparably to previous prediction methods based on protein-protein interaction (PPI) network properties. A list of 15 candidate genes for AD risk was also generated to provide data support for further studies on the genetic etiology of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | - Xixian Fang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | - Xiang Wen
- Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Congying Yang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
| | - Tianxiao Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Shaanxi Regional Center, Xi’an, China
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38
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Kim J, Jeon H, Yun Kim H, Kim Y. Failure, Success, and Future Direction of Alzheimer Drugs Targeting Amyloid-β Cascade: Pros and Cons of Chemical and Biological Modalities. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300328. [PMID: 37497809 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent cause of dementia and has become a health concern worldwide urging for an effective therapeutic. The amyloid hypothesis, currently the most pursued basis of AD drug discovery, points the cause of AD to abnormal production and ineffective removal of pathogenic aggregated amyloid-β (Aβ). AD therapeutic research has been focused on targeting different species of Aβ in the amyloidogenic process to control Aβ content and recover cognitive decline. Among the different processes targeted, the clearance mechanism has been found to be the most effective, supported by the recent clinical approval of an Aβ-targeting immunotherapeutic drug which significantly slowed cognitive decline. Although the current AD drug discovery field is extensively researching immunotherapeutic drugs, there are numerous properties of immunotherapy in need of improvements that could be overcome by an equally performing chemical drug. Here, we review chemical and immunotherapy drug candidates, based on their mechanism of modulating the amyloid cascade, selected from the AlzForum database. Through this review, we aim to summarize and evaluate the prospect of Aβ-targeting chemical drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- JiMin Kim
- Department of Pharmacy and Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Hanna Jeon
- Department of Pharmacy and Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Hye Yun Kim
- Department of Pharmacy and Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - YoungSoo Kim
- Department of Pharmacy and Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
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Knopman DS, Hershey L. Implications of the Approval of Lecanemab for Alzheimer Disease Patient Care: Incremental Step or Paradigm Shift? Neurology 2023; 101:610-620. [PMID: 37295957 PMCID: PMC10573150 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000207438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The amyloid cascade model of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD) is well supported in observational studies. Its therapeutic corollary asserts that removal of amyloid-β peptide ("amyloid") would provide clinical benefits. After 2 decades of pursuing the strategy of amyloid removal without success, clinical trials of the antiamyloid monoclonal antibody (AAMA) donanemab and a phase 3 clinical trial of lecanemab have reported clinical benefits linked to amyloid removal. Lecanemab (trade name, Leqembi) is the first with published phase 3 trial results. When administered through IV every 2 weeks to patients with elevated brain amyloid and mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia, lecanemab delayed cognitive and functional worsening by approximately 5 months in an 18-month double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The trial was well conducted, and the results favoring lecanemab were internally consistent. The demonstration that lecanemab treatment delayed clinical progression in persons with mild symptoms due to AD is a major conceptual achievement, but a better appreciation of the magnitude and durability of benefits for individual patients will require extended observations from clinical practice settings. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) that were largely asymptomatic occurred in approximately 20%, slightly more than half of which were attributable to treatment and the rest to underlying AD-related amyloid angiopathy. Persons who were homozygous for the APOE ε4 allele had greater ARIA risks. Hemorrhagic complications with longer-term lecanemab use need to be better understood. Administration of lecanemab will place unprecedented pressures on dementia care personnel and infrastructure, both of which need to grow exponentially to meet the challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Knopman
- From the Department of Neurology (D.S.K.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; and Department of Neurology (L.H.), University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center.
| | - Linda Hershey
- From the Department of Neurology (D.S.K.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; and Department of Neurology (L.H.), University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
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40
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Liu Z, Xia Q, Zhao X, Zheng F, Xiao J, Ge F, Wang D, Gao X. The Landscape of m6A Regulators in Multiple Brain Regions of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:5184-5198. [PMID: 37273154 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03409-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease research has been conducted for many years, yet no effective cure methods have been found. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation, an essential post-transcriptional regulation mechanism, has been discovered to affect essential neurobiological processes, such as brain cell development and aging, which are closely related to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. The relationship between Alzheimer's disease and the m6A mechanism still needs further investigation. Our work evaluated the alteration profile of m6A regulators and their influences on Alzheimer's disease in 4 brain regions: the postcentral gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, hippocampus, and entorhinal cortex. We found that the expression levels of the m6A regulators FTO, ELAVL1, and YTHDF2 were altered in Alzheimer's disease and were related to pathological development and cognitive levels. We also assessed AD-related biological processes influenced by m6A regulators via GSEA and GSVA method. Biological Processes Gene Ontology terms including memory, cognition, and synapse-signaling were found to potentially be affected by m6A regulators in AD. We also found different m6A modification patterns in AD samples among different brain regions, mainly due to differences in m6A readers. Finally, we further evaluated the importance of AD-related regulators based on the WGCNA method, assessed their potential targets based on correlation relationships, and constructed diagnostic models in 3 of all 4 regions using hub regulators, including FTO, YTHDC1, YTHDC2, etc., and their potential targets. This work aims to provide a reference for the follow-up study of m6A and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZiJie Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
| | - Qing Xia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
- Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xue Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
| | - FeiFei Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
| | - JiaYing Xiao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
| | - FangLiang Ge
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China
| | - DaYong Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Basic Medical Institute, Heilongjiang Medical Science Academy, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Translational Medicine Center of Northern China, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Key Laboratory of Heilongjiang Province for Genetically Modified Animals, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
| | - Xu Gao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Basic Medical Institute, Heilongjiang Medical Science Academy, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Translational Medicine Center of Northern China, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
- Key Laboratory of Heilongjiang Province for Genetically Modified Animals, No. 157 Harbin health care road, Nangang District, Harbin, China.
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Volloch V, Rits-Volloch S. Principles of Design of Clinical Trials for Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline in the ACH2.0 Perspective: Potential Outcomes, Challenges, and Solutions. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2023; 7:921-955. [PMID: 37849639 PMCID: PMC10578334 DOI: 10.3233/adr-230037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
With the Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis (ACH) largely discredited, the ACH2.0 theory of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been recently introduced. Within the framework of the ACH2.0, AD is triggered by amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP)-derived intraneuronal Aβ (iAβ) and is driven by iAβ produced in the AβPP-independent pathway and retained intraneuronally. In this paradigm, the depletion of extracellular Aβ or suppression of Aβ production by AβPP proteolysis, the two sources of AβPP-derived iAβ, would be futile in symptomatic AD, due to its reliance on iAβ generated independently of AβPP, but effective in preventing AD and treating Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline (AACD) driven, in the ACH2.0 framework, by AβPP-derived iAβ. The observed effect of lecanemab and donanemab, interpreted in the ACH2.0 perspective, supports this notion and mandates AD-preventive clinical trials. Such trials are currently in progress. They are likely, however, to fail or to yield deceptive results if conducted conventionally. The present study considers concepts of design of clinical trials of lecanemab, donanemab, or any other drug, targeting the influx of AβPP-derived iAβ, in prevention of AD and treatment of AACD. It analyzes possible outcomes and explains why selection of high-risk asymptomatic participants seems reasonable but is not. It argues that outcomes of such AD preventive trials could be grossly misleading, discusses inevitable potential problems, and proposes feasible solutions. It advocates the initial evaluation of this type of drugs in clinical trials for treatment of AACD. Whereas AD protective trials of these drugs are potentially of an impractical length, AACD clinical trials are expected to yield unequivocal results within a relatively short duration. Moreover, success of the latter, in addition to its intrinsic value, would constitute a proof of concept for the former. Furthermore, this study introduces concepts of the active versus passive iAβ depletion, contends that targeted degradation of iAβ is the best therapeutic strategy for both prevention and treatment of AD and AACD, proposes potential iAβ-degrading drugs, and describes their feasible and unambiguous evaluation in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sophia Rits-Volloch
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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42
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Zhang L, Xu J, Guo J, Wang Y, Wang Q. Elucidation of Pharmacological Mechanism Underlying the Anti-Alzheimer's Disease Effects of Evodia rutaecarpa and Discovery of Novel Lead Molecules: An In Silico Study. Molecules 2023; 28:5846. [PMID: 37570816 PMCID: PMC10421504 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28155846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a brain disease with a peculiarity of multiformity and an insidious onset. Multiple-target drugs, especially Chinese traditional medicine, have achieved a measure of success in AD treatment. Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth. (Wuzhuyu, WZY, i.e., E. rutaecarpa), a traditional Chinese herb, has been identified as an effective drug to cure migraines. To our surprise, our in silico study showed that rather than migraines, Alzheimer's disease was the primary disease to which the E. rutaecarpa active compounds were targeted. Correspondingly, a behavioral experiment showed that E. rutaecarpa extract could improve impairments in learning and memory in AD model mice. However, the mechanism underlying the way that E. rutaecarpa compounds target AD is still not clear. For this purpose, we employed methods of pharmacology networking and molecular docking to explore this mechanism. We found that E. rutaecarpa showed significant AD-targeting characteristics, and alkaloids of E. rutaecarpa played the main role in binding to the key nodes of AD. Our research detected that E. rutaecarpa affects the pathologic development of AD through the serotonergic synapse signaling pathway (SLC6A4), hormones (PTGS2, ESR1, AR), anti-neuroinflammation (SRC, TNF, NOS3), transcription regulation (NR3C1), and molecular chaperones (HSP90AA1), especially in the key nodes of PTGS2, AR, SLCA64, and SRC. Graveoline, 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine, dehydroevodiamine, and goshuyuamide II in E. rutaecarpa show stronger binding affinities to these key proteins than currently known preclinical and clinical drugs, showing a great potential to be developed as lead molecules for treating AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Jia Xu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (J.X.); (J.G.)
| | - Jiejie Guo
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (J.X.); (J.G.)
| | - Yun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China;
| | - Qinwen Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China; (J.X.); (J.G.)
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43
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Cai W, Li L, Sang S, Pan X, Zhong C. Physiological Roles of β-amyloid in Regulating Synaptic Function: Implications for AD Pathophysiology. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:1289-1308. [PMID: 36443453 PMCID: PMC10387033 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-00985-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiological functions of endogenous amyloid-β (Aβ), which plays important role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), have not been paid enough attention. Here, we review the multiple physiological effects of Aβ, particularly in regulating synaptic transmission, and the possible mechanisms, in order to decipher the real characters of Aβ under both physiological and pathological conditions. Some worthy studies have shown that the deprivation of endogenous Aβ gives rise to synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficiency, while the moderate elevation of this peptide enhances long term potentiation and leads to neuronal hyperexcitability. In this review, we provide a new view for understanding the role of Aβ in AD pathophysiology from the perspective of physiological meaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Cai
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Linxi Li
- Basic Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China
| | - Shaoming Sang
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Xiaoli Pan
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Chunjiu Zhong
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science & Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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44
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Volloch V, Rits-Volloch S. The Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis 2.0 for Alzheimer's Disease and Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline: From Molecular Basis to Effective Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12246. [PMID: 37569624 PMCID: PMC10419172 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
With the long-standing amyloid cascade hypothesis (ACH) largely discredited, there is an acute need for a new all-encompassing interpretation of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Whereas such a recently proposed theory of AD is designated ACH2.0, its commonality with the ACH is limited to the recognition of the centrality of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the disease, necessitated by the observation that all AD-causing mutations affect, in one way or another, Aβ. Yet, even this narrow commonality is superficial since AD-causing Aβ of the ACH differs distinctly from that specified in the ACH2.0: Whereas in the former, the disease is caused by secreted extracellular Aβ, in the latter, it is triggered by Aβ-protein-precursor (AβPP)-derived intraneuronal Aβ (iAβ) and driven by iAβ generated independently of AβPP. The ACH2.0 envisions AD as a two-stage disorder. The first, asymptomatic stage is a decades-long accumulation of AβPP-derived iAβ, which occurs via internalization of secreted Aβ and through intracellular retention of a fraction of Aβ produced by AβPP proteolysis. When AβPP-derived iAβ reaches critical levels, it activates a self-perpetuating AβPP-independent production of iAβ that drives the second, devastating AD stage, a cascade that includes tau pathology and culminates in neuronal loss. The present study analyzes the dynamics of iAβ accumulation in health and disease and concludes that it is the prime factor driving both AD and aging-associated cognitive decline (AACD). It discusses mechanisms potentially involved in AβPP-independent generation of iAβ, provides mechanistic interpretations for all principal aspects of AD and AACD including the protective effect of the Icelandic AβPP mutation, the early onset of FAD and the sequential manifestation of AD pathology in defined regions of the affected brain, and explains why current mouse AD models are neither adequate nor suitable. It posits that while drugs affecting the accumulation of AβPP-derived iAβ can be effective only protectively for AD, the targeted degradation of iAβ is the best therapeutic strategy for both prevention and effective treatment of AD and AACD. It also proposes potential iAβ-degrading drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sophia Rits-Volloch
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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45
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Forgham H, Liu L, Zhu J, Javed I, Cai W, Qiao R, Davis TP. Vector enabled CRISPR gene editing - A revolutionary strategy for targeting the diversity of brain pathologies. Coord Chem Rev 2023; 487:215172. [PMID: 37305445 PMCID: PMC10249757 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2023.215172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Brain pathologies are considered one of the greatest contributors of death and disability worldwide. Neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disease is the second leading cause of death in adults, whilst brain cancers including glioblastoma multiforme in adults, and pediatric-type high-grade gliomas in children remain largely untreatable. A further compounding issue for patients with brain pathologies is that of long-term neuropsychiatric sequela - as a symptom or arising from high dose therapeutic intervention. The major challenge to effective, low dose treatment is finding therapeutics that successfully cross the blood-brain barrier and target aberrant cellular processes, while having minimum effect on essential cellular processes, and healthy bystander cells. Following over 30 years of research, CRISPR technology has emerged as a biomedical tour de force with the potential to revolutionise the treatment of both neurological and cancer related brain pathologies. The aim of this review is to take stock of the progress made in CRISPR technology in relation to treating brain pathologies. Specifically, we will describe studies which look beyond design, synthesis, and theoretical application; and focus instead on in vivo studies with translation potential. Along with discussing the latest breakthrough techniques being applied within the CRISPR field, we aim to provide a prospective on the knowledge gaps that exist and challenges that still lay ahead for CRISPR technology prior to successful application in the brain disease treatment field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Forgham
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Liwei Liu
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jiayuan Zhu
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Ibrahim Javed
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Weibo Cai
- Departments of Radiology and Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Ruirui Qiao
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Thomas P. Davis
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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Sánchez JD, Alcántara AR, González JF, Sánchez-Montero JM. Advances in the discovery of heterocyclic-based drugs against Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2023; 18:1413-1428. [PMID: 37800875 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2023.2264766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alzheimer's disease is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder characterized by beta-amyloid accumulation and tau protein hyperphosphorylation. The disease involves interconnected mechanisms, which can be clustered into two target-packs based on the affected proteins. Pack-1 focuses on beta-amyloid accumulation, oxidative stress, and metal homeostasis dysfunction, and Pack-2 involves tau protein, calcium homeostasis, and neuroinflammation. Against this background heterocyclic system, there is a powerful source of pharmacophores to develop effective small drugs to treat multifactorial diseases like Alzheimer's. AREAS COVERED This review highlights the most promising heterocyclic systems as potential hit candidates with multi-target capacity for the development of new drugs targeting Alzheimer's disease. The selection of these heterocyclic systems was based on two crucial factors: their synthetic versatility and their well-documented biological properties of therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases. EXPERT OPINION The synthesis of small drugs against Alzheimer's disease requires a multifactorial approach that targets the key pathological proteins. In this context, the utilization of heterocyclic systems, with well-established synthetic processes and facile functionalization, becomes a crucial element in the design phases. Furthermore, the selection of hit heterocyclic should be guided by a full understanding of their biological activities. Thus, the identification of promising heterocyclic scaffolds with known biological effects increases the potential to develop effective molecules against Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan D Sánchez
- Departamento de Química en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés R Alcántara
- Departamento de Química en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan F González
- Departamento de Química en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José María Sánchez-Montero
- Departamento de Química en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Smith S, Hopp SC. The 5XFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease displays age-dependent deficits in habituation to a novel environment. AGING BRAIN 2023; 3:100078. [PMID: 37333676 PMCID: PMC10275951 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbas.2023.100078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Habituation is a form of learning characterized by a decrement in responsiveness to a stimulus that is repeated or prolonged. In rodents, habituation to a novel environment is characterized by a decrease in locomotion over time spent in a novel environment. Habituation to a novel environment is dependent on hippocampal function, suggesting that habituation behavior may be a relevant readout for hippocampal-dependent memory deficits that are characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Current assays that measure hippocampal-dependent memory in preclinical animal models of AD have not accurately predicted the cognitive protection of novel interventions in human trials. Here, we tested whether a behavioral habituation paradigm could detect age-associated changes in a common preclinical mouse model of AD-like amyloid pathology, the 5XFAD mouse. We exposed 5XFAD mice and age-matched wild-type (WT) littermates at 3, 6, and 9 months of age to a novel environment over two sessions separated by 24 h and measured their locomotion. WT mice habituated to the novel environment over time, while 5XFAD mice displayed age-dependent deficits in behavioral habituation. We replicated our results using publicly available open field data from 5XFAD and late-onset AD mouse models with TREM2*R47H and APOE4 mutations. Overall, we present behavioral habituation as a potentially sensitive task to assess age-associated behavioral deficits in 5XFAD mice and other mouse models of AD that could be used to test the preclinical efficacy of novel AD therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Smith
- Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer’s and Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Sarah C. Hopp
- Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer’s and Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX, USA
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Rafii MS, Aisen PS. Detection and treatment of Alzheimer's disease in its preclinical stage. NATURE AGING 2023; 3:520-531. [PMID: 37202518 PMCID: PMC11110912 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-023-00410-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Longitudinal multimodal biomarker studies reveal that the continuum of Alzheimer's disease (AD) includes a long latent phase, referred to as preclinical AD, which precedes the onset of symptoms by decades. Treatment during the preclinical AD phase offers an optimal opportunity for slowing the progression of disease. However, trial design in this population is complex. In this Review, we discuss the recent advances in accurate plasma measurements, new recruitment approaches, sensitive cognitive instruments and self-reported outcomes that have facilitated the successful launch of multiple phase 3 trials for preclinical AD. The recent success of anti-amyloid immunotherapy trials in symptomatic AD has increased the enthusiasm for testing this strategy at the earliest feasible stage. We provide an outlook for standard screening of amyloid accumulation at the preclinical stage in clinically normal individuals, during which effective therapy to delay or prevent cognitive decline can be initiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Rafii
- Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute, Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Paul S Aisen
- Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute, Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Nakamura R, Konishi M, Higashi Y, Saito M, Akizawa T. Five-mer peptides prevent short-term spatial memory deficits in Aβ25-35-induced Alzheimer's model mouse by suppressing Aβ25-35 aggregation and resolving its aggregate form. Alzheimers Res Ther 2023; 15:83. [PMID: 37076912 PMCID: PMC10114458 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-023-01229-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The development of drugs for Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is related to the misfolding and aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ), is high in demand due to the growing number of AD patients. In this study, we screened 22 kinds of 5-mer synthetic peptides derived from the Box A region of Tob1 protein to find a peptide effective against Aβ aggregation. METHODS A Thioflavin T (ThT) assay was performed to evaluate aggregation and screen aggregation inhibitors. Male ICR mice (6 weeks old) were administered saline, 9 nmol Aβ25-35, or a mixture of 9 nmol Aβ25-35 and 9 nmol GSGFK in the right lateral ventricle. Short-term spatial memory was assessed through Y-maze. Microglia cells (BV-)2 cells were plated on 24-well plates (4 × 104 cells/well) and incubated for 48 h, and then, the cells were treated with 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, or 0.5 mM GSGFK. After incubation for 24 h, bead uptake was evaluated using a laser confocal microscope and Cytation 5. RESULTS We found two kinds of peptides, GSGNR and GSGFK, that were not only suppressed by aggregation of Aβ25-35 but also resolved the aggregated Aβ25-35. Results obtained from the Y-maze test on an Aβ25-35-induced AD model mouse indicated that GSGFK prevents the deficits in short-term memory induced by Aβ25-35. The effect of GSGFK on phagocytosis in BV-2 cells proved that GSGFK activates the phagocytic ability of microglia. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, 5-mer peptides prevent short-term memory deficit in Aβ25-35 induced AD model mouse by reducing the aggregated Aβ25-35. They may also upregulate the phagocytic ability of microglia, which makes 5-mer peptides suitable candidates as therapeutic drugs against AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rina Nakamura
- Department of Pharmacology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kohasu, Oko-Cho, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8505, Japan
- O-Force Co., Ltd, 3454 Irino Kuroshio-Cho, Hata-Gun, Kochi, 789-1931, Japan
| | - Motomi Konishi
- Department of Integrative Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-Cho, Hirakata, Osaka, 573-0101, Japan
| | - Youichirou Higashi
- Department of Pharmacology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kohasu, Oko-Cho, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8505, Japan
| | - Motoaki Saito
- Department of Pharmacology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kohasu, Oko-Cho, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8505, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Akizawa
- Department of Pharmacology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kohasu, Oko-Cho, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8505, Japan.
- O-Force Co., Ltd, 3454 Irino Kuroshio-Cho, Hata-Gun, Kochi, 789-1931, Japan.
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Chen H, Xu J, Xu H, Luo T, Li Y, Jiang K, Shentu Y, Tong Z. New Insights into Alzheimer’s Disease: Novel Pathogenesis, Drug Target and Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15041133. [PMID: 37111618 PMCID: PMC10143738 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15041133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, is characterized by senile plaques composed of amyloid β protein (Aβ) and neurofilament tangles derived from the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein. However, the developed medicines targeting Aβ and tau have not obtained ideal clinical efficacy, which raises a challenge to the hypothesis that AD is Aβ cascade-induced. A critical problem of AD pathogenesis is which endogenous factor induces Aβ aggregation and tau phosphorylation. Recently, age-associated endogenous formaldehyde has been suggested to be a direct trigger for Aβ- and tau-related pathology. Another key issue is whether or not AD drugs are successfully delivered to the damaged neurons. Both the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and extracellular space (ECS) are the barriers for drug delivery. Unexpectedly, Aβ-related SP deposition in ECS slows down or stops interstitial fluid drainage in AD, which is the direct reason for drug delivery failure. Here, we propose a new pathogenesis and perspectives on the direction of AD drug development and drug delivery: (1) aging-related formaldehyde is a direct trigger for Aβ assembly and tau hyperphosphorylation, and the new target for AD therapy is formaldehyde; (2) nano-packaging and physical therapy may be the promising strategy for increasing BBB permeability and accelerating interstitial fluid drainage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haishu Chen
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Institute of Aging, Key Laboratory of Alzheimer’s Disease of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Affiliated Wenzhou Kangning Hospital, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jinan Xu
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Hanyuan Xu
- Institute of Albert, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Tiancheng Luo
- Institute of Albert, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Yihao Li
- Institute of Albert, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Ke Jiang
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Yangping Shentu
- Institute of Albert, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
- Department of Pathology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Zhiqian Tong
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Institute of Aging, Key Laboratory of Alzheimer’s Disease of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, The Affiliated Wenzhou Kangning Hospital, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
- Institute of Albert, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
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