Exciton-phonon coupling and disorder in the excited states of CdSe colloidal quantum dots

Reductive pathways in molten inorganic salts enable colloidal synthesis of III-V semiconductor nanocrystals

Colloidal quantum dots, with their size-tunable optoelectronic properties and scalable synthesis, enable applications in which inexpensive high-performance semiconductors are needed. Synthesis science breakthroughs have been key to the realization of quantum dot technologies, but important group III-group V semiconductors, including colloidal gallium arsenide (GaAs), still cannot be synthesized with existing approaches. The high-temperature molten salt colloidal synthesis introduced in this work enables the preparation of previously intractable colloidal materials. We directly nucleated and grew colloidal quantum dots in molten inorganic salts by harnessing molten salt redox chemistry and using surfactant additives for nanocrystal shape control. Synthesis temperatures above 425°C are critical for realizing photoluminescent GaAs quantum dots, which emphasizes the importance of high temperatures enabled by molten salt solvents. We generalize the methodology and demonstrate nearly a dozen III-V solid-solution nanocrystal compositions that have not been previously reported.

Synthesis of graded CdS1-xSex nanoplatelet alloys and heterostructures from pairs of chalcogenoureas with tailored conversion reactivity

A mixture of N,N,N'-trisubstituted thiourea and cyclic N,N,N',N'-tetrasubstituted selenourea precursors were used to synthesize three monolayer thick CdS1-xSex nanoplatelets in a single synthetic step. The microstructure of the nanoplatelets could be tuned from homogeneous alloys, to graded alloys to core/crown heterostructures depending on the relative conversion reactivity of the sulfur and selenium precursors. UV-visible absorption and photoluminescence spectroscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy electron energy loss spectroscopy (STEM-EELS) images demonstrate that the elemental distribution is governed by the relative precursor conversion kinetics. Slow conversion kinetics produced nanoplatelets with larger lateral dimensions, behavior that is characteristic of precursor conversion limited growth kinetics. Across a 10-fold range of reactivity, CdS nanoplatelets have 4× smaller lateral dimensions than CdSe nanoplatelets grown under identical conversion kinetics. The difference in size is consistent with a rate of CdSe growth that is 4× greater than the rate of CdS. The influence of the relative sulfide and selenide growth rates, the duration of the nucleation phase, and the solute composition on the nanoplatelet microstructure are discussed.

Theory of Photoluminescence Spectral Line Shapes of Semiconductor Nanocrystals

Single-molecule photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy of semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) reveals the nature of exciton-phonon interactions in NCs. Understanding the homogeneous spectral line shapes and their temperature dependence remains an open problem. Here, we develop an atomistic model to describe the PL spectrum of NCs, accounting for excitonic effects, phonon dispersion relations, and exciton-phonon couplings. We validate our model using single-NC measurements on CdSe/CdS NCs from T = 4 to 290 K, and we find that the slightly asymmetric main peak at low temperatures is comprised of a narrow zero-phonon line (ZPL) and acoustic phonon sidebands. Furthermore, we identify the specific phonon modes that give rise to the optical phonon sidebands. At temperatures above 200 K, the spectral line width shows a stronger dependence upon the temperature, which we demonstrate to be correlated with higher order exciton-phonon couplings. We also identify the line width dependence upon reorganization energy, NC core sizes, and shell thicknesses.

Narrow Intrinsic Line Widths and Electron-Phonon Coupling of InP Colloidal Quantum Dots

InP quantum dots (QDs) are the material of choice for QD display applications and have been used as active layers in QD light-emitting diodes (QDLEDs) with high efficiency and color purity. Optimizing the color purity of QDs requires understanding mechanisms of spectral broadening. While ensemble-level broadening can be minimized by synthetic tuning to yield monodisperse QD sizes, single QD line widths are broadened by exciton-phonon scattering and fine-structure splitting. Here, using photon-correlation Fourier spectroscopy, we extract average single QD line widths of 50 meV at 293 K for red-emitting InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs, among the narrowest for colloidal QDs. We measure InP/ZnSe/ZnS single QD emission line shapes at temperatures between 4 and 293 K and model the spectra using a modified independent boson model. We find that inelastic acoustic phonon scattering and fine-structure splitting are the most prominent broadening mechanisms at low temperatures, whereas pure dephasing from elastic acoustic phonon scattering is the primary broadening mechanism at elevated temperatures, and optical phonon scattering contributes minimally across all temperatures. Conversely for CdSe/CdS/ZnS QDs, we find that optical phonon scattering is a larger contributor to the line shape at elevated temperatures, leading to intrinsically broader single-dot line widths than for InP/ZnSe/ZnS. We are able to reconcile narrow low-temperature line widths and broad room-temperature line widths within a self-consistent model that enables parametrization of line width broadening, for different material classes. This can be used for the rational design of more spectrally narrow materials. Our findings reveal that red-emitting InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs have intrinsically narrower line widths than typically synthesized CdSe QDs, suggesting that these materials could be used to realize QDLEDs with high color purity.

Simulations of nonradiative processes in semiconductor nanocrystals

The description of carrier dynamics in spatially confined semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs), which have enhanced electron-hole and exciton-phonon interactions, is a great challenge for modern computational science. These NCs typically contain thousands of atoms and tens of thousands of valence electrons with discrete spectra at low excitation energies, similar to atoms and molecules, that converge to the continuum bulk limit at higher energies. Computational methods developed for molecules are limited to very small nanoclusters, and methods for bulk systems with periodic boundary conditions are not suitable due to the lack of translational symmetry in NCs. This perspective focuses on our recent efforts in developing a unified atomistic model based on the semiempirical pseudopotential approach, which is parameterized by first-principle calculations and validated against experimental measurements, to describe two of the main nonradiative relaxation processes of quantum confined excitons: exciton cooling and Auger recombination. We focus on the description of both electron-hole and exciton-phonon interactions in our approach and discuss the role of size, shape, and interfacing on the electronic properties and dynamics for II-VI and III-V semiconductor NCs.

Suppressing the Cation Exchange at the Core/Shell Interface of InP Quantum Dots by a Selenium Shielding Layer Enables Efficient Green Light-Emitting Diodes

Indium phosphide (InP) quantum dots (QDs) have demonstrated great potential for light-emitting diode (LED) application because of their excellent optical properties and nontoxicity. However, the over performance of InP QDs still lags behind that of CdSe QDs, and one of main reasons is that the Zn traps in InP lattices can be formed through the cation exchange in the ZnSe shell growth process. Herein, we realized highly luminescent InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs by constructing Se-rich shielding layers on the surfaces of InP cores, which simultaneously protect the InP cores from the invasion of Zn²⁺ into InP lattices and facilitate the ZnSe shell growth via the reaction between Zn²⁺ precursors and Se^2- shielding layers. The as-synthesized green InP/ZnSe/ZnS QDs had a high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) of up to 87%. The fabricated QLEDs present a peak external quantum efficiency of 6.2% with an improved efficiency roll-off at high luminance, which is 2 times higher than that of control devices.

First-Principles Calculations of Luminescence Spectra of Real-Scale Quantum Dots

The luminescence line shape is an important feature of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) and affects performance in various optical applications. Here, we report a first-principles method to predict the luminescence spectrum of thousands of atom QDs. In our approach, neural network potential calculations are combined with density functional theory calculations to describe exciton-phonon coupling (EPC). Using the calculated EPC, the luminescence spectrum is evaluated within the Franck-Condon approximation. Our approach results in the luminescence line shape for an InP/ZnSe core/shell QD (3406 atoms) that exhibits excellent agreement with the experiments. From a detailed analysis of EPC, we reveal that the coupling of both acoustic and optical phonons to an exciton are important in determining the spectral line shapes of core/shell QDs, which is in contrast with previous studies. On the basis of the present simulation results, we provide guidelines for designing high-performance core/shell QDs with ultrasharp emission spectra.

Interplay of Surface and Interior Modes in Exciton-Phonon Coupling at the Nanoscale

Exciton-phonon coupling (EXPC) plays a key role in the optoelectronic properties of semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs), but a microscopic picture of EXPC is still lacking, particularly regarding the magnitude and scaling with NC size, the dependence on phonon frequency, and the role of the NC surface. The computational complexity associated with accurately describing excitons and phonons has limited previous theoretical studies of EXPC to small NCs, noninteracting electron-hole models, and/or a small number of phonon modes. Here, we develop an atomistic approach for describing EXPC in NCs of experimentally relevant sizes. We validate our approach by calculating the reorganization energies, a measure of EXPC, for CdSe and CdSe-CdS core-shell NCs, finding good agreement with experimental measurements. We demonstrate that exciton formation distorts the NC lattice primarily along the coordinates of low-frequency acoustic modes. Modes at the NC surface play a significant role in smaller NCs while interior modes dominate for larger systems.

Enhanced Emission from Bright Excitons in Asymmetrically Strained Colloidal CdSe/CdxZn1-xSe Quantum Dots

Colloidal CdSe quantum dots (QDs) designed with a high degree of asymmetric internal strain have recently been shown to host a number of desirable optical properties including subthermal room-temperature line widths, suppressed spectral diffusion, and high photoluminescence (PL) quantum yields. It remains an open question, however, whether they are well-suited for applications requiring emission of identical single photons. Here we measure the low-temperature PL dynamics and the polarization-resolved fluorescence line narrowing spectra from ensembles of these strained QDs. Our spectroscopy reveals the radiative recombination rates of bright and dark excitons, the relaxation rate between the two, and the energy spectra of the quantized acoustic phonons in the QDs that can contribute to relaxation processes. In comparison to conventional colloidal CdSe/ZnS core/shell QDs, we find that in asymmetrically strained CdSe QDs over six times more light is emitted directly by the bright exciton. These results are therefore encouraging for the prospects of chemically synthesized colloidal QDs as emitters of single indistinguishable photons.

Zone-Folded Longitudinal Acoustic Phonons Driving Self-Trapped State Emission in Colloidal CdSe Nanoplatelet Superlattices

Colloidal CdSe nanoplatelets (NPLs) have substantial potential in light-emitting applications because of their quantum-well-like characteristics. The self-trapped state (STS), originating from strong electron-phonon coupling (EPC), is promising in white light luminance because of its broadband emission. However, achieving STS in CdSe NPLs is extremely challenging because of their intrinsic weak EPC nature. Herein, we developed a strong STS emission in the spectral range of 450-600 nm by building superlattice (SL) structures with colloidal CdSe NPLs. We demonstrated that STS is generated via strong coupling of excitons and zone-folded longitudinal acoustic phonons with formation time of ∼450 fs and localization length of ∼0.56 nm. The Huang-Rhys factor, describing the EPC strength in SL structure, is estimated to be ∼19.9, which is much larger than that (∼0.1) of monodispersed CdSe NPLs. Our results provide an in-depth understanding of STS and a platform for generating and manipulating STS by designing SL structures.

Temperature-dependence on the optical properties of chitosan carbon dots in the solid state

We report the synthesis of chitosan-derived aminated carbon dots with dual fluorescence bands and their influence on the morphology, absorption and emission spectral profiles as well as on the band gap energy in relation to thermal treatment after synthesis. To unravel these changes, we performed spectroscopic measurements in the solid state on two stages at temperatures ranging from 303 to 453 K. For the first heating stage, the emission spectrum showed a 20 nm red shift and a new absorption band at 350 nm, possibly related to new bonds and/or nitrogenous molecular fractions. For the second heating stage in the same temperature range, no displacements in the emission spectrum were observed and both the energy gap and bandwidths for the two emission bands are practically constant, indicating a change nitrogen moiety exposed on the surface. Furthermore, through atomic force microscopy it was noted that the morphology and size of the CDs were not significantly affected by the increase in temperature. It is noteworthy that the values of the Huang-Rhys factor, respectively, 2.584 × 10-10 and 2.315 × 10-9 for band I and II emission after the second heating indicate a mechanism of weak electron-phonon interactions. This work may open a novel perspective for the development of new surface modulation strategies for carbon dots subjected to thermal treatment in the solid state.

Fundamental Limit of the Emission Linewidths of Quantum Dots: An Ab Initio Study of CdSe Nanocrystals

The emission linewidth of a semiconducting nanocrystal (NC) significantly affects its performance in light-emitting applications, but its fundamental limit is still elusive. Herein, we analyze the exciton-phonon coupling (EPC) from Huang-Rhys (HR) factors using ab initio calculations and compute emission line shapes of CdSe NCs. When surface traps are absent, acoustic modes are found to dominate EPC. The computed linewidths are mainly determined by the size of NCs, being largely insensitive to the shape and crystal structure. Linewidths obtained in this work are much smaller than most measurements on homogeneous linewidths, but they are consistent with a CdSe/Cd_xZn_1-xSe (core/shell) NC [Park, Y.-S.; Lim, J.; Klimov, V. I. Nat. Mater. 2019 18, 249-255]. Based on this comparison, it is concluded that the large linewidths in most experiments originated from internal fields by surface (or interface) traps or quasi-type II band alignment that amplifies EPC. Thus, the present results on NCs with ideal passivation provide the fundamental minimum of homogeneous linewidths, indicating that only the CdSe/Cd_xZn_1-xSe NC has achieved this limit through well-controlled synthesis of shell structures. To further verify the role of internal fields, we model NCs with charged surface defects. We find that the internal field significantly increases HR factors and linewidths, in reasonable agreement with experiments on single cores. By revealing the fundamental limit of the emission linewidths of quantum dots, this work will pave the way for engineering quantum dots with an ultrasharp spectrum.

Coherent Exciton Dynamics in Ensembles of Size-Dispersed CdSe Quantum Dot Dimers Probed via Ultrafast Spectroscopy: A Quantum Computational Study

Interdot coherent excitonic dynamics in nanometric colloidal CdSe quantum dots (QD) dimers lead to interdot charge migration and energy transfer. We show by electronic quantum dynamical simulations that the interdot coherent response to ultrashort fs laser pulses can be characterized by pump-probe transient absorption spectroscopy in spite of the inevitable inherent size dispersion of colloidal QDs. The latter, leading to a broadening of the excitonic bands, induce accidental resonances that actually increase the efficiency of the interdot coupling. The optical electronic response is computed by solving the time-dependent Schrodinger equation including the interaction with the oscillating electric field of the pulses for an ensemble of dimers that differ by their size. The excitonic Hamiltonian of each dimer is parameterized by the QD size and interdot distance, using an effective mass approximation. Local and charge transfer excitons are included in the dimer basis set. By tailoring the QD size, the excitonic bands can be tuned to overlap and thus favor interdot coupling. Computed pump-probe transient absorption maps averaged over the ensemble show that the coherence of excitons in QD dimers that lead to interdot charge migration can survive size disorder and could be observed in fs pump-probe, four-wave mixing, or covariance spectroscopy.

Mechanistic understanding of the charge carrier trapping in CsPbCl3 perovskite nanocrystals

The optical properties of CsPbCl3 perovskite nanocrystals (NCs) with varied sizes were studied in the temperature range from 80 to 320 K by steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The CsPbCl3 NCs were synthesized with a hot-injection approach at reaction temperature of 140-180 °C. The PL emissions in NC films originate from localized excitons. It is found that NC films shows a significant decrease in PL intensity with increasing temperature while they exhibit a clear increase in PL lifetime from 80 K to around 250 K and then a reduction at high temperature. The abnormal temperature dependence of PL lifetimes in NC films is related to thermal activation of trapped carriers in the NCs. The change of average lifetimes with emission energy indicates the thermal degradation result from the loss of ligands on the surface of NC films. Moreover, the PL intensities, peak energies, and bandwidths of the NC films as a function of temperature are discussed detail.

Tunable Color Temperatures and Efficient White Emission from Cs2 Ag1- x Nax In1- y Biy Cl6 Double Perovskite Nanocrystals

Recently, Bi-doped Cs₂ Ag_0.6 Na_0.4 InCl₆ lead-free double perovskites demonstrating efficient warm-white emission have been reported. To enable the solution processing and enrich the application fields of this promising material, here a colloidal synthesis of Cs₂ Ag_{1- x} Na_x In_{1- y} Bi_y Cl₆ nanocrystals is further developed. Different from its bulk states, the emission color temperatures of the nanocrystal can be tuned from 9759.7 to 4429.2 K by Na⁺ and Bi³⁺ incorporation. Furthermore, the newly developed nanocrystals can break the wavefunction symmetry of the self-trapped excitons by partial replacement of Ag⁺ ions with Na⁺ ions and consequently allow radiative recombination. Assisted with Bi³⁺ ions doping and ligand passivation, the photoluminescence quantum yield of the Cs₂ Ag_0.17 Na_0.83 In_0.88 Bi_0.12 Cl₆ nanocrystals is further promoted to 64%, which is the highest value for lead-free perovskite nanocrystals at present. The new colloidal nanocrystals with tunable color temperature and efficient photoluminescence are expected to greatly advance the research progress of lead-free perovskites in single-emitter-based white emitting materials and devices.

Ligand-Enhanced Energy Transport in Nanocrystal Solids Viewed with Two-Dimensional Electronic Spectroscopy

We examine CdSe NCs functionalized with the exciton-delocalizing ligand phenyldithiocarbamate (PDTC) using two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy (2DES). PDTC forms hybrid molecular orbitals with CdSe's valence band that relax hole spatial confinement and create potential for enhanced exciton migration in NC solids. We find PDTC broadens the intrinsic line width of individual NCs in solution by ∼30 meV, which we ascribe to modulation of NC band edge states by ligand motion. In PDTC-exchanged solids, photoexcited excitons are mobile and rapidly move to low-energy NC sites over ∼30 ps. We also find placing excitons into high-energy states can accelerate their rate of migration by over an order of magnitude, which we attribute to enhanced spatial delocalization of these states that improves inter-NC wave function overlap. Our work demonstrates that NC surface ligands can actively facilitate inter-NC energy transfer and highlights principles to consider when designing ligands for this application.

Non-Markovian Exciton-Phonon Interactions in Core-Shell Colloidal Quantum Dots at Femtosecond Timescales

We perform two-dimensional coherent spectroscopy on CdSe/CdZnS core-shell colloidal quantum dots at cryogenic temperatures. In the two-dimensional spectra, sidebands due to electronic coupling with CdSe lattice LO-phonon modes are observed to have evolutions deviating from the exponential dephasing expected from Markovian spectral diffusion, which is instantaneous and memoryless. Comparison to simulations provides evidence that LO-phonon coupling induces energy-gap fluctuations on the finite timescales of nuclear motion. The femtosecond resolution of our technique probes exciton dynamics directly on the timescales of phonon coupling in nanocrystals.

Inhomogeneous Broadening of the Exciton Band in Optical Absorption Spectra of InP/ZnS Nanocrystals

In this work, we have simulated the processes of broadening the first exciton band in optical absorption spectra (OA) for InP/ZnS ensembles of colloidal quantum dots (QDs). A phenomenological model has been proposed that takes into account the effects of the exciton–phonon interaction, and allows one to analyze the influence of the static and dynamic types of atomic disorder on the temperature changes in the spectral characteristics in question. To vary the degree of static disorder in the model system, we have used a parameter δ, which characterizes the QD dispersion in size over the ensemble. We have also calculated the temperature shifts of the maxima and changes in the half-width for the exciton peaks in single nanocrystals (δ = 0), as well as for the integrated OA bands in the QD ensembles with different values of δ = 0.6–17%. The simulation results and the OA spectra data measured for InP/ZnS nanocrystals of 2.1 nm (δ = 11.1%) and 2.3 nm (δ = 17.3%), are in good mutual agreement in the temperature range of 6.5 K–RT. It has been shown that the contribution of static disorder to the observed inhomogeneous broadening of the OA bands for the QDs at room temperature exceeds 90%. The computational experiments performed indicate that the temperature shift of the maximum for the integrated OA band coincides with that for the exciton peak in a single nanocrystal. In this case, a reliable estimate of the parameters of the fundamental exciton–phonon interaction can be made. Simultaneously, the values of the specified parameters, calculated from the temperature broadening of the OA spectra, can be significantly different from the true ones due to the effects of static atomic disorder in real QD ensembles.

Phonon Interaction and Phase Transition in Single Formamidinium Lead Bromide Quantum Dots

Formamidinium lead bromide (FAPbBr₃) quantum dots (QDs) are promising materials for light emitting applications in the visible spectral region because of their high photoluminescence (PL) quantum yield (QY) and the enhanced chemical stability as compared to, for instance, methylammonium based analogues. Toward practical harnessing of their compelling optical characteristics, the exciton recombination process, and in particular the exciton-phonon interaction and the impact of crystal phase transition, has to be understood in detail. This is addressed in this contribution by PL studies on single colloidal FAPbBr₃ QDs. Polarization-resolved PL measurements reveal a fine structure splitting of excitonic transitions due to the Rashba effect. Distinct phonon replica have been observed within energetic distances of 4.3 ± 0.5, 8.6 ± 0.9, and 13.2 ± 1.1 meV from the zero phonon line, which we attribute to vibrational modes of the lead bromide lattice. Additional vibrational modes of 18.6 ± 0.3 and 38.8 ± 1.1 meV are found and related to liberation modes of the formamidinium (FA) cation. Temperature-dependent PL spectra reveal a line broadening of the emission caused by exciton phonon interaction as well an unusual energy shift which is attributed to a crystal phase transition within the single QD.

Efficient, non-stochastic, Monte-Carlo-like-accurate method for the calculation of the temperature-dependent mobility in nanocrystal films

We present a new non-stochastic framework for the calculation of the temperature dependence of the mobility in nanocrystal films, that enables speed-ups of several orders of magnitude compared to conventional Monte Carlo approaches, while maintaining a similar accuracy. Our model identifies a new contribution to the reduction of the mobility with increasing temperature in these systems (conventionally attributed to interactions with phonons), that alone is sufficient to explain the observed experimental trend up to room temperature. Comparison of our results with the theoretical predictions of the hopping model and the observed temperature dependence of recent field-effect mobility measurements in nanocrystal films, provides the means to discriminate between band-like and hopping transport and a definitive answer to whether the former has been achieved in quantum dot films.

Probing Homogeneous Line Broadening in CdSe Nanocrystals Using Multidimensional Electronic Spectroscopy

The finite spectral line width of an ensemble of CdSe nanocrystals arises from size and shape inhomogeneity and the single-nanocrystal spectrum itself. This line width directly limits the performance of nanocrystal-based devices, yet most optical measurements cannot resolve the underlying contributions. We use two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy (2D ES) to measure the line width of the band-edge exciton of CdSe nanocrystals as a function of radii and surface chemistry. We find that the homogeneous width decreases for increasing nanocrystal radius and that surface chemistry plays a critical role in controlling this line width. To explore the hypothesis that unpassivated trap states serve to broaden the homogeneous line width and to explain its size-dependence, we use 3D ES to identify the spectral signatures of exciton-phonon coupling to optical and acoustic phonons. We find enhanced coupling to optical phonon modes for nanocrystals that lack electron-passivating ligands, suggesting that localized surface charges enhance exciton-phonon coupling via the Fröhlich interaction. Lastly, the data reveal that spectral diffusion contributes negligibly to the homogeneous line width on subnanosecond time scales.

Quantum coherence selective 2D Raman-2D electronic spectroscopy

Electronic and vibrational correlations report on the dynamics and structure of molecular species, yet revealing these correlations experimentally has proved extremely challenging. Here, we demonstrate a method that probes correlations between states within the vibrational and electronic manifold with quantum coherence selectivity. Specifically, we measure a fully coherent four-dimensional spectrum which simultaneously encodes vibrational-vibrational, electronic-vibrational and electronic-electronic interactions. By combining near-impulsive resonant and non-resonant excitation, the desired fifth-order signal of a complex organic molecule in solution is measured free of unwanted lower-order contamination. A critical feature of this method is electronic and vibrational frequency resolution, enabling isolation and assignment of individual quantum coherence pathways. The vibronic structure of the system is then revealed within an otherwise broad and featureless 2D electronic spectrum. This method is suited for studying elusive quantum effects in which electronic transitions strongly couple to phonons and vibrations, such as energy transfer in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes.

Optically active quantum-dot molecules

Chiral molecules made of coupled achiral semiconductor nanocrystals, also known as quantum dots, show great promise for photonic applications owing to their prospective uses as configurable building blocks for optically active structures, materials, and devices. Here we present a simple model of optically active quantum-dot molecules, in which each of the quantum dots is assigned a dipole moment associated with the fundamental interband transition between the size-quantized states of its confined charge carriers. This model is used to analytically calculate the rotatory strengths of optical transitions occurring upon the excitation of chiral dimers, trimers, and tetramers of general configurations. The rotatory strengths of such quantum-dot molecules are found to exceed the typical rotatory strengths of chiral molecules by five to six orders of magnitude. We also study how the optical activity of quantum-dot molecules shows up in their circular dichroism spectra when the energy gap between the molecular states is much smaller than the states' lifetime, and maximize the strengths of the circular dichroism peaks by optimizing orientations of the quantum dots in the molecules. Our analytical results provide clear design guidelines for quantum-dot molecules and can prove useful in engineering optically active quantum-dot supercrystals and photonic devices.

A Library of Selenourea Precursors to PbSe Nanocrystals with Size Distributions near the Homogeneous Limit

We report a tunable library of N,N,N'-trisubstituted selenourea precursors and their reaction with lead oleate at 60-150 °C to form carboxylate-terminated PbSe nanocrystals in quantitative yields. Single exponential conversion kinetics can be tailored over 4 orders of magnitude by adjusting the selenourea structure. The wide range of conversion reactivity allows the extent of nucleation ([nanocrystal] = 4.6-56.7 μM) and the size following complete precursor conversion (d = 1.7-6.6 nm) to be controlled. Narrow size distributions (σ = 0.5-2%) are obtained whose spectral line widths are dominated (73-83%) by the intrinsic single particle spectral broadening, as observed using spectral hole burning measurements. The intrinsic broadening decreases with increasing size (fwhm = 320-65 meV, d = 1.6-4.4 nm) that derives from exciton fine structure and exciton-phonon coupling rather than broadening caused by the size distribution.

Ultrafast exciton dynamics in 2D in-plane hetero-nanostructures: delocalization and charge transfer

The ultrafast dynamics in Cd-based 2D in-plane heterostructures is revealed by femtosecond optical spectroscopy.

Modulation of Low-Frequency Acoustic Vibrations in Semiconductor Nanocrystals through Choice of Surface Ligand

Recent experimental and theoretical results have highlighted the surprisingly dominant role of acoustic phonons in regulating dynamic processes in nanocrystals. While it has been known for many years that acoustic phonon frequencies in nanocrystals depend on their size, strategies for tuning acoustic phonon energy at a given fixed size were not available. Here, we show that acoustic phonon frequencies in colloidal quantum dots (QDs) can be tuned through the choice of the surface ligand. Using low-frequency Raman spectroscopy, we explore the dependence of the l = 0 acoustic phonon resonance in CdSe QDs on ligand size, molecular weight, and chemical functionality. On the basis of these aggregated observations, we conclude that the primary mechanism for this effect is mass loading of the QD surface and that interactions between ligands and with the surrounding environment play a comparatively minor yet non-negligible role.

Two-Dimensional Visible Spectroscopy For Studying Colloidal Semiconductor Nanocrystals

Possibilities offered by 2D visible spectroscopy for the investigation of the properties of excitons in colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals are overviewed, with a particular focus on their ultrafast dynamics. The technique of 2D electronic spectroscopy is illustrated with several examples showing its advantages compared to 1D ultrafast spectroscopic techniques (transient absorption and time-resolved photoluminescence).

Effect of Electron-Hole Overlap and Exchange Interaction on Exciton Radiative Lifetimes of CdTe/CdSe Heteronanocrystals

Wave function engineering has become a powerful tool to tailor the optical properties of semiconductor colloidal nanocrystals. Core-shell systems allow to design the spatial extent of the electron (e) and hole (h) wave functions in the conduction- and valence bands, respectively. However, tuning the overlap between the e- and h-wave functions not only affects the oscillator strength of the coupled e-h pairs (excitons) that are responsible for the light emission, but also modifies the e-h exchange interaction, leading to an altered excitonic energy spectrum. Here, we present exciton lifetime measurements in a strong magnetic field to determine the strength of the e-h exchange interaction, independently of the e-h overlap that is deduced from lifetime measurements at room temperature. We use a set of CdTe/CdSe core/shell heteronanocrystals in which the electron-hole separation is systematically varied. We are able to unravel the separate effects of e-h overlap and e-h exchange on the exciton lifetimes, and we present a simple model that fully describes the recombination lifetimes of heteronanostructures (HNCs) as a function of core volume, shell volume, temperature, and magnetic fields.

Charge Transfer Dynamics from Photoexcited Semiconductor Quantum Dots

Understanding photoinduced charge transfer from nanomaterials is essential to the many applications of these materials. This review summarizes recent progress in understanding charge transfer from quantum dots (QDs), an ideal model system for investigating fundamental charge transfer properties of low-dimensional quantum-confined nanomaterials. We first discuss charge transfer from QDs to weakly coupled acceptors within the framework of Marcus nonadiabatic electron transfer (ET) theory, focusing on the dependence of ET rates on reorganization energy, electronic coupling, and driving force. Because of the strong electron-hole interaction, we show that ET from QDs should be described by the Auger-assisted ET model, which is significantly different from ET between molecules or from bulk semiconductor electrodes. For strongly quantum-confined QDs on semiconductor surfaces, the coupling can fall within the strong coupling limit, in which case the donor-acceptor interaction and ET properties can be described by the Newns-Anderson model of chemisorption. We also briefly discuss recent progress in controlling charge transfer properties in quantum-confined nanoheterostructures through wavefunction engineering and multiple exciton dissociation. Finally, we identify a few key areas for further research.

Ligands Slow Down Pure-Dephasing in Semiconductor Quantum Dots

It is well-known experimentally and theoretically that surface ligands provide additional pathways for energy relaxation in colloidal semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). They increase the rate of inelastic charge-phonon scattering and provide trap sites for the charges. We show that, surprisingly, ligands have the opposite effect on elastic electron-phonon scattering. Our simulations demonstrate that elastic scattering slows down in CdSe QDs passivated with ligands compared to that in bare QDs. As a result, the pure-dephasing time is increased, and the homogeneous luminescence line width is decreased in the presence of ligands. The lifetime of quantum superpositions of single and multiple excitons increases as well, providing favorable conditions for multiple excitons generation (MEG). Ligands reduce the pure-dephasing rates by decreasing phonon-induced fluctuations of the electronic energy levels. Surface atoms are most mobile in QDs, and therefore, they contribute greatly to the electronic energy fluctuations. The mobility is reduced by interaction with ligands. A simple analytical model suggests that the differences between the bare and passivated QDs persist for up to 5 nm diameters. Both low-frequency acoustic and high-frequency optical phonons participate in the dephasing processes in bare QDs, while low-frequency acoustic modes dominate in passivated QDs. The theoretical predictions regarding the pure-dephasing time, luminescence line width, and MEG can be verified experimentally by studying QDs with different surface passivation.

Phonon-assisted photoluminescence from a semiconductor quantum dot with resonant electron and phonon subsystems

We present a theory of phonon-assisted photoluminescence from a semiconductor quantum dot (QD) whose electron and phonon subsystems are resonantly coupled via the polar electron-phonon interaction. We show that the resonance-induced renormalization of the QD energy spectrum, leading to the formation of the polaron-like states, can be performed exactly in terms of the arbitrarily degenerate states of electron-hole pairs and the phonon modes of equal energies. Using the model of QDs with finite potential barriers for electron and holes leads to new selection rules of interband optical transitions and the three-particle interaction describing simultaneous absorption and/or emission of a photon and a phonon. We also derive a simple expression for the differential cross section of the stationary, low-temperature photoluminescence, which allows the fundamental parameters of the polaron-like excitations to be readily extracted from the frequency-resolved experimental spectra. In particular, the energies of the excitations and the coherence relaxation rates of the optical transitions resulting in their generation and recombination are shown to be directly given by the positions and widths of the photoluminescence peaks. The developed theory complements the existing experimental techniques of studying the phonon-assisted photoluminescence from individual nanocrystals.

Efficient energy transfer from inserted CdTe quantum dots to YVO₄:Eu³⁺ inverse opals: a novel strategy to improve and expand visible excitation of rare earth ions

Rare earth (RE)-based phosphors demonstrate sharp emission lines, long lifetimes and high luminescence quantum yields; thus, they have been employed in various photoelectric devices, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar spectral converters. However, their applications are largely confined by their narrow excitation bands and small absorption cross sections of 4f-4f transitions. In this paper, we demonstrate a novel strategy to improve and expand the visible excitation bands of Eu(3+) ions through the interface energy transfer (ET) from CdTe quantum dots (QDs) to YVO₄:Eu(3+) inverse opal photonic crystals (IOPCs). The significant effects observed in the CdTe QDs/YVO₄:Eu(3+) IOPCs composites were that the excitation of Eu(3+) ions was continuously extended from 450 to 590 nm and that the emission intensity of the (5)D₀-(7)FJ transitions was enhanced ∼20-fold, corresponding to the intrinsic (7)F₁-(5)D₁ excitation at 538 nm. Furthermore, in the IOPC network, the ET efficiency from the QDs to YVO₄:Eu(3+) was greatly improved because of the suppression of energy migration among the CdTe QDs, which gave an optimum ET efficiency as high as 47%. Besides, the modulation of photonic stop bands (PSBs) on the radiative transition rates of the QDs and Eu(3+) ions was studied, which showed that the decay lifetime constants for Eu(3+) ions were independent of PSBs, while those of QDs demonstrated a suppression in the PSBs. Their physical nature was explained theoretically.

Observation of the full exciton and phonon fine structure in CdSe/CdS dot-in-rod heteronanocrystals

Light emission of semiconductor nanocrystals is a complex process, depending on many factors, among which are the quantum mechanical size confinement of excitons (coupled electron-hole pairs) and the influence of confined phonon modes and the nanocrystal surface. Despite years of research, the nature of nanocrystal emission at low temperatures is still under debate. Here we unravel the different optical recombination pathways of CdSe/CdS dot-in-rod systems that show an unprecedented number of narrow emission lines upon resonant laser excitation. By using self-assembled, vertically aligned rods and application of crystallographically oriented high magnetic fields, the origin of all these peaks is established. We observe a clear signature of an acoustic-phonon assisted transition, separated from the zero-phonon emission and optical-phonon replica, proving that nanocrystal light emission results from an intricate interplay between bright (optically allowed) and dark (optically forbidden) exciton states, coupled to both acoustic and optical phonon modes.

The "surface optical" phonon in CdSe nanocrystals

The origin of the ubiquitous low-frequency shoulder on the longitudinal optical (LO) phonon fundamental in the Raman spectra of CdSe quantum dots is examined. This feature is usually assigned as a "surface optical" (SO) phonon, but it is only slightly affected by modifying the surface through exchanging ligands or adding a semiconductor shell. Here we present excitation profile data showing that the low-frequency shoulder loses intensity as the excitation is tuned to longer wavelengths, closer to resonance with the lowest-energy 1Se-1S3/2 excitonic transition. Calculations of the resonance Raman spectra are carried out using a fully atomistic model with an empirical force field to calculate the phonon modes and the standard effective mass approximation envelope function model to calculate the electron and hole wave functions. When a force field of the Tersoff type is used, the calculated spectra closely resemble the experimental ones in showing mainly the higher-frequency LO phonon with 1Se-1S3/2 resonance but showing intensity in lower-frequency features with 1Pe-1P3/2 resonance. These calculations indicate that the main LO phonon peak involves largely motion of the interior atoms, while the low-frequency shoulder is more equally distributed throughout the crystal but not surface-localized. Interestingly, very different results are obtained with the widely used Coulomb plus Lennard-Jones force field developed by Rabani, which predicts far more disordered structures and more localized phonon modes for the nanocrystals compared with the Tersoff-type potential.

Chemical and thermodynamic control of the surface of semiconductor nanocrystals for designer white light emitters

Small CdSe semiconductor nanocrystals with diameters below 2 nm are thought to emit white light due to random surface defects which result in a broad distribution of midgap emitting states, thereby preventing rational design of small nanocrystal white light emitters. We perform temperature dependent photoluminescence experiments before and after ligand exchange and electron transfer simulations to reveal a very simple microscopic picture of the origin of the white light. These experiments and simulations reveal that these small nanocrystals can be physically modeled in precisely the same way as normal-sized semiconductor nanocrystals; differences in their emission spectra arise from their surface thermodynamics. The white light emission is thus a consequence of the thermodynamic relationship between a core excitonic state and an optically bright surface state with good quantum yield. By virtue of this understanding of the surface and the manner in which it is coupled to the core excitonic states of these nanocrystals, we show both chemical and thermodynamic control of the photoluminescence spectra. We find that using both temperature and appropriate choice in ligands, one can rationally control the spectra so as to engineer the surface to target color rendering coordinates for displays and white light emitters.

Direct probe of spectral inhomogeneity reveals synthetic tunability of single-nanocrystal spectral linewidths

The spectral linewidth of an ensemble of fluorescent emitters is dictated by the combination of single-emitter linewidths and sample inhomogeneity. For semiconductor nanocrystals, efforts to tune ensemble linewidths for optical applications have focused primarily on eliminating sample inhomogeneities, because conventional single-molecule methods cannot reliably build accurate ensemble-level statistics for single-particle linewidths. Photon-correlation Fourier spectroscopy in solution (S-PCFS) offers a unique approach to investigating single-nanocrystal spectra with large sample statistics and high signal-to-noise ratios, without user selection bias and at fast timescales. With S-PCFS, we directly and quantitatively deconstruct the ensemble linewidth into contributions from the average single-particle linewidth and from sample inhomogeneity. We demonstrate that single-particle linewidths vary significantly from batch to batch and can be synthetically controlled. These findings delineate the synthetic challenges facing underdeveloped nanomaterials such as InP and InAs core-shell particles and introduce new avenues for the synthetic optimization of fluorescent nanoparticles.