Clinical management of potential bioterrorism-related conditions

Multiprobe Amplification (MPA) with Melting Curve Analysis: A Highly Stable and Cost-Effective Platform for the Simultaneous Detection of Eight Potential Bacterial Bioterrorism Agents in Complex Samples

We aimed to develop an efficient detection platform that can identify a larger number of suspicious samples in a single test, saving time, manpower, and material costs, and providing vital support to the public health system in coping with the current challenging and dynamic bioterrorism threat landscape, particularly in regions of turmoil and conflict. We have successfully developed a high-throughput, multitarget fluorescent array detection platform by effectively combining integrating multiprobe amplification (MPA) with melting curve analysis. Specifically, we have established reliable laboratory testing methods for eight highly pathogenic bacteria, including Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis, Brucella spp., Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, and Staphylococcus aureus. Our method achieves sensitive and specific simultaneous detection of eight target bacteria in one well by optimizing the reaction conditions of MPA. In the assessment of 192 simulated environmental samples, both positive and negative coincidence rates were 100.00%. Among 48 simulated clinical samples, the positive coincidence rate reached 97.73%, while maintaining a perfect negative coincidence rate of 100.00%. Moreover, the detection platform holds immense potential for attaining a more comprehensive bioterrorism screening, and its high cost-effectiveness enables the provision of diverse and adaptable diagnostic methods for public health quarantine in underdeveloped countries and regions.

Relative quantification of the recA gene for antimicrobial susceptibility testing in response to ciprofloxacin for pathogens of concern

Antimicrobial resistance (AR) is one of the greatest threats to global health and is associated with higher treatment costs, longer hospital stays, and increased mortality. Current gold standard antimicrobial susceptibility tests (AST) rely on organism growth rates that result in prolonged time-to-answer for slow growing organisms. Changes in the cellular transcriptome can be rapid in the presence of stressors such as antibiotic pressure, providing the opportunity to develop AST towards transcriptomic signatures. Here, we show that relative quantification of the recA gene is an indicator of pathogen susceptibly when select species are challenged with relevant concentrations of ciprofloxacin. We demonstrate that ciprofloxacin susceptible strains of Y. pestis and B. anthracis have significant increases in relative recA gene expression after 15 min of exposure while resistant strains show no significant differences. Building upon this data, we designed and optimized seven duplex RT-qPCR assays targeting the recA and 16S rRNA gene, response and housekeeping genes, respectively, for multiple biothreat and ESKAPE pathogens. Final evaluation of all seven duplex assays tested against 124 ciprofloxacin susceptible and resistant strains, including Tier 1 pathogens, demonstrated an overall categorical agreement compared to microbroth dilution of 97% using a defined cutoff. Testing pathogen strains commonly associated with urinary tract infections in contrived mock sample sets demonstrated an overall categorical agreement of 96%. These data indicate relative quantification of a single highly conserved gene accurately determines susceptibility for multiple bacterial species in response to ciprofloxacin.

Poxviridae Pneumonia

Poxviridae family includes several viruses that infecting humans usually causes skin lesions only, but in some cases their clinical course is complicated by viral pneumonia (with or without bacterial superinfections). Historically variola virus has been the poxviridae most frequently associated with the development of pneumonia with many large outbreaks worldwide before its eradication in 1980. It is still considered a biological threat for its potential in biological warfare and bioterrorism. Smallpox pneumonia can be severe with the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and death. Vaccinia virus, used for vaccination against smallpox exceptionally, in immunocompromised patients, can induce generalized (with also lung involvement) severe disease after vaccination. MPXV virus occasionally can cause pneumonia particularly in immunocompromised patients. The pathophysiology of poxviridae pneumonia is still an area of active research; however, in animal models these viruses can cause both direct damage to the lower airways epithelium and a hyperinflammatory syndrome, like a cytokine storm. Multiple mechanisms of immune evasion have also been described. The treatment of poxviridae pneumonia is mainly based on careful supportive care. Despite the absence of randomized clinical trials in patients with poxviridae pneumonia there are antiviral drugs, such as tecovirimat, cidofovir and brincidofovir, FDA-approved for use in smallpox and also available under an expanded access protocol for treatment of MPXV. There are 2 (replication-deficient modified vaccinia Ankara and replication-competent vaccinia virus) smallpox vaccines FDA-approved with the first one also approved for prevention of MPXV in adults that are at high risk of infection.

Emerging infectious diseases, focus on infection prevention, environmental survival and germicide susceptibility: SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and Candida auris

BACKGROUND

New and emerging infectious diseases continue to represent a public health threat. Emerging infectious disease threats include pathogens increasing in range (eg, Mpox), zoonotic microbes jumping species lines to cause sustained infections in humans via person-to-person transmission (SARS-CoV-2) and multidrug-resistant pathogens (eg, Candida auris).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched the published English literature and reviewed the selected articles on SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and Candida auris with a focus on environmental survival, contamination of the patient's hospital environment, susceptibility of the pathogen to antiseptics and disinfectants and infection prevention recommendations.

RESULTS

All three pathogens (ie, SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and Candida auris) can survive on surfaces for minutes to hours and for Mpox and C auris for days. Currently available antiseptics (eg, 70%-90% alcohol hand hygiene products) are active against SARS-CoV-2, Mpox and C auris. The U.S Environmental Protection Agency provides separate lists of surface disinfectants active against SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and C auris.

DISCUSSION

The risk of environment-to-patient transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Mpox and Candida auris, is very low, low-moderate and high, respectively. In the absence of appropriate patient isolation and use of personal protection equipment, the risk of patient-to-health care provider transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and C auris is high, moderate and low, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Appropriate patient isolation, use of personal protective equipment by health care personnel, hand hygiene, and surface disinfection can protect patients and health care personnel from acquiring SARS-CoV-2, Mpox, and C auris from infected patients.

Rare Case of Botulism and Dysphagia: The Role of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine

Botulism is a rare cause of flaccid paralysis resulting from the neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. It is clinically characterized by symmetric proximal-distal paralysis, diplopia, dysarthria, dysphonia, and dysphagia. Definitive diagnosis requires laboratory confirmation through the detection of the toxin in blood, vomit, or stool samples. Treatment with antitoxin should be promptly initiated upon clinical suspicion and in the presence of epidemiological support due to evidence of reduced mortality. Physical and rehabilitation medicine plays a fundamental role in the recovery of deficits and prevention of complications. In this report, the authors describe a 19-year-old patient with botulism with dysphagia, dysphonia, and facial paresis in the rehabilitation ward.

Triage Algorithms for Mass-Casualty Bioterrorism: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

To understand existing triage algorithms, propose improvement measures through comparison to better deal with mass-casualty incidents caused by bioterrorism.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

Medline, Scopus and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. The studies investigating triage algorithms for mass-casualty bioterrorism. Quality assessment was performed using the International Narrative Systematic Assessment tool. Data extractions were performed by four reviewers.

RESULTS

Of the 475 titles identified in the search, 10 studies were included. There were four studies on triage algorithms for most bioterrorism events, four studies on triage algorithms for anthrax and two studies on triage algorithms for mental or psychosocial problems caused by bioterrorism events. We introduced and compared 10 triage algorithms used for different bioterrorism situations.

CONCLUSION

For triage algorithms for most bioterrorism events, it is necessary to determine the time and place of the attack as soon as possible, control the number of exposed and potentially exposed people, prevent infection and determine the type of biological agents used. Research on the effects of decontamination on bioterrorism attacks needs to continue. For anthrax triage, future research should improve the distinction between inhalational anthrax symptoms and common disease symptoms and improve the efficiency of triage measures. More attention should be paid to triage algorithms for mental or psychosocial problems caused by bioterrorism events.

Bio-safety and bio-security: A major global concern for ongoing COVID-19 pandemic

Besides its impacts on governance, economics, human culture, geostrategic partnership and environment, globalization greatly exerted control over science and security policies. Biosecurity is the critical job of efforts, policy and preparation to protect health of human, animal and environmental against any biological threats. With the transition into a global village, the possibility of biosecurity breaches has significantly increased. The COVID-19 pandemic is an example of an infringement on biosecurity that has posed a serious threat to the world. Since the first report on the recognition of COVID-19, a number of governments have taken preventive measures, like; lockdown, screening and early detection of suspected and implementing the required response to protect the loss of life and economy. Unfortunately, some of these measures have only recently been taken in some countries, which have contributed significantly to an increased morbidity and loss of life on a daily basis. In this article, the biological risks affecting human, animal and environmental conditions, biosafety violations and preventive measures have been discussed in order to reduce the outbreak and impacts of a pandemic like COVID-19.

Safety, Tolerability, and Pharmacokinetics of NTM-1632, a Novel Mixture of Three Monoclonal Antibodies against Botulinum Toxin B

Botulism is a rare, life-threatening paralytic disease caused by Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). Available treatments, including an equine antitoxin and human immune globulin, are given postexposure and challenging to produce and administer. NTM-1632 is an equimolar mixture of 3 human IgG monoclonal antibodies, B1, B2, and B3, targeting BoNT serotype B (BoNT/B). This first-in-human study assessed the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics (PK), and immunogenicity of NTM-1632. This double-blind, single-center, placebo-controlled dose escalation study randomized 3 cohorts of healthy volunteers to receive a single intravenous dose of NTM-1632 (0.033, 0.165, or 0.330 mg/kg) or saline placebo. Safety monitoring included physical examinations, clinical laboratory studies, and vital signs. Blood sampling was performed at prespecified time points for PK and immunogenicity analyses. Twenty-four subjects received study product (18 NTM-1632; 6 placebo), and no deaths or serious adverse events were reported. Adverse events in the NTM-1632 groups were generally mild and similar in frequency and severity to the placebo group, and no safety signal was identified. NTM-1632 has a favorable PK profile with a half-life of >20 days for the 0.330-mg/kg dose and an approximately linear relationship with respect to maximum concentration and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC_0→t). NTM-1632 demonstrated low immunogenicity with only a few treatment-emergent antidrug antibody responses in the low and middle dosing groups and none at the highest dose. NTM-1632 is well tolerated at the administered doses. The favorable safety, PK, and immunogenicity profile of NTM-1632 supports further clinical development as a treatment for BoNT/B intoxication and postexposure prophylaxis. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under identifier NCT02779140.).

Evaluation of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Guidelines for Rapid Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Bacillus anthracis-, Yersinia pestis- and Francisella tularensis-Positive Blood Cultures

Rapid determination of bacterial antibiotic susceptibility is important for proper treatment of infections. The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) has recently published guidelines for rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing (RAST) performed directly from positive blood culture vials. These guidelines, however, were only published for a limited number of common pathogenic bacteria. In this study, we evaluated the applicability of these guidelines to three Tier 1 bioterror agents (Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis and Francisella tularensis) that require prompt antibiotic treatment to mitigate morbidity and mortality. We used spiked-in human blood incubated in a BACTEC™ FX40 system to determine the proper conditions for RAST using disc-diffusion and Etest assays. We found that reliable disc-diffusion inhibition diameters and Etest MIC values could be obtained in remarkably short times. Compared to the EUCAST-recommended disc-diffusion assays that will require adjusted clinical breakpoint tables, Etest-based RAST was advantageous, as the obtained MIC values were similar to the standard MIC values, enabling the use of established category breakpoint tables. Our results demonstrate the promising applicability of the EUCAST RAST for B. anthracis-, Y. pestis- or F. tularensis-positive blood cultures, which can lead to shorter diagnostics and prompt antibiotic treatment of these dangerous pathogens.

In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization of Tebipenem (TBP), an Orally Active Carbapenem, against Biothreat Pathogens

Bacillus anthracis and Yersinia pestis, causative pathogens for anthrax and plague, respectively, along with Burkholderia mallei and B. pseudomallei are potential bioterrorism threats. Tebipenem pivoxil hydrobromide (TBP HBr, formerly SPR994), is an orally available prodrug of tebipenem, a carbapenem with activity versus multidrug-resistant (MDR) gram-negative pathogens, including quinolone-resistant and extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Enterobacterales. We evaluated the in vitro activity and in vivo efficacy of tebipenem against biothreat pathogens. Tebipenem was active in vitro against 30-strain diversity sets of B. anthracis, Y. pestis, B. mallei, and B. pseudomallei with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 0.001 - 0.008 μg/ml for B. anthracis, ≤0.0005 - 0.03 μg/ml for Y. pestis, 0.25 - 1 μg/ml for B. mallei, and 1 - 4 μg/ml for B. pseudomallei In a B. anthracis murine model, all control animals died within 52 h post challenge. The survival rates in the groups treated with tebipenem were 75% and 73% when dosed at 12 h and 24 h post challenge, respectively. The survival rates in the positive control groups treated with ciprofloxacin were 75% and when dosed 12 h and 25% when dosed 24 h post challenge, respectively. Survival rates were significantly (p=0.0009) greater in tebipenem groups treated at 12 h and 24 h post challenge and in the ciprofloxacin group 12 h post-challenge vs. the vehicle-control group. For Y. pestis, survival rates for all animals in the tebipenem and ciprofloxacin groups were significantly (p<0.0001) greater than the vehicle-control group. These results support further development of tebipenem for treating biothreat pathogens.

A Review of the Efficacy of FDA-Approved B. anthracis Anti-Toxin Agents When Combined with Antibiotic or Hemodynamic Support in Infection- or Toxin-Challenged Preclinical Models

Anti-toxin agents for severe B. anthracis infection will only be effective if they add to the benefit of the two mainstays of septic shock management, antibiotic therapy and titrated hemodynamic support. Both of these standard therapies could negate benefits related to anti-toxin treatment. At present, three anthrax anti-toxin antibody preparations have received US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval: Raxibacumab, Anthrax Immune Globulin Intravenous (AIGIV) and ETI-204. Each agent is directed at the protective antigen component of lethal and edema toxin. All three agents were compared to placebo in antibiotic-treated animal models of live B. anthracis infection, and Raxibacumab and AIGIV were compared to placebo when combined with standard hemodynamic support in a 96 h canine model of anthrax toxin-associated shock. However, only AIG has actually been administered to a group of infected patients, and this experience was not controlled and offers little insight into the efficacy of the agents. To provide a broader view of the potential effectiveness of these agents, this review examines the controlled preclinical experience either in antibiotic-treated B. anthracis models or in titrated hemodynamic-supported toxin-challenged canines. The strength and weaknesses of these preclinical experiences are discussed.

Bacillus anthracis edema toxin inhibits hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction via edema factor and cAMP-mediated mechanisms in isolated perfused rat lungs

Bacillus anthracis edema toxin (ET) inhibited lethal toxin-stimulated pulmonary artery pressure (Ppa) and increased lung cAMP levels in our previous study. We therefore examined whether ET inhibits hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV). Following baseline hypoxic measures in isolated perfused lungs from healthy rats, compared with diluent, ET perfusion reduced maximal Ppa increases (mean ± SE percentage of maximal Ppa increase with baseline hypoxia) during 6-min hypoxic periods (FIO2 = 0%) at 120 min (16 ± 6% vs. 51 ± 6%, P = 0.004) and 180 min (11.4% vs. 55 ± 6%, P = 0.01). Protective antigen-mAb (PA-mAb) and adefovir inhibit host cell edema factor uptake and cAMP production, respectively. In lungs perfused with ET following baseline measures, compared with placebo, PA-mAb treatment increased Ppa during hypoxia at 120 and 180 min (56 ± 6% vs. 10 ± 4% and 72 ± 12% vs. 12 ± 3%, respectively, P ≤ 0.01) as did adefovir (84 ± 10% vs. 16.8% and 123 ± 21% vs. 26 ± 11%, respectively, P ≤ 0.01). Compared with diluent, lung perfusion with ET for 180 min reduced the slope of the relationships between Ppa and increasing concentrations of endothelin-1 (ET-1) (21.12 ± 2.96 vs. 3.00 ± 0.76 × 108 cmH2O/M, P < 0.0001) and U46619, a thromboxane A2 analogue (7.15 ± 1.01 vs. 3.74 ± 0.31 × 107 cmH2O/M, P = 0.05) added to perfusate. In lungs isolated from rats after 15 h of in vivo infusions with either diluent, ET alone, or ET with PA-mAb, compared with diluent, the maximal Ppa during hypoxia and the slope of the relationship between change in Ppa and ET-1 concentration added to the perfusate were reduced in lungs from animals challenged with ET alone (P ≤ 0.004) but not with ET and PA-mAb together (P ≥ 0.73). Inhibition of HPV by ET could aggravate hypoxia during anthrax pulmonary infection.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The most important findings here are edema toxin's potent adenyl cyclase activity can interfere with hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, an action that could worsen hypoxemia during invasive anthrax infection with lung involvement. These findings, coupled with other studies showing that lethal toxin can disrupt pulmonary vascular integrity, indicate that both toxins can contribute to pulmonary pathophysiology during infection. In combination, these investigations provide a further basis for the use of antitoxin therapies in patients with worsening invasive anthrax disease.

Hydrocortisone decreases lethality and inflammatory cytokine and nitric oxide production in rats challenged with B. anthracis cell wall peptidoglycan

Background

Lethal B. anthracis infection produces high proinflammatory peptidoglycan (PGN) burdens in hosts. We investigated whether the lethality and inflammation anthrax PGN can produce are related.

Methods

At 6 h before and the start of 24 h anthrax PGN infusions, rats (n = 198) were treated with diluent (controls) or one of three IV-doses of either hydrocortisone (125, 12.5 or 1.25 mg/kg) or TNF-soluble receptor (TNFsr; 2000, 1000 or 333 μg/kg), non-selective and selective anti-inflammatory agents, respectively.

Results

Compared to controls, hydrocortisone 125 and 12.5 mg/kg each decreased 7-day lethality (p ≤ 0.004). Hydrocortisone 125 mg/kg decreased IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, MCP, MIP-1α, MIP-2, RANTES and nitric oxide (NO) blood levels at 4 and 24 h after starting PGN (except MCP at 24 h). Each decrease was significant at 4 h (except MIP-1α that was significant at 24 h) (p ≤ 0.05). Similarly, hydrocortisone 12.5 mg/kg decreased each measure at 4, 24 and 48 h (except TNFα at 24 h and MIP-1α at 24 and 48 h and NO at 48 h). Decreases were significant for IL-6 and NO at 4 h and RANTES at 48 h (p ≤ 0.05). Hydrocortisone 1.25 mg/kg had non-significant effects. Each TNFsr dose decreased lethality but non-significantly. However, when doses were analyzed together, TNFsr decreased lethality in a potential trend (p = 0.16) and IL-6 and NO significantly at 4 h (p = 0.05).

Conclusions

Peptidoglycan-stimulated host inflammation may contribute to B. anthracis lethality.

Deliberate release: Plague - A review

Yersinia pestis is the causative agent of plague and is considered one of the most likely pathogens to be used as a bioweapon. In humans, plague is a severe clinical infection that can rapidly progress with a high mortality despite antibiotic therapy. Therefore, early treatment of Y. pestis infection is crucial. This review provides an overview of its clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prophylaxis, and protection requirements for the use of clinicians.

We discuss the likelihood of a deliberate release of plague and the feasibility of obtaining, isolating, culturing, transporting and dispersing plague in the context of an attack aimed at a westernized country. The current threat status and the medical and public health responses are reviewed. We also provide a brief review of the potential prehospital treatment strategy and vaccination against Y. pestis. Further, we discuss the plausibility of antibiotic resistant plague bacterium, F1-negative Y. pestis, and also the possibility of a plague mimic along with potential strategies of defense against these. An extensive literature search on the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases was conducted to collate papers relevant to plague and its deliberate release. Our review concluded that the deliberate release of plague is feasible but unlikely to occur, and that a robust public health response and early treatment would rapidly halt the transmission of plague in the population. Front-line clinicians should be aware of the potential of a deliberate release of plague and prepared to instigate early isolation of patients. Moreover, front-line clinicians should be weary of the possibility of suicide attackers and mindful of the early escalation to public health organizations.

Emergency Triage of Highly Infectious Diseases and Bioterrorism

Emergency medical services are a key element in health systems for the evaluation and treatment of patients exposed to highly infectious diseases or bioterrorism agents. Triage and early identification at any point of care can have a significant impact on the prevention and management of these diseases. This chapter reviews triage practices, including early isolation and decontamination, of highly infectious diseases and bioterrorism agents at different health system levels.

Zoonotic Infections and Biowarfare Agents in Critical Care: Anthrax, Plague, and Tularemia

Bacterial zoonotic infections are rare in developed countries in the twenty-first century but may cause major morbidity and mortality in developing regions of the world. In addition, their potential use as biological weapons makes early recognition and effective empiric therapy important for the critical care practitioner. Anthrax, plague, and tularemia share overlapping presenting syndromes, including fulminant respiratory infections and less severe but still highly morbid lymphocutaneous infections. Although all three may be transmitted as infectious aerosols, only plague has a risk of direct human-to-human transmission. Diagnostic testing will require special precautions for laboratory staff and most often involvement of regional and national reference laboratories. Empiric therapy with aminoglycosides may be life-saving for plague and tularemia, while the treatment of anthrax is complex and varies depending on the site of infection. In outbreaks or for post-exposure prophylaxis, treatment with doxycycline or a fluoroquinolone is recommended for all three diseases.

Critical Care of Neuromuscular Disorders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Weakness is a common reason patients are seen in neurologic consultation. This article reviews the differential diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders in the intensive care unit (ICU), discusses the intensive care needs and evaluation of respiratory failure in patients with neuromuscular disorders, and provides a practical guide for management.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although primary neuromuscular disorders used to be the most common cause for weakness from peripheral nervous system disease in the ICU, a shift toward ICU-acquired weakness is observed in today's clinical practice. Therefore, determining the cause of weakness is important and may have significant prognostic implications. Guillain-Barré syndrome and myasthenia gravis remain the most common primary neuromuscular disorders in the ICU. In patients with myasthenia gravis, it is important to be vigilant with the airway and institute noninvasive ventilation early in the course of the disease to attempt to avoid the need for intubation. On the other hand, patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome should be intubated without delay if the airway is at risk to avoid further complications. In patients with ICU-acquired weakness, failure to wean from the ventilator is usually the challenge. Early mobility, glucose control, minimizing sedation, and avoiding neuromuscular blocking agents remain the only therapeutic regimen available for ICU-acquired weakness.

SUMMARY

Critical care management of neuromuscular disorders requires a multidisciplinary approach engaging members of the ICU and consultative teams. Developing an airway management protocol could have implications on outcome and length of stay for patients with neuromuscular disorders in the ICU. Tending to the appropriate nuances of each patient who is critically ill with a neuromuscular disorder through evidence-based medicine can also have implications on length of stay and outcome.

Foodborne botulism in Turkey, 1983 to 2017

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to assess the epidemiology of foodborne botulism cases which were seen and published in Turkey.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study covers the cases and outbreaks of botulism that have been identified and published in any region of Turkey, between 1983 and 2017. This systematic review was performed in accordance with the guidelines for performing and reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The search was done on PubMed and Google in English and Turkish languages. Demographic features of the cases, nutritional sources, the development process of the disease, clinical symptoms and signs, the duration of hospitalization, treatment and mortality rates were analyzed.

RESULTS

Totally 95 patients (57 female and 38 male) were assessed from the published. The food which caused the majority of intoxication cases was canned green beans, and all the foods were home-canned goods. There cords showed that botulism antitoxin was given to 56 patients. The time from exposure to illness onset was 26.9 h. While 18 patients died at the end of follow-up and treatment (mortality 19%), 77 patients were discharged with full recovery.

CONCLUSION

Among 95 botulism cases, spread in Turkey over the last 35 years, the predominant source of toxin was home-canned food and green beans, in particular. Since community and emergency room physicians may be the first to treat patients with any type of botulinum intoxication, they must know how to diagnose and treat this rare but potentially lethal disease.

Pneumonia

By nearly any criteria, pneumonia (infection of the pulmonary parenchyma) must be considered one of the most important categories of disease affecting the respiratory system. This chapter is organized primarily as a general discussion of the clinical problem of pneumonia. As appropriate, the focus on individual etiologic agents highlights some characteristic features of each that are particularly useful to the physician. Also covered is a commonly used categorization of pneumonia based on the clinical setting: community-acquired versus nosocomial (hospital-acquired) pneumonia. In current clinical practice, the approach to evaluation and management of these two types of pneumonia is often quite different. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of several infections that were uncommon or primarily of historical interest until recently, as the threat of bioterrorism emerged. In addition to reviewing inhalational anthrax, the chapter briefly describes two other organisms considered to be of concern as potential weapons of bioterrorism: Yersinia pestis (the cause of plague) and Francisella tularensis (the cause of tularemia).

Neuroterrorism Preparedness for the Neurohospitalist

In this review article, we highlight several potential biologic and chemical agents of "neuroterrorism" of which neurohospitalists should be aware: anthrax, botulism toxin, brucella, plague, smallpox, organophosphates and nerve agents, cyanide, and carfentanil. Such agents may have direct neurologic effects, resulting in encephalopathy, paralysis, and/or respiratory failure. Neurohospitalists should be on the lookout for abnormal neurologic syndrome clustering, especially among patients presenting to the emergency department. If use of such a "neuroterrorism" agent is suspected, the neurohospitalist should immediately consult with emergency department personnel, infection control, infectious disease physicians, and/or Poison Control to make sure the scene is safe and to stabilize and isolate patients if necessary. The neurohospitalist should also immediately contact their local and/or state health department (or alternatively the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Emergency Operations Center) to report their suspicions and to obtain guidance and assistance.

Confronting the threat of bioterrorism: realities, challenges, and defensive strategies

Global terrorism is a rapidly growing threat to world security, and increases the risk of bioterrorism. In this Review, we discuss the potential threat of bioterrorism, agents that could be exploited, and recent developments in technologies and policy for detecting and controlling epidemics that have been initiated intentionally. The local and international response to infectious disease epidemics, such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome and west African Ebola virus epidemic, revealed serious shortcomings which bioterrorists might exploit when intentionally initiating an epidemic. Development of new vaccines and antimicrobial therapies remains a priority, including the need to expedite clinical trials using new methodologies. Better means to protect health-care workers operating in dangerous environments are also needed, particularly in areas with poor infrastructure. New and improved approaches should be developed for surveillance, early detection, response, effective isolation of patients, control of the movement of potentially infected people, and risk communication. Access to dangerous pathogens should be appropriately regulated, without reducing progress in the development of countermeasures. We conclude that preparedness for intentional outbreaks has the important added value of strengthening preparedness for natural epidemics, and vice versa.

Biothreat Agents and Emerging Infectious Disease in the Emergency Department

The challenges faced by the emergency physician with recognizing and treating category A biothreat agents and emerging infectious disease are summarized and reviewed.

Analysis of Anthrax Immune Globulin Intravenous with Antimicrobial Treatment in Injection Drug Users, Scotland, 2009-2010

We studied anthrax immune globulin intravenous (AIG-IV) use from a 2009-2010 outbreak of Bacillus anthracis soft tissue infection in injection drug users in Scotland, UK, and we compared findings from 15 AIG-IV recipients with findings from 28 nonrecipients. Death rates did not differ significantly between recipients and nonrecipients (33% vs. 21%). However, whereas only 8 (27%) of 30 patients at low risk for death (admission sequential organ failure assessment score of 0-5) received AIG-IV, 7 (54%) of the 13 patients at high risk for death (sequential organ failure assessment score of 6-11) received treatment. AIG-IV recipients had surgery more often and, among survivors, had longer hospital stays than did nonrecipients. AIG-IV recipients were sicker than nonrecipients. This difference and the small number of higher risk patients confound assessment of AIG-IV effectiveness in this outbreak.

Disaster Preparedness: Biological Threats and Treatment Options

Biological disasters can be natural, accidental, or intentional. Biological threats have made a lasting impact on civilization. This review focuses on agents of clinical significance, bioterrorism, and national security, specifically Category A agents (anthrax, botulism, plague, tularemia, and smallpox), as well as briefly discusses other naturally emerging infections of public health significance, Ebola virus (also a Category A agent) and Zika virus. The role of pharmacists in disaster preparedness and disaster response is multifaceted and important. Their expertise includes clinical knowledge, which can aid in drug information consultation, patient-specific treatment decision making, and development of local treatment plans. To fulfill this role, pharmacists must have a comprehensive understanding of medical countermeasures for these significant biological threats across all health care settings. New and reemerging infectious disease threats will continue to challenge the world. Pharmacists will be at the forefront of preparedness and response, sharing knowledge and clinical expertise with responders, official decision makers, and the general public.

A Calculation Tool and Process to Pre-Position Pharmaceuticals for Anthrax Post-Exposure Prophylaxis

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, is considered a severe bioterrorism threat because of its high mortality rate. The Chicago Healthcare System Coalition for Preparedness and Response (CHSCPR) aims to pre-position antibiotic medical countermeasures (MCMs) at healthcare facilities in order to provide on-site anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis. Pharmacists proposed moving toward a new process that involved the development of a standardized calculation methodology for acquiring supply drugs. This was an interventional quality improvement project aimed at optimizing inventory, acquisition, and distribution of antibiotic MCMs for anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis at Chicago hospitals for hospital personnel, associated first responders, and their families. The primary goal of the project was to pre-position a sufficient quantity of pharmaceuticals to allow Chicago hospitals to function as closed points of dispensing (PODs) for 72 hours; a secondary goal was to provide a 96-hour supply of anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis. A total of 35 Chicago hospitals were invited to participate in this intervention study, and 30 hospitals agreed to participate. Based on our calculation tool, we initially identified 6 (20%) hospitals with adequate oral doxycycline and ciprofloxacin inventory to last 72 hours and 3 (10%) hospitals with inventory to last 96 hours as a closed POD for anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis. The necessary quantities of medication needed to establish 72 and 96 hours of anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis were calculated by the CHSCPR and negotiated with a drug wholesaler to obtain product with maximum shelf-life and discounted pricing. Acting as a group purchaser, the CHSCPR organized drop shipment of medication directly to facilities from a wholesaler. This systematically calculated, pre-deployed pharmaceutical cache enhanced availability of antibiotic MCMs for anthrax post-exposure prophylaxis in 30 Chicago hospitals, allowing them to function as closed PODs for 96 hours during an incident.

The Fluorocycline TP-271 Is Efficacious in Models of Aerosolized Bacillus anthracis Infection in BALB/c Mice and Cynomolgus Macaques

The fluorocycline TP-271 was evaluated in mouse and nonhuman primate (NHP) models of inhalational anthrax. BALB/c mice were exposed by nose-only aerosol to Bacillus anthracis Ames spores at a level of 18 to 88 lethal doses sufficient to kill 50% of exposed individuals (LD50). When 21 days of once-daily dosing was initiated at 24 h postchallenge (the postexposure prophylaxis [PEP] study), the rates of survival for the groups treated with TP-271 at 3, 6, 12, and 18 mg/kg of body weight were 90%, 95%, 95%, and 84%, respectively. When 21 days of dosing was initiated at 48 h postchallenge (the treatment [Tx] study), the rates of survival for the groups treated with TP-271 at 6, 12, and 18 mg/kg TP-271 were 100%, 91%, and 81%, respectively. No deaths of TP-271-treated mice occurred during the 39-day posttreatment observation period. In the NHP model, cynomolgus macaques received an average dose of 197 LD50 of B. anthracis Ames spore equivalents using a head-only inhalation exposure chamber, and once-daily treatment of 1 mg/kg TP-271 lasting for 14 or 21 days was initiated within 3 h of detection of protective antigen (PA) in the blood. No (0/8) animals in the vehicle control-treated group survived, whereas all 8 infected macaques treated for 21 days and 4 of 6 macaques in the 14-day treatment group survived to the end of the study (56 days postchallenge). All survivors developed toxin-neutralizing and anti-PA IgG antibodies, indicating an immunologic response. On the basis of the results obtained with the mouse and NHP models, TP-271 shows promise as a countermeasure for the treatment of inhalational anthrax.

Tularemia vaccine: Safety, reactogenicity, "Take" skin reactions, and antibody responses following vaccination with a new lot of the Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain - A phase 2 randomized clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Tularemia is caused by Francisella tularensis, a gram-negative bacterium that has been weaponized as an aerosol. For protection of personnel conducting biodefense research, the United States Army required clinical evaluation of a new lot of tularemia live vaccine strain manufactured in accordance with Current Good Manufacturing Practices.

METHODS

A phase 2 randomized clinical trial compared the new lot (DVC-LVS) to the existing vaccine that has been in use for decades (USAMRIID-LVS). The vaccines were delivered by scarification to 228 participants. Safety, reactogenicity, take and/or antibody levels were assessed on days 0, 1, 2, 8, 14, 28, 56, and 180.

PRINCIPAL RESULTS

Both vaccines were safe and had acceptable reactogenicity profiles during six months of follow-up. There were no serious or grade 3 and 4 laboratory adverse events. Moderate systemic reactogenicity (mostly headache or feeling tired) was reported by ∼23% of participants receiving either vaccine. Injection site reactogenicity was mostly mild itchiness and pain. The frequencies of vaccine take skin reactions were 73% (95% CI, 64, 81) for DVC-LVS and 80% (95% CI, 71, 87) for USAMRIID-LVS. The 90% CI for the difference in proportions was -6.9% (-16.4, 2.6). The rates of seroconversion measured by microagglutination assay on days 28 or 56 were 94% (95% CI, 88, 98; n=98/104) for DVC-LVS and 94% (95% CI, 87, 97; n=103/110) for USAMRIID-LVS (p=1.00). Day 14 sera revealed more rapid seroconversion for DVC-LVS relative to USAMRIID-LVS: 82% (95% CI, 73, 89) versus 55% (95% CI, 45, 65), respectively (p<0.0001).

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The DVC-LVS vaccine had similar safety, reactogenicity, take and antibody responses compared to the older USAMRIID vaccine, and was superior for early (day 14) antibody production. Vaccination take was not a sensitive surrogate for seroconversion in a multi-center study where personnel at five research clinics performed assessments. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT01150695.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical trials testing anti-toxin therapies for B. anthracis infection: A need for more robust study designs and results

BACKGROUND

B. anthracis anti-toxin agents are approved and included in the Strategic National Stockpile based primarily on animal infection trials. However, in the only anthrax outbreak an approved anti-toxin agent was administered in, survival did not differ comparing recipients and non-recipients, although recipients appeared sicker.

OBJECTIVE

Employ a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate preclinical studies supporting anthrax anti-toxin agents.

DATA SOURCE

PubMed, EMBASE, and Scopus.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY

Compared survival with an anti-toxin agent versus control in B. anthracis challenged, antibiotic treated animals.

STUDY METHODS

Examine model and study design and the effect of anti-toxin agents on relative risk of death(95%CI) (RR).

RESULTS

From 9 studies, 29 experiments were analyzed which included 4 species (748 animals) and 5 agents; LFI, AIG, AVP-21D9, Raxibacumab, and ETI-204. Only five experiments were blinded and no experiment included the cardiopulmonary support sick B. anthracis patients receive. Only one agent in a single un-blinded experiment reduced RR significantly [0.45(0.22,0.940]. However, in six studies testing an agent in more than one experiment in the same species, agents had consistent survival effects across experiments [I2 = 0, p≥0.55 in five and I2 = 42%, p = 0.16 in one]. Within each species, agents had effects on the side of benefit; in one study testing AVP-21D9 in mice [0.11(0.01,1.82)] or guinea pigs [0.70(0.48,1.03)]; across eight rabbit studies testing LFI, Raxibacumab, AIG or ETI-204 [0.62(0.45,0.87); I2 = 17.4%, p = 0.29]; and across three monkey studies testing Raxibacumab, AIG or ETI-204 [0.66(0.34,1.27); I2 = 25.3%, p = 0.26]. Across all agents and species, agents decreased RR [0.64(0.52,0.79); I2 = 5.3%, p = 0.39].

LIMITATIONS

Incidence of selective reporting not identifiable.

CONCLUSIONS

Although overall significant, individually anti-toxin agents had weak beneficial effects. Lack of study blinding and relevant clinical therapies further weakened studies. Although difficult, preclinical studies with more robust designs and results are warranted to justify the resources necessary to maintain anti-toxin agents in national stockpiles.

Global Catastrophic Biological Risks: Toward a Working Definition

The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security is working to analyze and deepen scientific dialogue regarding potential global catastrophic biological risks (GCBRs), in a continuation of its mission to reduce the consequences of epidemics and disasters. Because GCBRs constitute an emerging policy concern and area of practice, we have developed a framework to guide our work. We invited experts from a variety of disciplines to engage with our underlying concepts and assumptions to refine collective thinking on GCBRs and thus advance protections against them.

Bacillus anthracis Edema Toxin Increases Fractional Free Water and Sodium Reabsorption in an Isolated Perfused Rat Kidney Model

Bacillus anthracis edema toxin (ET) consists of protective antigen (PA), necessary for host cell toxin uptake, and edema factor (EF), the toxic moiety which increases host cell cyclic AMP (cAMP). Since vasopressin stimulates renal water and sodium reabsorption via increased tubular cell cAMP levels, we hypothesized the ET would also do so. To test this hypothesis, we employed an isolated perfused rat kidney model. Kidneys were isolated and perfused with modified Krebs-Henseleit buffer. Perfusate and urine samples were obtained at baseline and every 10 min over 150 min following the addition of challenges with or without treatments to the perfusate. In kidneys perfused under constant flow or constant pressure, compared to PA challenge (n = 14 or 15 kidneys, respectively), ET (13 or 15 kidneys, respectively) progressively increased urine cAMP levels, water and sodium reabsorption, and urine osmolality and decreased urine output (P ≤ 0.04, except for sodium reabsorption under constant pressure [P = 0.17]). In ET-challenged kidneys, compared to placebo treatment, adefovir, an EF inhibitor, decreased urine cAMP levels, water and sodium reabsorption, and urine osmolality and increased urine output, while raxibacumab, a PA-directed monoclonal antibody (MAb), decreased urine cAMP levels, free water reabsorption, and urine osmolality and increased urine output (P ≤ 0.03 except for urine output with raxibacumab [P = 0.17]). Upon immunohistochemistry, aquaporin 2 was concentrated along the apical membrane of tubular cells with ET but not PA, and urine aquaporin 2 levels were higher with ET (5.52 ± 1.06 ng/ml versus 1.51 ± 0.44 ng/ml [means ± standard errors of the means {SEM}; P = 0.0001). Edema toxin has renal effects that could contribute to extravascular fluid collection characterizing anthrax infection clinically.

Efficacy Projection of Obiltoxaximab for Treatment of Inhalational Anthrax across a Range of Disease Severity

Inhalational anthrax has high mortality even with antibiotic treatment, and antitoxins are now recommended as an adjunct to standard antimicrobial regimens. The efficacy of obiltoxaximab, a monoclonal antibody against anthrax protective antigen (PA), was examined in multiple studies conducted in two animal models of inhalational anthrax. A single intravenous bolus of 1 to 32 mg/kg of body weight obiltoxaximab or placebo was administered to New Zealand White rabbits (two studies) and cynomolgus macaques (4 studies) at disease onset (significant body temperature increase or detection of serum PA) following lethal challenge with aerosolized Bacillus anthracis spores. The primary endpoint was survival. The relationship between efficacy and disease severity, defined by pretreatment bacteremia and toxemia levels, was explored. In rabbits, single doses of 1 to 16 mg/kg obiltoxaximab led to 17 to 93% survival. In two studies, survival following 16 mg/kg obiltoxaximab was 93% and 62% compared to 0% and 0% for placebo (P = 0.0010 and P = 0.0013, respectively). Across four macaque studies, survival was 6.3% to 78.6% following 4 to 32 mg/kg obiltoxaximab. In two macaque studies, 16 mg/kg obiltoxaximab reduced toxemia and led to survival rates of 31%, 35%, and 47% versus 0%, 0%, and 6.3% with placebo (P = 0.0085, P = 0.0053, P = 0.0068). Pretreatment bacteremia and toxemia levels inversely correlated with survival. Overall, obiltoxaximab monotherapy neutralized PA and increased survival across the range of disease severity, indicating clinical benefit of toxin neutralization with obiltoxaximab in both early and late stages of inhalational anthrax.

Immunological Characterization and Neutralizing Ability of Monoclonal Antibodies Directed Against Botulinum Neurotoxin Type H

BACKGROUND

Only Clostridium botulinum strain IBCA10-7060 produces the recently described novel botulinum neurotoxin type H (BoNT/H). BoNT/H (N-terminal two-thirds most homologous to BoNT/F and C-terminal one-third most homologous to BoNT/A) requires antitoxin to toxin ratios ≥1190:1 for neutralization by existing antitoxins. Hence, more potent and safer antitoxins against BoNT/H are needed.

METHODS

We therefore evaluated our existing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to BoNT/A and BoNT/F for BoNT/H binding, created yeast-displayed mutants to select for higher-affinity-binding mAbs by using flow cytometry, and evaluated the mAbs' ability to neutralize BoNT/H in the standard mouse bioassay.

RESULTS

Anti-BoNT/A HCC-binding mAbs RAZ1 and CR2 bound BoNT/H with high affinity. However, only 1 of 6 BoNT/F mAbs (4E17.2A) bound BoNT/H but with an affinity >800-fold lower (equilibrium dissociation binding constant [KD] = 7.56 × 10(-8)M) than its BoNT/F affinity (KD= 9.1 × 10(-11)M), indicating that the N-terminal two-thirds of BoNT/H is immunologically unique. The affinity of 4E17.2A for BoNT/H was increased >500-fold to KD= 1.48 × 10(-10)M (mAb 4E17.2D). A combination of mAbs RAZ1, CR2, and 4E17.2D completely protected mice challenged with 280 mouse median lethal doses of BoNT/H at a mAb dose as low as 5 µg of total antibody.

CONCLUSIONS

This 3-mAb combination potently neutralized BoNT/H and represents a potential human antitoxin that could be developed for the prevention and treatment of type H botulism.

Ultrasensitive detection of protease activity of anthrax and botulinum toxins by a new PCR-based assay

Anthrax and botulism are dangerous infectious diseases that can be fatal unless detected and treated quickly. Fatalities from these diseases are primarily due to endopeptidase toxins secreted by the pathogens. Rapid and sensitive detection of the presence of active toxins is the key element for protection from natural outbreaks of anthrax and botulism, as well as from the threat of bioterrorism. We describe an ultrasensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay for detecting proteolytic activity of anthrax and botulinum toxins using composite probes consisting of covalent peptide-DNA conjugate for the detection of anthrax, and noncovalent protein-aptamer assembly to assay botulinum toxin activity. Probes immobilized on the solid-phase support are cleaved by toxins to release DNA, which is detected by real-time PCR. Both assays can detect subpicogram quantities of active toxins isolated from composite matrices. Special procedures were developed to isolate intact toxins from the matrices under mild conditions. The assay is rapid, uses proven technologies, and can be modified to detect other proteolytic and biopolymer-degrading enzymes.

Neutralizing antibody and functional mapping of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen-The first step toward a rationally designed anthrax vaccine

Anthrax is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a Category A pathogen for its potential use as a bioweapon. Current prevention treatments include Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA). AVA is an undefined formulation of Bacillus anthracis culture supernatant adsorbed to aluminum hydroxide. It has an onerous vaccination schedule, is slow and cumbersome to produce and is slightly reactogenic. Next-generation vaccines are focused on producing recombinant forms of anthrax toxin in a well-defined formulation but these vaccines have been shown to lose potency as they are stored. In addition, studies have shown that a proportion of the antibody response against these vaccines is focused on non-functional, non-neutralizing regions of the anthrax toxin while some essential functional regions are shielded from eliciting an antibody response. Rational vaccinology is a developing field that focuses on designing vaccine antigens based on structural information provided by neutralizing antibody epitope mapping, crystal structure analysis, and functional mapping through amino acid mutations. This information provides an opportunity to design antigens that target only functionally important and conserved regions of a pathogen in order to make a more optimal vaccine product. This review provides an overview of the literature related to functional and neutralizing antibody epitope mapping of the Protective Antigen (PA) component of anthrax toxin.

Parenteral Administration of Capsule Depolymerase EnvD Prevents Lethal Inhalation Anthrax Infection

Left untreated, inhalation anthrax is usually fatal. Vegetative forms of Bacillus anthracis survive in blood and tissues during infection due to elaboration of a protective poly-γ-D-glutamic acid (PDGA) capsule that permits uncontrolled bacterial growth in vivo, eventually leading to overwhelming bacillosis and death. As a measure to counter threats from multidrug-resistant strains, we are evaluating the prophylactic and therapeutic potential of the PDGA depolymerase EnvD, a stable and potent enzyme which rapidly and selectively removes the capsule from the surface of vegetative cells. Repeated intravenous administration of 10 mg/kg recombinant EnvD (rEnvD) to mice infected with lethal doses of B. anthracis Ames spores by inhalation prevented the emergence of symptoms of anthrax and death; all animals survived the 5-day treatment period, and 70% survived to the end of the 14-day observation period. In contrast to results in sham-treated animals, the lungs and spleen of rEnvD-dosed animals were free of gross pathological changes. We conclude that rEnvD has potential as an agent to prevent the emergence of inhalation anthrax in infected animals and is likely to be effective against drug-resistant forms of the pathogen.