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Lytvynenko A, Baluchová S, Zima J, Krůšek J, Schwarzová-Pecková K. Biofouling and performance of boron-doped diamond electrodes for detection of dopamine and serotonin in neuron cultivation media. Bioelectrochemistry 2024; 158:108713. [PMID: 38688079 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2024.108713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Boron doped diamond has been considered as a fouling-resistive electrode material for in vitro and in vivo detection of neurotransmitters. In this study, its performance in electrochemical detection of dopamine and serotonin in neuron cultivation media Neurobasal™ before and after cultivation of rat neurons was investigated. For differential pulse voltammetry the limits of detection in neat Neurobasal™ medium of 2 µM and 0.2 µM for dopamine and serotonin, respectively, were achieved on the polished surface, which is comparable with physiological values. On oxidized surface twofold higher values, but increased repeatabilities of the signals were obtained. However, in Neurobasal™ media with peptides-containing supplements necessary for cell cultivation, the voltammograms were notably worse shaped due to biofouling, especially in the medium isolated after neuron growth. In these complex media, the amperometric detection mode at +0.75 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) allowed to detect portion-wise additions of dopamine and serotonin (as low as 1-2 µM), mimicking neurotransmitter release from vesicles despite the lower sensitivity in comparison with neat NeurobasalTM. The results indicate substantial differences in detection on boron doped diamond electrode in the presence and absence of proteins, and the necessity of studies in real media for successful implementation to neuron-electrode interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Lytvynenko
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Albertov 6, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Simona Baluchová
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Albertov 6, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Zima
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Albertov 6, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krůšek
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karolina Schwarzová-Pecková
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Albertov 6, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
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2
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Rashwan MS, Anwar ZM, Baskaran H, Martin HB. Fluorescence modulation of nanodiamond NV - centers for neurochemical detection. MRS ADVANCES 2022; 7:766-771. [PMID: 38155750 PMCID: PMC10753872 DOI: 10.1557/s43580-022-00322-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanodiamond (ND) with nitrogen vacancy (NV-) color centers has emerged as an important material for quantum sensing and imaging. Fluorescent, carboxylated ND (140 nm) is investigated for the detection of dopamine (DA), caffeine (CA), and ascorbic acid (AA). Over a 200 nM range, DA and CA quenched the ND fluorescence by 7.1 and 9.8%, respectively. For AA, fluorescence was quenched (2.9%) at nM concentrations and enhanced at μM concentrations. The quenching fit well to Langmuir adsorption isotherms. For DA-CA mixtures, the CA at nM concentrations did not affect DA quenching but interfered when at μM concentrations. The DA at nM or μM concentrations lessened CA quenching. For DA-AA mixtures with DA at mM concentrations, AA quenched fluorescence throughout the nM and μM range, with increased quenching in the nM range. These studies support ND fluorescence modulation as a possible sensor modality for bioanalyte detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai S. Rashwan
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Zeinab M. Anwar
- Department of Chemistry, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Harihara Baskaran
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Heidi B. Martin
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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3
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Shao Z, Wilson L, Chang Y, Venton BJ. MPCVD-Grown Nanodiamond Microelectrodes with Oxygen Plasma Activation for Neurochemical Applications. ACS Sens 2022; 7:3192-3200. [PMID: 36223478 PMCID: PMC9855027 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c01803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Nanodiamonds (NDs) are a carbon nanomaterial that has a diamond core with heteroatoms and defects at the surface. The large surface area, defect sites, and functional groups on NDs make them a promising material for electrochemical sensing. Previously, we dip-coated ND onto carbon-fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) and found increases in sensitivity, but the coating was sparse. Here, we directly grew thin films of ND on niobium wires using microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition (MP-CVD) to provide full surface coverage. ND microelectrodes show a reliable performance in neurotransmitter detection with good antifouling properties. To improve sensitivity, we oxygen plasma etched ND films to activate the surface and intentionally add defects and oxygen surface functional groups. For fast-scan cyclic voltammetry detection of dopamine, oxygen plasma-etching increases the sensitivity from 21 nA/μM to 90 nA/μM after treatment. Fouling was tested by repeated injections of serotonin or tyramine, and both ND and plasma oxidized nanodiamond (NDO) microelectrodes maintain their currents better compared to CFMEs and therefore are more antifouling. A biofouling test in brain slices shows that ND microelectrodes barely have any current drop, while the more hydrophilic NDO microelectrodes decrease more, but still not as much as CFMEs. Overall, grown ND microelectrodes are promising in neurotransmitter detection with excellent fouling resistance, whereas oxygen plasma etching slightly lowers the fouling resistance but dramatically increases sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Shao
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4319
| | - Leslie Wilson
- Center for Nanophase Material Science, Oak Ridge National Lab, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Yuanyu Chang
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4319
| | - B. Jill Venton
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4319
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4
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Seaton BT, Heien ML. Biocompatible reference electrodes to enhance chronic electrochemical signal fidelity in vivo. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:6689-6701. [PMID: 34595560 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03640-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In vivo electrochemistry is a vital tool of neuroscience that allows for the detection, identification, and quantification of neurotransmitters, their metabolites, and other important analytes. One important goal of in vivo electrochemistry is a better understanding of progressive neurological disorders (e.g., Parkinson's disease). A complete understanding of such disorders can only be achieved through a combination of acute (i.e., minutes to hours) and chronic (i.e., days or longer) experimentation. Chronic studies are more challenging because they require prolonged implantation of electrodes, which elicits an immune response, leading to glial encapsulation of the electrodes and altered electrode performance (i.e., biofouling). Biofouling leads to increased electrode impedance and reference electrode polarization, both of which diminish the selectivity and sensitivity of in vivo electrochemical measurements. The increased impedance factor has been successfully mitigated previously with the use of a counter electrode, but the challenge of reference electrode polarization remains. The commonly used Ag/AgCl reference electrode lacks the long-term potential stability in vivo required for chronic measurements. In addition, the cytotoxicity of Ag/AgCl adversely affects animal experimentation and prohibits implantation in humans, hindering translational research progress. Thus, a move toward biocompatible reference electrodes with superior chronic potential stability is necessary. Two qualifying materials, iridium oxide and boron-doped diamond, are introduced and discussed in terms of their electrochemical properties, biocompatibilities, fabrication methods, and applications. In vivo electrochemistry continues to advance toward more chronic experimentation in both animal models and humans, necessitating the utilization of biocompatible reference electrodes that should provide superior potential stability and allow for unprecedented chronic signal fidelity when used with a counter electrode for impedance mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake T Seaton
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Michael L Heien
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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5
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Purcell EK, Becker MF, Guo Y, Hara SA, Ludwig KA, McKinney CJ, Monroe EM, Rechenberg R, Rusinek CA, Saxena A, Siegenthaler JR, Sortwell CE, Thompson CH, Trevathan JK, Witt S, Li W. Next-Generation Diamond Electrodes for Neurochemical Sensing: Challenges and Opportunities. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:128. [PMID: 33530395 PMCID: PMC7911340 DOI: 10.3390/mi12020128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Carbon-based electrodes combined with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) enable neurochemical sensing with high spatiotemporal resolution and sensitivity. While their attractive electrochemical and conductive properties have established a long history of use in the detection of neurotransmitters both in vitro and in vivo, carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) also have limitations in their fabrication, flexibility, and chronic stability. Diamond is a form of carbon with a more rigid bonding structure (sp3-hybridized) which can become conductive when boron-doped. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) is characterized by an extremely wide potential window, low background current, and good biocompatibility. Additionally, methods for processing and patterning diamond allow for high-throughput batch fabrication and customization of electrode arrays with unique architectures. While tradeoffs in sensitivity can undermine the advantages of BDD as a neurochemical sensor, there are numerous untapped opportunities to further improve performance, including anodic pretreatment, or optimization of the FSCV waveform, instrumentation, sp2/sp3 character, doping, surface characteristics, and signal processing. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in diamond electrodes for neurochemical sensing and discuss potential opportunities for future advancements of the technology. We highlight our team's progress with the development of an all-diamond fiber ultramicroelectrode as a novel approach to advance the performance and applications of diamond-based neurochemical sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin K. Purcell
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Michael F. Becker
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Yue Guo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
| | - Seth A. Hara
- Division of Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA;
| | - Kip A. Ludwig
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.A.L.); (J.K.T.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Collin J. McKinney
- Department of Chemistry, Electronics Core Facility, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA;
| | - Elizabeth M. Monroe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; (E.M.M.); (C.A.R.)
| | - Robert Rechenberg
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Cory A. Rusinek
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; (E.M.M.); (C.A.R.)
| | - Akash Saxena
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - James R. Siegenthaler
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Caryl E. Sortwell
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Cort H. Thompson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - James K. Trevathan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.A.L.); (J.K.T.)
- Grainger Institute for Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Suzanne Witt
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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6
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Fan B, Rusinek CA, Thompson CH, Setien M, Guo Y, Rechenberg R, Gong Y, Weber AJ, Becker MF, Purcell E, Li W. Flexible, diamond-based microelectrodes fabricated using the diamond growth side for neural sensing. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2020; 6:42. [PMID: 32685185 PMCID: PMC7355183 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-020-0155-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Diamond possesses many favorable properties for biochemical sensors, including biocompatibility, chemical inertness, resistance to biofouling, an extremely wide potential window, and low double-layer capacitance. The hardness of diamond, however, has hindered its applications in neural implants due to the mechanical property mismatch between diamond and soft nervous tissues. Here, we present a flexible, diamond-based microelectrode probe consisting of multichannel boron-doped polycrystalline diamond (BDD) microelectrodes on a soft Parylene C substrate. We developed and optimized a wafer-scale fabrication approach that allows the use of the growth side of the BDD thin film as the sensing surface. Compared to the nucleation surface, the BDD growth side exhibited a rougher morphology, a higher sp 3 content, a wider water potential window, and a lower background current. The dopamine (DA) sensing capability of the BDD growth surface electrodes was validated in a 1.0 mM DA solution, which shows better sensitivity and stability than the BDD nucleation surface electrodes. The results of these comparative studies suggest that using the BDD growth surface for making implantable microelectrodes has significant advantages in terms of the sensitivity, selectivity, and stability of a neural implant. Furthermore, we validated the functionality of the BDD growth side electrodes for neural recordings both in vitro and in vivo. The biocompatibility of the microcrystalline diamond film was also assessed in vitro using rat cortical neuron cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Fan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Cory A. Rusinek
- Fraunhofer USA Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Cort H. Thompson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Monica Setien
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Yue Guo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Robert Rechenberg
- Fraunhofer USA Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Yan Gong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Arthur J. Weber
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Michael F. Becker
- Fraunhofer USA Center for Coatings and Diamond Technologies, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Erin Purcell
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI USA
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7
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Baluchová S, Daňhel A, Dejmková H, Ostatná V, Fojta M, Schwarzová-Pecková K. Recent progress in the applications of boron doped diamond electrodes in electroanalysis of organic compounds and biomolecules – A review. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1077:30-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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8
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Asai K, Einaga Y. Fabrication of an all-diamond microelectrode using a chromium mask. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:897-900. [PMID: 30489578 DOI: 10.1039/c8cc08077a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a new method for fabricating all-diamond microelectrodes. The process comprises three steps: masking the tip of an electrode by electroplating with chromium, depositing undoped diamond, which acts as an insulator on the sides of the electrode, and removing the chromium mask to expose the tip of the electrode. The active area of the electrode can be easily controlled in combination only with a conventional electroplating technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Asai
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan.
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9
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Tan C, Dutta G, Yin H, Siddiqui S, Arumugam PU. Detection of neurochemicals with enhanced sensitivity and selectivity via hybrid multiwall carbon nanotube-ultrananocrystalline diamond microelectrodes. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS. B, CHEMICAL 2018; 258:193-203. [PMID: 32528220 PMCID: PMC7289503 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2017.11.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Abnormal neurochemical signaling is often the underlying cause of brain disorders. Electrochemical microsensors are widely used to monitor neurochemicals with high spatial-temporal resolution. However, they rely on carbon fiber microelectrodes that often limit their sensing performance. In this study, we demonstrate the potential of a hybrid multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) film modified boron-doped ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) microelectrode (250 μm diameter) microsensor for improved detection of dopamine (DA) in the presence of common interferents. A series of modified microelectrodes with varying film thicknesses were microfabricated by electrophoretic deposition (EPD) and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and silver deposition imaging. Using cyclic voltammetry, the 100-nm "thin" film microelectrode produced the most favorable combination of DA sensitivity value of 36 ±2% μA/μM/cm2 with a linear range of 33 nM to 1 μM and a limit of detection (LOD) of 9.5 ± 1.2% nM. The EIS spectra of these microelectrodes revealed three regions with inhomogeneous pore geometry and differing impedance values and electrochemical activity, which was found to be film thickness dependent. Using differential pulse voltammetry, the modified microelectrode showed excellent selectivity by exhibiting three distinct peaks for the DA, serotonin and excess ascorbic acid in a ternary mixture. These results provide two key benefits: first, remarkable improvements in DA sensitivity (>125-fold), selectivity (>2000-fold) and LOD (>180-fold), second, these MWCNTs can be selectively coated with a simple, scalable and low cost EPD process for highly multiplexed microsensor technologies. These advances offer considerable promise for further progress in chemical neurosciences.
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Wellman SM, Eles JR, Ludwig KA, Seymour JP, Michelson NJ, McFadden WE, Vazquez AL, Kozai TDY. A Materials Roadmap to Functional Neural Interface Design. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2018; 28:1701269. [PMID: 29805350 PMCID: PMC5963731 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201701269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Advancement in neurotechnologies for electrophysiology, neurochemical sensing, neuromodulation, and optogenetics are revolutionizing scientific understanding of the brain while enabling treatments, cures, and preventative measures for a variety of neurological disorders. The grand challenge in neural interface engineering is to seamlessly integrate the interface between neurobiology and engineered technology, to record from and modulate neurons over chronic timescales. However, the biological inflammatory response to implants, neural degeneration, and long-term material stability diminish the quality of interface overtime. Recent advances in functional materials have been aimed at engineering solutions for chronic neural interfaces. Yet, the development and deployment of neural interfaces designed from novel materials have introduced new challenges that have largely avoided being addressed. Many engineering efforts that solely focus on optimizing individual probe design parameters, such as softness or flexibility, downplay critical multi-dimensional interactions between different physical properties of the device that contribute to overall performance and biocompatibility. Moreover, the use of these new materials present substantial new difficulties that must be addressed before regulatory approval for use in human patients will be achievable. In this review, the interdependence of different electrode components are highlighted to demonstrate the current materials-based challenges facing the field of neural interface engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Wellman
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - James R Eles
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - Kip A Ludwig
- Department of Neurologic Surgery, 200 First St. SW, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - John P Seymour
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, 1301 Beal Ave., 2227 EECS, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Nicholas J Michelson
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - William E McFadden
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - Alberto L Vazquez
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - Takashi D Y Kozai
- Department of Bioengineering, Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Center for Neuroscience at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, 208 Center for Biotechnology, 300 Technology Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
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11
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Abstract
Recent progress in the electrochemical field enabled development of miniaturized sensing devices that can be used in biological settings to obtain fundamental and practical biochemically relevant information on physiology, metabolism, and disease states in living systems. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors have demonstrated potential for rapid, real-time measurements of biologically relevant molecules. This chapter provides an overview of the most recent advances in the development of miniaturized sensors for biological investigations in living systems, with focus on the detection of neurotransmitters and oxidative stress markers. The design of electrochemical (bio)sensors, including their detection mechanism and functionality in biological systems, is described as well as their advantages and limitations. Application of these sensors to studies in live cells, embryonic development, and rodent models is discussed.
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12
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Siddiqui S, Dutta G, Tan C, Arumugam PU. Nanocrystalline Diamond Electrodes: Enabling electrochemical microsensing applications with high reliability and stability. IEEE NANOTECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE 2016; 10:12-20. [PMID: 32457817 DOI: 10.1109/mnano.2016.2572243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
THE DIAMOND (D) IS ONE OF the most precious materials in the world with unmatched physical and chemical properties, such as hardness, extreme chemical stability, high thermal conductivity, the highest acoustic velocity of any material, an extremely low friction coefficient when smooth, and nearly unmatched biocompatibility [1]. The carbon (C) atoms in Ds are tetrahedrally coordinated, i.e., each C atom is bonded to four others in the D lattice. This bonding is referred to as sp 3 bonding, and the strength and configuration of these bonds provide Ds with these unmatched fundamental properties and characteristics. Realizing these properties of the D in a C-based film that can easily be integrated into functional engineering systems and deployed in many applications has been a challenge for several decades. This is of primary concern in microelectronics, sensing, and hard-coating applications.
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13
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Bozorgzadeh B, Schuweiler DR, Bobak MJ, Garris PA, Mohseni P. Neurochemostat: A Neural Interface SoC With Integrated Chemometrics for Closed-Loop Regulation of Brain Dopamine. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS 2016; 10:654-67. [PMID: 26390501 PMCID: PMC4809062 DOI: 10.1109/tbcas.2015.2453791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a 3.3×3.2 mm(2) system-on-chip (SoC) fabricated in AMS 0.35 μm 2P/4M CMOS for closed-loop regulation of brain dopamine. The SoC uniquely integrates neurochemical sensing, on-the-fly chemometrics, and feedback-controlled electrical stimulation to realize a "neurochemostat" by maintaining brain levels of electrically evoked dopamine between two user-set thresholds. The SoC incorporates a 90 μW, custom-designed, digital signal processing (DSP) unit for real-time processing of neurochemical data obtained by 400 V/s fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) with a carbon-fiber microelectrode (CFM). Specifically, the DSP unit executes a chemometrics algorithm based upon principal component regression (PCR) to resolve in real time electrically evoked brain dopamine levels from pH change and CFM background-current drift, two common interferents encountered using FSCV with a CFM in vivo. Further, the DSP unit directly links the chemically resolved dopamine levels to the activation of the electrical microstimulator in on-off-keying (OOK) fashion. Measured results from benchtop testing, flow injection analysis (FIA), and biological experiments with an anesthetized rat are presented.
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14
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Dutta G, Siddiqui S, Zeng H, Carlisle JA, Arumugam PU. The effect of electrode size and surface heterogeneity on electrochemical properties of ultrananocrystalline diamond microelectrode. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2015; 756:61-68. [PMID: 32280318 DOI: 10.1016/jjelechem.2015.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We report here the effect of electrode size on electrochemical properties of boron-doped ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) microelectrodes using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). By reducing microelectrode size from 250-μm to 10-μm diameter (D), the shape of impedance spectra changes from linear line to two-arcs. The fitting of experimental data to electrochemical circuit model suggests that each arc likely corresponds to UNCD grains and grain boundary phases. The two phases become separable as a result of microelectrode size reduction. In addition, for D ≤ 100-μm, microstructural and morphological defects/heterogeneities of grain boundaries and the presence of surface oxygen are also revealed in the spectra. The microelectrode size reduction specifically affect the impedance of the grain boundaries, e.g. for ultramicroelectrodes, UMEs (D ≤ 25-μm), as the grain boundary impedance increases by ~30-fold. Thus, at UMEs, the grain-grain boundary properties are revealed more sensitively in the spectra. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and surface profilometry measurements were performed to study the influence of microfabrication on surface properties. A significant increase in surface roughness after microfabrication shows that heterogeneities as observed in the spectra are not only due to intrinsic UNCD properties but also arises from microfabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurab Dutta
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
| | - Shabnam Siddiqui
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
| | - Hongjun Zeng
- Advanced Diamond Technologies, 48E Belmont Drive, Romeoville, Illinois 60565, USA
| | - John A Carlisle
- Advanced Diamond Technologies, 48E Belmont Drive, Romeoville, Illinois 60565, USA
| | - Prabhu U Arumugam
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
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Dutta G, Siddiqui S, Zeng H, Carlisle JA, Arumugam PU. The effect of electrode size and surface heterogeneity on electrochemical properties of ultrananocrystalline diamond microelectrode. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2015; 756:61-68. [PMID: 32280318 PMCID: PMC7148118 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2015.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report here the effect of electrode size on electrochemical properties of boron-doped ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) microelectrodes using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). By reducing microelectrode size from 250-μm to 10-μm diameter (D), the shape of impedance spectra changes from linear line to two-arcs. The fitting of experimental data to electrochemical circuit model suggests that each arc likely corresponds to UNCD grains and grain boundary phases. The two phases become separable as a result of microelectrode size reduction. In addition, for D ≤ 100-μm, microstructural and morphological defects/heterogeneities of grain boundaries and the presence of surface oxygen are also revealed in the spectra. The microelectrode size reduction specifically affect the impedance of the grain boundaries, e.g. for ultramicroelectrodes, UMEs (D ≤ 25-μm), as the grain boundary impedance increases by ~30-fold. Thus, at UMEs, the grain-grain boundary properties are revealed more sensitively in the spectra. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and surface profilometry measurements were performed to study the influence of microfabrication on surface properties. A significant increase in surface roughness after microfabrication shows that heterogeneities as observed in the spectra are not only due to intrinsic UNCD properties but also arises from microfabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurab Dutta
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
| | - Shabnam Siddiqui
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
| | - Hongjun Zeng
- Advanced Diamond Technologies, 48E Belmont Drive, Romeoville, Illinois 60565, USA
| | - John A. Carlisle
- Advanced Diamond Technologies, 48E Belmont Drive, Romeoville, Illinois 60565, USA
| | - Prabhu U. Arumugam
- Institute for Micromanufacturing, 911 Hergot Ave, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
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16
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Protopopova VS, Wester N, Caro MA, Gabdullin PG, Palomäki T, Laurila T, Koskinen J. Ultrathin undoped tetrahedral amorphous carbon films: thickness dependence of the electronic structure and implications for their electrochemical behaviour. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:9020-31. [PMID: 25751653 DOI: 10.1039/c4cp05855k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we show that the electronic properties of ultrathin tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C) films are heavily dependent on their thickness. By using scanning tunnelling spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and conductive atomic force microscopy, it was found that a decrease of ta-C thickness from 30 to 7 nm leads to (i) the narrowing of the band gap; (ii) appearance of shallower monoenergetic traps as well as the increase of their concentration; (iii) the increase of the equilibrium concentration of free charge carriers and their mobility; which were caused by (iv) the increase in the sp(2) fraction. However, beyond a certain ta-C thickness (7 nm) the electronic properties of the studied samples start to deteriorate, which is highly likely related to titanium oxide formation at the Ti/ta-C interface. The same tendency is observed for the sample with beforehand air-formed native titanium oxide at the interface. With respect to the last point, it is suggested that the ta-C layer has no uniform coverage if its thickness is small enough (less than 7 nm). The experimental results were rationalized by detailed atomistic simulations. By using the so-called "Tauc plot" we introduce the possibility of the coexistence of bulk and surface band gaps originating from the large increase in sp(2) bonded carbon atoms in the surface region compared to that in the bulk ta-C. The results from the simulations were found to be consistent with the experimental measurements. The previously stated variation in the electronic properties of the layers as a function of their thickness was also exhibited in the electrochemical properties of the samples. It appears that the thinner ta-C layers had more facile electron transfer kinetics as determined with a ferrocenemethanol (FcMeOH) outer sphere redox system. However, if the ta-C layer thickness was reduced too much, the films were not stable anymore.
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Affiliation(s)
- V S Protopopova
- Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Chemical Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16200, FI-00076 Aalto, Espoo, Finland.
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Fortin SM, Cone JJ, Ng-Evans S, McCutcheon JE, Roitman MF. Sampling phasic dopamine signaling with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in awake, behaving rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 70:7.25.1-7.25.20. [PMID: 25559005 DOI: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0725s70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is an electrochemical technique that permits the in vivo measurement of extracellular fluctuations in multiple chemical species. The technique is frequently utilized to sample sub-second (phasic) concentration changes of the neurotransmitter dopamine in awake and behaving rats. Phasic dopamine signaling is implicated in reinforcement, goal-directed behavior, and locomotion, and FSCV has been used to investigate how rapid changes in striatal dopamine concentration contribute to these and other behaviors. This unit describes the instrumentation and construction, implantation, and use of components required to sample and analyze dopamine concentration changes in awake rats with FSCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Fortin
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - J J Cone
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - S Ng-Evans
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - J E McCutcheon
- Department of Cell Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - M F Roitman
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.,Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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Cifuentes Castro VH, López Valenzuela CL, Salazar Sánchez JC, Peña KP, López Pérez SJ, Ibarra JO, Villagrán AM. An update of the classical and novel methods used for measuring fast neurotransmitters during normal and brain altered function. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:490-508. [PMID: 25977677 PMCID: PMC4428024 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666141223223657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Revised: 11/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand better the cerebral functions, several methods have been developed to study the brain activity, they could be related with morphological, electrophysiological, molecular and neurochemical techniques. Monitoring neurotransmitter concentration is a key role to know better how the brain works during normal or pathological conditions, as well as for studying the changes in neurotransmitter concentration with the use of several drugs that could affect or reestablish the normal brain activity. Immediate response of the brain to environmental conditions is related with the release of the fast acting neurotransmission by glutamate (Glu), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and acetylcholine (ACh) through the opening of ligand-operated ion channels. Neurotransmitter release is mainly determined by the classical microdialysis technique, this is generally coupled to high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Detection of neurotransmitters can be done by fluorescence, optical density, electrochemistry or other detection systems more sophisticated. Although the microdialysis method is the golden technique to monitor the brain neurotransmitters, it has a poor temporal resolution. Recently, with the use of biosensor the drawback of temporal resolution has been improved considerably, however other inconveniences have merged, such as stability, reproducibility and the lack of reliable biosensors mainly for GABA. The aim of this review is to show the important advances in the different ways to measure neurotransmitter concentrations; both with the use of classic techniques as well as with the novel methods and alternant approaches to improve the temporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Alberto Morales Villagrán
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Camino Ramón Padilla Sánchez 2100, Nextipac, Zapopan,
Jalisco, México, Zip code: 45110, Mexico
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