1
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Crabb E, Aggarwal A, Stephens R, Shao-Horn Y, Leverick G, Grossman JC. Electrolyte Dependence of Li + Transport Mechanisms in Small Molecule Solvents from Classical Molecular Dynamics. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:3427-3441. [PMID: 38551621 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c07999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
As demands on Li-ion battery performance increase, the need for electrolytes with high ionic conductivity and a high Li+ transference number (tLi) becomes crucial to boost power density. Unfortunately, tLi in liquid electrolytes is typically <0.5 due to Li+ migrating via a vehicular mechanism, whereby Li+ diffuses along with its solvation shell, making its diffusivity slower than the counteranion. Designing liquid electrolytes where the Li+ ion diffuses independently of its solvation shell is of significant interest to enhance the transference number. In this work, we elucidate how the properties of the solvent influence the Li+ transport mechanism. Using classical molecular dynamics simulations, we find that a vehicular mechanism can be increasingly preferred with a decreasing solvent viscosity and increasing interaction energy between the solvent and Li+. Thus, a weaker interaction energy can enhance tLi through a solvent-exchange mechanism, ultimately improving Li-ion battery performance. Finally, metadynamics simulations show that in electrolytes where a solvent-exchange mechanism is preferable, the energy barrier to changing the coordination environment of Li+ is much lower than in electrolytes where a vehicular mechanism dominates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Crabb
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Physics Program, Centre College, 600 W Walnut St, Danville, Kentucky 40422, United States
| | - Abhishek Aggarwal
- Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Ryan Stephens
- Shell International Exploration & Production Inc., Houston, Texas 77082, United States
| | - Yang Shao-Horn
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Graham Leverick
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jeffrey C Grossman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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2
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Tsamopoulos A, Wang ZG. Ion Conductivity in Salt-Doped Polymers: Combined Effects of Temperature and Salt Concentration. ACS Macro Lett 2024; 13:322-327. [PMID: 38395049 PMCID: PMC10956493 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
We construct a coarse-grained molecular dynamics model based on poly(ethylene oxide) and lithium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide salt to examine the combined effects of temperature and salt concentration on the transport properties. Salt doping notably slows the dynamics of polymer chains and reduces ion diffusivity, resulting in a glass transition temperature increase proportional to the salt concentration. The polymer diffusion is shown to be well represented by a modified Vogel-Fulcher-Tamman (M-VFT) equation that accounts for both the temperature and salt concentration dependence. Furthermore, we find that, at any temperature, the concentration dependence of the conductivity is well described by the product of its infinite dilution value and a correction factor accounting for the reduced segmental mobility with increasing salt concentration. These results highlight the important role of polymer segmental mobility in the salt concentration dependence of ion conductivity for temperatures near and above the glass transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandros
J. Tsamopoulos
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Zhen-Gang Wang
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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3
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Ma XJ, Zhang R. Cooperative activated hopping dynamics in binary glass-forming liquids: effects of the size ratio, composition, and interparticle interactions. SOFT MATTER 2023. [PMID: 37317997 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm00312d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Slow dynamics in supercooled and glassy liquids is an important research topic in soft matter physics. Compared to the traditionally focused one-component systems, glassy dynamics in mixture systems adds in a rich set of new complexities, which are fundamentally interesting and also relevant for many technological applications. In this paper, we apply the recently developed self-consistent cooperative hopping theory (SCCHT) to systematically investigate the effects of the size ratio, composition and interparticle interactions on the cooperative activated hopping dynamics of matrix (in larger size) and penetrant (in smaller size) particles in varied binary sphere mixture model systems, with a specific focus on ultrahigh mixture packing fractions that mimic the deeply supercooled glass transition conditions for molecular/polymeric mixture materials. Analysis shows that in these high activation barrier cases, the long-range elastic distortion associated with a matrix particle hopping over its cage confinement always generates an elastic barrier of a nonnegligible magnitude, although the ratio between the elastic barrier and local barrier contribution is sensitively dependent on all three mixture-specific system factors considered in this work. SCCHT predicts two general scenarios of penetrant-matrix cooperative activated hopping dynamics: matrix/penetrant co-hopping (regime 1) or the penetrant mean barrier hopping time shorter than that of the matrix (regime 2). Increasing the penetrant-to-matrix size ratio or the penetrant-matrix cross-attraction strength is found to universally enlarge the composition window of regime 1. Diverse dynamical properties characterising different aspects of the cooperative activated hopping process, including the penetrant and matrix transient localization lengths, penetrant and matrix hopping jump distances, different types of local and elastic activated barriers, and matrix long-time diffusivity, relaxation time and dynamic fragility are quantitatively studied against a wide range of variations over the three system factors. Of particular interest is the universal "anti-plasticization" phenomenon achievable for sufficiently strong cross-attractive interactions. The prospects this work opens for the exploration of a wide variety of polymer-based mixture materials are briefly discussed at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Juan Ma
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, School of Emergent Soft Matter, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional and Intelligent Hybrid Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Rui Zhang
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, School of Emergent Soft Matter, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional and Intelligent Hybrid Materials and Devices, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
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4
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Fang C, Yu X, Chakraborty S, Balsara NP, Wang R. Molecular Origin of High Cation Transference in Mixtures of Poly(pentyl malonate) and Lithium Salt. ACS Macro Lett 2023; 12:612-618. [PMID: 37083344 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
The rational development of new electrolytes for lithium batteries rests on the molecular-level understanding of ion transport. We use molecular dynamics simulations to study the differences between a recently developed promising polymer electrolyte based on poly(pentyl malonate) (PPM) and the well-established poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) electrolyte; LiTFSI is the salt used in both electrolytes. Cation transference is calculated by tracking the correlated motion of different species. The PEO solvation cage primarily contains 1 chain, resulting in strong correlations between Li+ and the polymer. In contrast, the PPM solvation cage contains multiple chains, resulting in weak correlations between Li+ and the polymer. This difference results in a high cation transference in PPM relative to PEO. Our comparative study suggests possible designs of polymer electrolytes with ion transport properties better than both PPM and PEO. The solvation cage of such a hypothetical polymer electrolyte is proposed based on insights from our simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Xiaopeng Yu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Saheli Chakraborty
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Nitash P Balsara
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
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5
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Gullbrekken Ø, Røe IT, Selbach SM, Schnell SK. Charge Transport in Water-NaCl Electrolytes with Molecular Dynamics Simulations. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:2729-2738. [PMID: 36921121 PMCID: PMC10068734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c08047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
A systematic description of microscopic mechanisms is necessary to understand mass transport in solid and liquid electrolytes. From Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations, transport properties can be computed and provide a detailed view of the molecular and ionic motions. In this work, ionic conductivity and transport numbers in electrolyte systems are computed from equilibrium and nonequilibrium MD simulations. Results from the two methods are compared with experimental results, and we discuss the significance of the frame of reference when determining and comparing transport numbers. Two ways of computing ionic conductivity from equilibrium simulations are presented: the Nernst-Einstein approximation or the Onsager coefficients. The Onsager coefficients take ionic correlations into account and are found to be more suitable for concentrated electrolytes. Main features and differences between equilibrium and nonequilibrium simulations are discussed, and some potential anomalies and critical pitfalls of using nonequilibrium molecular dynamics to determine transport properties are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øystein Gullbrekken
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
| | - Ingeborg Treu Røe
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
| | - Sverre Magnus Selbach
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
| | - Sondre Kvalvåg Schnell
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
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6
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Yang JL, Zhao XX, Zhang W, Ren K, Luo XX, Cao JM, Zheng SH, Li WL, Wu XL. "Pore-Hopping" Ion Transport in Cellulose-Based Separator Towards High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202300258. [PMID: 36721269 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202300258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have great potential for large-scale energy storage. Cellulose is an attractive material for sustainable separators, but some key issues still exist affecting its application. Herein, a cellulose-based composite separator (CP@PPC) was prepared by immersion curing of cellulose-based separators (CP) with poly(propylene carbonate) (PPC). With the assistance of PPC, the CP@PPC separator is able to operate the cell stably at high voltages (up to 4.95 V). The "pore-hopping" ion transport mechanism in CP@PPC opens up extra Na+ migration paths, resulting in a high Na+ transference number (0.613). The separator can also tolerate folding, bending and extreme temperature under certain circumstances. Full cells with CP@PPC reveal one-up capacity retention (96.97 %) at 2C after 500 cycles compared to cells with CP. The mechanism highlights the merits of electrolyte analogs in separator modification, making a rational design for durable devices in advanced energy storage systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Lin Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory for UV Light-Emitting Materials and Technology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Xin-Xin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Kai Ren
- Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Xi Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Jun-Ming Cao
- MOE Key Laboratory for UV Light-Emitting Materials and Technology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Shuo-Hang Zheng
- MOE Key Laboratory for UV Light-Emitting Materials and Technology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Wen-Liang Li
- Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Xing-Long Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory for UV Light-Emitting Materials and Technology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130024, P. R. China
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7
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Jeong KJ, Jeong S, Lee S, Son CY. Predictive Molecular Models for Charged Materials Systems: From Energy Materials to Biomacromolecules. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2204272. [PMID: 36373701 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202204272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Electrostatic interactions play a dominant role in charged materials systems. Understanding the complex correlation between macroscopic properties with microscopic structures is of critical importance to develop rational design strategies for advanced materials. But the complexity of this challenging task is augmented by interfaces present in the charged materials systems, such as electrode-electrolyte interfaces or biological membranes. Over the last decades, predictive molecular simulations that are founded in fundamental physics and optimized for charged interfacial systems have proven their value in providing molecular understanding of physicochemical properties and functional mechanisms for diverse materials. Novel design strategies utilizing predictive models have been suggested as promising route for the rational design of materials with tailored properties. Here, an overview of recent advances in the understanding of charged interfacial systems aided by predictive molecular simulations is presented. Focusing on three types of charged interfaces found in energy materials and biomacromolecules, how the molecular models characterize ion structure, charge transport, morphology relation to the environment, and the thermodynamics/kinetics of molecular binding at the interfaces is discussed. The critical analysis brings two prominent field of energy materials and biological science under common perspective, to stimulate crossover in both research field that have been largely separated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeong-Jun Jeong
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 790-784, South Korea
| | - Seungwon Jeong
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 790-784, South Korea
| | - Sangmin Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 790-784, South Korea
| | - Chang Yun Son
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 790-784, South Korea
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8
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Fluoroalkoxyaluminate-based Ionic Liquids as Electrolytes for Sodium-ion Batteries. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.120919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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9
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Balzer C, Frischknecht AL. Explicit Polarization in Coarse-Grained Simulations of Ionomer Melts. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Balzer
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California91125, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, P.O. Box 5800
MS 1303, Albuquerque, New Mexico87185-1303, United States
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10
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Goodwin ZA, Kornyshev AA. Cracking Ion Pairs in the Electrical Double Layer of Ionic Liquids. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Silva FC, Ortega PF, dos Reis RA, Lavall RL, Costa LT. Polymer-ion interactions in PVDF@ionic liquid polymer electrolytes: A combined experimental and computational study. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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12
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Zhu Z, Paddison SJ. Perspective: Morphology and ion transport in ion-containing polymers from multiscale modeling and simulations. Front Chem 2022; 10:981508. [PMID: 36059884 PMCID: PMC9437359 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.981508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ion-containing polymers are soft materials composed of polymeric chains and mobile ions. Over the past several decades they have been the focus of considerable research and development for their use as the electrolyte in energy conversion and storage devices. Recent and significant results obtained from multiscale simulations and modeling for proton exchange membranes (PEMs), anion exchange membranes (AEMs), and polymerized ionic liquids (polyILs) are reviewed. The interplay of morphology and ion transport is emphasized. We discuss the influences of polymer architecture, tethered ionic groups, rigidity of the backbone, solvents, and additives on both morphology and ion transport in terms of specific interactions. Novel design strategies are highlighted including precisely controlling molecular conformations to design highly ordered morphologies; tuning the solvation structure of hydronium or hydroxide ions in hydrated ion exchange membranes; turning negative ion-ion correlations to positive correlations to improve ionic conductivity in polyILs; and balancing the strength of noncovalent interactions. The design of single-ion conductors, well-defined supramolecular architectures with enhanced one-dimensional ion transport, and the understanding of the hierarchy of the specific interactions continue as challenges but promising goals for future research.
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13
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Goodwin ZAH, McEldrew MP, de Souza JP, Bazant MZ, Kornyshev AA. Gelation, Clustering and Crowding in the Electrical Double Layer of Ionic Liquids. J Chem Phys 2022; 157:094106. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0097055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the bulk and interfacial properties of super-concentrated electrolytes, such as ionic liquids (ILs), has attracted significant attention lately for their promising applications in supercapacitors and batteries. Recently, McEldrew et al. developed a theory for reversible ion associations in bulk ILs, which accounted for the formation of all possible Cayley tree clusters and a percolating ionic network (gel). Here we adopt and develop this approach to understand the associations of ILs in the electrical double layer at electrified interfaces. With increasing charge of the electrode, the theory predicts a transition from a regime dominated by a gelled or clustered state to a crowding regime dominated by free ions. This transition from gelation to crowding is conceptually similar to the overscreening to crowding transition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Patrick McEldrew
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Chemical Engineering, United States of America
| | - J. Pedro de Souza
- MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Chemical Engineering, United States of America
| | | | - Alexei A. Kornyshev
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London Faculty of Natural Sciences, United Kingdom
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14
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Xie S, Nikolaev A, Nordness OA, C. Llanes L, Jones SD, Richardson PM, Wang H, Clément RJ, Read de Alaniz J, Segalman RA. Polymer Electrolyte Based on Cyano-Functionalized Polysiloxane with Enhanced Salt Dissolution and High Ionic Conductivity. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuyi Xie
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Andrei Nikolaev
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Oscar A. Nordness
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Luana C. Llanes
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Seamus D. Jones
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Peter M. Richardson
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Hengbin Wang
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Raphaële J. Clément
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Javier Read de Alaniz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Rachel A. Segalman
- Materials Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Mitsubishi Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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15
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Facile Li-ion conduction and synergistic electrochemical performance via dual functionalization of flexible solid electrolyte for Li metal batteries. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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16
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Lytle TK, Yethiraj A. The effect of explicit counterion binding on the transference number of polyelectrolyte solutions. J Chem Phys 2022; 156:104901. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0083414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte solutions have been proposed as a method to improve the efficiency of lithium-ion batteries by increasing the cation transference number because the polymer self-diffusion coefficient is much lower than that of the counterion. However, this is not necessarily true for the polymer mobility. In some cases, negative transference numbers have been reported, which implies that the lithium ions are transporting to the same electrode as the anion, behavior that is often attributed to a binding of counterions to the polyion. We use a simple model where we bind some counterions to the polymer via harmonic springs to investigate this phenomenon. We find that both the number of bound counterions and the strength of their binding alter the transference number, and, in some cases, the transference number is negative. We also investigate how the transference number depends on the Manning parameter, the ratio of the Bjerrum length to charge separation along the chain. By altering the Manning parameter, the transference number can almost be doubled, which suggests that charge spacing could be a way to increase the transference number of polyelectrolyte solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. K. Lytle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
| | - A. Yethiraj
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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17
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Mei W, Rothenberger AJ, Bostwick JE, Rinehart JM, Hickey RJ, Colby RH. Zwitterions Raise the Dielectric Constant of Soft Materials. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2021; 127:228001. [PMID: 34889641 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.228001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Materials exhibiting high dielectric constants (ϵ_{s}) are critical for energy storage and actuators. A successful approach to increase ϵ_{s} is to incorporate polar additives (with high ϵ_{s}) but controlling the resulting dispersion state is difficult. Here, we show that significant ϵ_{s} increases are realized by adding zwitterions, which are small molecules with a cation and an anion separated by covalent bonds. The increase in ϵ_{s} with zwitterion addition is attributed to the large molecular dipole of zwitterions, ranging from 35 to 41 D, as experimentally quantified and confirmed using density functional theory. At elevated zwitterion concentration in an ethylene glycol medium, there is a nonlinear increase of ϵ_{s} that eventually saturates due to the strong Coulombic interactions between zwitterions. The presented work provides a fundamental molecular understanding of why zwitterions are effective additives in boosting ϵ_{s} in soft materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Mei
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - August J Rothenberger
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Joshua E Bostwick
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Joshua M Rinehart
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Robert J Hickey
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Ralph H Colby
- Materials Science and Engineering, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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18
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Zhao S, Song S, Wang Y, Keum J, Zhu J, He Y, Sokolov AP, Cao PF. Unraveling the Role of Neutral Units for Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:51525-51534. [PMID: 34693714 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c15641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
With the cationic transference number close to unity, single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes (SICPEs) are recognized as an advanced electrolyte system with improved energy efficiency for battery application. The relatively low ionic conductivity for most of the SICPEs in comparison with liquid electrolytes remains the major "bottleneck" for their practical applications. Polyethylene oxide (PEO) has been recognized as a benchmark for solid polymer electrolytes due to its high salt solubility and reasonable ionic conductivity. PEO has two advantages: (i) the polar ether groups coordinate well with lithium ions (Li+) providing good dissociation from anions, and (ii) the low Tg provides fast segmental dynamics at ambient temperature and assists rapid charge transport. These properties lead to active use of PEO as neutral plasticizing units in SICPEs. Herein, we present a detailed comparison of new SICPEs copolymerized with PEO units vs SICPEs copolymerized with other types of neutral units possessing either flexible or polar structures. The presented analysis revealed that the polarity of side chains has a limited influence on ion dissociation for copolymer-type SICPEs. The Li+-ion dissociation seems to be controlled by the charge delocalization on the polymerized anion. With good miscibility between plasticizing neutral units and ionic conductive units, the ambient ionic conductivity of synthesized SICPEs is still mainly controlled by the Tg of the copolymer. This work sheds light on the dominating role of PEO in SICPE systems and provides helpful guidance for designing polymer electrolytes with new functionalities and structures. Furthermore, based on the presented results, we propose that designing polyanions with a highly delocalized charge may be another promising route for achieving sufficient lithium ionic conductivity in solvent-free SICPEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Shenghan Song
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Yingqi Wang
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Jong Keum
- Center for Nanophase Materials Science and Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Jiadeng Zhu
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Yi He
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Alexei P Sokolov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Peng-Fei Cao
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
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19
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Strauss MJ, Hwang I, Evans AM, Natraj A, Aguilar-Enriquez X, Castano I, Roesner EK, Choi JW, Dichtel WR. Lithium-Conducting Self-Assembled Organic Nanotubes. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:17655-17665. [PMID: 34648256 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c08058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Supramolecular polymers are compelling platforms for the design of stimuli-responsive materials with emergent functions. Here, we report the assembly of an amphiphilic nanotube for Li-ion conduction that exhibits high ionic conductivity, mechanical integrity, electrochemical stability, and solution processability. Imine condensation of a pyridine-containing diamine with a triethylene glycol functionalized isophthalaldehyde yields pore-functionalized macrocycles. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and in solvo X-ray diffraction reveal that macrocycle protonation during their mild synthesis drives assembly into high-aspect ratio (>103) nanotubes with three interior triethylene glycol groups. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy demonstrates that lithiated nanotubes are efficient Li+ conductors, with an activation energy of 0.42 eV and a peak room temperature conductivity of 3.91 ± 0.38 × 10-5 S cm-1. 7Li NMR and Raman spectroscopy show that lithiation occurs exclusively within the nanotube interior and implicates the glycol groups in facilitating efficient Li+ transduction. Linear sweep voltammetry and galvanostatic lithium plating-stripping tests reveal that this nanotube-based electrolyte is stable over a wide potential range and supports long-term cyclability. These findings demonstrate how the coupling of synthetic design and supramolecular structural control can yield high-performance ionic transporters that are amenable to device-relevant fabrication, as well as the technological potential of chemically designed self-assembled nanotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Strauss
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Insu Hwang
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Austin M Evans
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Anusree Natraj
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | | | - Ioannina Castano
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Emily K Roesner
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jang Wook Choi
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - William R Dichtel
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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20
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Park J, Staiger A, Mecking S, Winey KI. Sub-3-Nanometer Domain Spacings of Ultrahigh-χ Multiblock Copolymers with Pendant Ionic Groups. ACS NANO 2021; 15:16738-16747. [PMID: 34617441 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c06734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the temperature-dependent phase behavior and interaction parameter of polyethylene-based multiblock copolymers with pendant ionic groups. These step-growth polymers contain short polyester blocks with a single Li+SO3- group strictly alternating with polyethylene blocks of x-carbons (PESxLi, x = 12, 18, 23). At room temperature, these polymers exhibit layered morphologies with semicrystalline polyethylene blocks. Upon heating above the melting point (∼130 °C), PES18Li shows two order-to-order transitions involving Ia3̅d gyroid and hexagonal morphologies. For PES12Li, an order-to-disorder transition accompanies the melting of the polyethylene blocks. Notably, a Flory-Huggins interaction parameter was determined from the disordered morphologies of PES12Li using mean-field theory: χ(T) = 77.4/T + 2.95 (T in Kelvin) and χ(25 °C) ≈ 3.21. This ultrahigh χ indicates that the polar ionic and nonpolar polyethylene segments are highly incompatible and affords well-ordered morphologies even when the combined length of the alternating blocks is just 18-29 backbone atoms. This combination of ultrahigh χ and short multiblocks produces sub-3-nm domain spacings that facilitate the control of block copolymer self-assembly for various fields of study, including nanopatterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinseok Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Anne Staiger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Stefan Mecking
- Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Karen I Winey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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21
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Li W, Olvera de la Cruz M. Glass transition of ion-containing polymer melts in bulk and thin films. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:8420-8433. [PMID: 34542131 DOI: 10.1039/d1sm01098k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Ion-containing polymers often are good glass formers, and the glass transition temperature is an important parameter to consider for practical applications, which prescribes the working temperature range for different mechanical and dynamic properties. In this work, we present a systematic molecular dynamics simulation study on the coupling of ionic correlations with the glass transition, based on a generic coarse-grained model of ionic polymers. The variation of the glass transition temperature is examined concerning the influence of the electrostatic interaction strength, charge fraction, and charge sequence. The interplay with the film thickness effect is also discussed. Our results reveal a few typical features about the glass transition process that are in qualitative agreement with previous studies, further highlighting the effects of counterion entropy at weak ionic correlations and physical crosslinking of ionic aggregates at strong ionic correlations. Detailed parametric dependencies are displayed, which demonstrate that introducing strong ionic correlations promotes vitrification while adopting a precise charge sequence and applying strong confinement with weak surface affinity reduce the glass transition temperature. Overall, our investigation provides an improved picture towards a comprehensive understanding of the glass transition in ion-containing polymeric systems from a molecular simulation perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
| | - Monica Olvera de la Cruz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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22
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McEldrew M, Goodwin ZAH, Zhao H, Bazant MZ, Kornyshev AA. Correlated Ion Transport and the Gel Phase in Room Temperature Ionic Liquids. J Phys Chem B 2021; 125:2677-2689. [PMID: 33689352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c09050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Here we present a theory of ion aggregation and gelation of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). Based on it, we investigate the effect of ion aggregation on correlated ion transport-ionic conductivity and transference numbers-obtaining closed-form expressions for these quantities. The theory depends on the maximum number of associations a cation and anion can form and the strength of their association. To validate the presented theory, we perform molecular dynamics simulations on several RTILs and a range of temperatures for one RTIL. The simulations indicate the formation of large clusters, even percolating through the system under certain circumstances, thus forming a gel, with the theory accurately describing the obtained cluster distributions in all cases. However, based on the strength and lifetime of associations in the simulated RTILs, we expect free ions to dominate ionic conductivity despite the presence of clusters, and we do not expect the percolating cluster to trigger structural arrest in the RTIL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael McEldrew
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Zachary A H Goodwin
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College of London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K.,Thomas Young Centre for Theory and Simulation of Materials, Imperial College of London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Hongbo Zhao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Martin Z Bazant
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Alexei A Kornyshev
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College of London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, White City Campus, Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K.,Thomas Young Centre for Theory and Simulation of Materials, Imperial College of London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Institute of Molecular Science and Engineering, Imperial College of London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
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23
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Fang C, Loo WS, Wang R. Salt Activity Coefficient and Chain Statistics in Poly(ethylene oxide)-Based Electrolytes. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94702, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Whitney S. Loo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94702, United States
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94702, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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24
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Abdullah OG, Salman YAK, Tahir DA, Jamal GM, Ahmed HT, Mohamad AH, Azawy AK. Effect of ZnO Nanoparticle Content on the Structural and Ionic Transport Parameters of Polyvinyl Alcohol Based Proton-Conducting Polymer Electrolyte Membranes. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:163. [PMID: 33652939 PMCID: PMC7996830 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11030163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Proton conducting nanocomposite solid polymer electrolytes (NSPEs) based on polyvinyl alcohol/ammonium nitrate (PVA/NH4NO3) and different contents of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) have been prepared using the casting solution method. The XRD analysis revealed that the sample with 2 wt.% ZnO-NPs has a high amorphous content. The ionic conductivity analysis for the prepared membranes has been carried out over a wide range of frequencies at varying temperatures. Impedance analysis shows that sample with 2 wt.% ZnO-NPs has a smaller bulk resistance compared to that of undoped polymer electrolyte. A small amount of ZnO-NPs was found to enhance the proton-conduction significantly; the highest obtainable room-temperature ionic conductivity was 4.71 × 10-4 S/cm. The effect of ZnO-NP content on the transport parameters of the prepared proton-conducting NSPEs was investigated using the Rice-Roth model; the results reveal that the increase in ionic conductivity is due to an increment in the number of proton ions and their mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omed Gh. Abdullah
- Advanced Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region 46001, Iraq;
| | - Yahya A. K. Salman
- Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Mosul, Mosul 41002, Iraq;
| | - Dana A. Tahir
- Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Halabja, Kurdistan Region 46006, Iraq; (D.A.T.); (A.K.A.)
| | - Gelas M. Jamal
- Advanced Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region 46001, Iraq;
| | - Hawzhin T. Ahmed
- Charmo Center for Research, Training and Consultancy, Charmo University, Kurdistan Region 46023, Iraq;
| | - Azhin H. Mohamad
- Department of Physics, College of Education, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region 46001, Iraq;
| | - Auday K. Azawy
- Department of Physics, College of Science, University of Halabja, Kurdistan Region 46006, Iraq; (D.A.T.); (A.K.A.)
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25
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Fong KD, Self J, McCloskey BD, Persson KA. Ion Correlations and Their Impact on Transport in Polymer-Based Electrolytes. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kara D. Fong
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Julian Self
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Bryan D. McCloskey
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Kristin A. Persson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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26
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Shen KH, Fan M, Hall LM. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Ion-Containing Polymers Using Generic Coarse-Grained Models. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Hsuan Shen
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Mengdi Fan
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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27
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Thermal and Electrochemical Properties of Solid Polymer Electrolytes Prepared via Lithium Salt-Catalyzed Epoxide Ring Opening Polymerization. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11041561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Solid polymer electrolytes have been widely proposed for use in all solid-state lithium batteries. Advantages of polymer electrolytes over liquid and ceramic electrolytes include their flexibility, tunability and easy processability. An additional benefit of using some types of polymers for electrolytes is that they can be processed without the use of solvents. An example of polymers that are compatible with solvent-free processing is epoxide-containing precursors that can form films via the lithium salt-catalyzed epoxide ring opening polymerization reaction. Many polymers with epoxide functional groups are liquid under ambient conditions and can be used to directly dissolve lithium salts, allowing the reaction to be performed in a single reaction vessel under mild conditions. The existence of a variety of epoxide-containing polymers opens the possibility for significant customization of the resultant films. This review discusses several varieties of epoxide-based polymer electrolytes (polyethylene, silicone-based, amine and plasticizer-containing) and to compare them based on their thermal and electrochemical properties.
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