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McCormick TS, Ghannoum M. Time to Think Antifungal Resistance Increased Antifungal Resistance Exacerbates the Burden of Fungal Infections Including Resistant Dermatomycoses. Pathog Immun 2024; 8:158-176. [PMID: 38486922 PMCID: PMC10939368 DOI: 10.20411/pai.v8i2.656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Increased antifungal resistance is exacerbating the burden of invasive fungal infections, as well as potentially contributing to the increase in resistant dermatomycoses. In this commentary, we focus on antifungal drug resistance, in contrast to antibacterial resistance. We provide a brief historical perspective on the emergence of antifungal resistance and propose measures for combating this growing health concern. The increase in the incidence of invasive and cutaneous fungal infections parallels advancements in medical interventions, such as immunosuppressive drugs, to manage cancer and reduce organ rejection following transplant. A disturbing relatively new trend in antifungal resistance is the observation of several fungal species that now exhibit multidrug resistance (eg, Candida auris, Trichophyton indotineae). Increasing awareness of these multidrug-resistant species is paramount. Therefore, increased education regarding potential fungus-associated infections is needed to address awareness in the general healthcare setting, which may result in a more realistic picture of the prevalence of antifungal-resistant infections. In addition to education, increased use of diagnostic tests (eg, micro and macro conventional assays or molecular testing) should be routine for healthcare providers facing an unknown fungal infection. Two critical barriers that affect the low rates for Antifungal Susceptibility Testing (AST) are low (or a lack of) sufficient insurance reimbursement rates and the low number of qualified laboratories with the capacity to perform AST. The ultimate aim is to improve the quality of patient care through fungal identification, diagnosis, and, where appropriate, susceptibility testing. Here we propose an all-encompassing call to action to address this emerging challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas S. McCormick
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Mahmoud Ghannoum
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
- University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
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2
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Kruithoff C, Gamal A, McCormick TS, Ghannoum MA. Dermatophyte Infections Worldwide: Increase in Incidence and Associated Antifungal Resistance. Life (Basel) 2023; 14:1. [PMID: 38276250 PMCID: PMC10817648 DOI: 10.3390/life14010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The increase in incidence of superficial fungal infections combined with the emergence of antifungal resistance represents both a global health challenge and a considerable economic burden. Recently, dermatophytes, the main culprit causing superficial fungal infections, have started to exhibit antifungal resistance. This can be observed in some of the most common species such as Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Importantly, the new subspecies, known as Trichophyton indotineae, has been reported to show high resistance to terbinafine, a first-line treatment for dermatophyte infections. Compounding these issues is the realization that diagnosing the causative infectious agents requires using molecular analysis that goes beyond the conventional macroscopic and microscopic methods. These findings emphasize the importance of conducting antifungal susceptibility testing to select the appropriate antifungal necessary for successful treatment. Implementing these changes may improve clinical practices that combat resistant dermatophyte infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Kruithoff
- Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Cleveland, OH 44122, USA;
| | - Ahmed Gamal
- Center for Medical Mycology and Integrated Microbiome Core, Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.G.); (T.S.M.)
| | - Thomas S. McCormick
- Center for Medical Mycology and Integrated Microbiome Core, Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.G.); (T.S.M.)
| | - Mahmoud A. Ghannoum
- Center for Medical Mycology and Integrated Microbiome Core, Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.G.); (T.S.M.)
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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3
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Gold JAW, Benedict K, Lockhart SR, Lipner SR. Epidemiology of tinea capitis causative species: An analysis of fungal culture results from a major United States national commercial laboratory. J Am Acad Dermatol 2023; 89:382-384. [PMID: 37003477 PMCID: PMC10691499 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2023.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy A W Gold
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
| | - Kaitlin Benedict
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shawn R Lockhart
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shari R Lipner
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
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Adame-Gomez R, Gisela Rodrigez-Romero M, Hilario-Alejandro I, Alheli Pineda-Rodriguez S, Toribio-Jimenez J, Rodriguez-Bataz E, Ramirez-Peralta A. Trichophyton species isolated from asymptomatic patients of the pet-owner pair in Mexico. Curr Med Mycol 2022; 7:29-33. [PMID: 35028482 PMCID: PMC8740854 DOI: 10.18502/cmm.7.2.7029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose: Superficial mycoses are the fourth most common cause of disease worldwide. It is not surprising that zoonotic transmission occurs to humans due to close contact with different animals,
be it companion or farm animals. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the presence of asymptomatic dermatophyte carriers in the owner-pet pairs, identify the most common
etiologic agents, and find the likely connection between the carrier status of an owner and the presence of dermatophytes in their pets. Materials and Methods: From May 2019 to January 2020, 21 cats and 115 dogs with their respective owners were selected for dermatophyte culture. All the dogs and cats included in the study were from the
communities of southeastern Mexico. The samples were taken with a cotton swab, which was vigorously rubbed and twisted on the scalp or body of the pet four times and grown on Mycosel Agar.
The isolates were identified based on macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. The prevalence of the binomial ranged from 0.73% in pet skin and human hands to 2.2% in human scalp.
In humans, the agents were Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton verrucosum, while in pets, a strain of Trichophyton sp was found. Conclusion: Different species of dermatophytes were found in the owner/pet pairs, which denotes that coexistence is not related in asymptomatic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Adame-Gomez
- Microbial Pathometabolism Research Laboratory, The Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | | | - Isabel Hilario-Alejandro
- Microbial Pathometabolism Research Laboratory, The Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | | | - Jeiry Toribio-Jimenez
- Molecular Microbiology and Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, The Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | - Elvia Rodriguez-Bataz
- Parasitology Research Laboratory, The Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | - Arturo Ramirez-Peralta
- Microbial Pathometabolism Research Laboratory, The Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
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Wang HN, Shang CS, Yang SJ, Shih IH, Hui CYR, Yang CY, Lu CW, Sun PL. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of tinea capitis in northern Taiwan during 2014-2019: An unusual bimodal distribution of patients and comparison of paediatric and adult cases. Mycoses 2021; 64:484-494. [PMID: 33368733 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tinea capitis (TC) mainly occurs in children, and related studies in adults are rare. We aimed to investigate the current epidemiological, clinical and mycological characteristics of TC and to compare adult and paediatric patients in northern Taiwan. We conducted a retrospective study at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Branch, from 2014 to 2019. The dataset included age, sex, records of underlying diseases, animal contact history, frequent hair salon visits, clinical patterns, treatment and outcome via chart or phone call reviews. The average ages of 72 children and 104 adults recruited were 6.0 and 74.0 years, respectively. A female predominance was noted in both groups, and the ratio of females was significantly higher in adults (94.2% vs 59.7%, P < .0001). Microsporum canis (76.4%) and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (11.1%) in children, and M. canis (49.0%) and T. violaceum (31.7%) in adults were the most common pathogens. Adults were more likely to be infected with T. violaceum (OR = 10.14, 95% CI = 2.04-50.26) than children. In contrast, adults were less likely to be infected with M. canis than children (OR = 0.31, 95% CI = 0.11-0.90). Furthermore, adults visited hair salons more, had less animal contact and were more immunosuppressed than children. TC is not unusual in the adult population. Dermatologists are advised to realise risk factors such as immunosuppression and regular hair salon visit in adult TC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsuan-Ning Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chuin-Shee Shang
- Center for General Education, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Jyun Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsin Shih
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Yee Rosaline Hui
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Yi Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Dermatology, New Taipei Municipal TuCheng Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Wei Lu
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Lun Sun
- Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Research Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
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Rodríguez‐Cerdeira C, Martínez‐Herrera E, Szepietowski J, Pinto‐Almazán R, Frías‐De‐León M, Espinosa‐Hernández V, Chávez‐Gutiérrez E, García‐Salazar E, Vega‐Sánchez D, Arenas R, Hay R, Saunte D. A systematic review of worldwide data on tinea capitis: analysis of the last 20 years. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2020; 35:844-883. [DOI: 10.1111/jdv.16951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Rodríguez‐Cerdeira
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD) Health Research InstituteSERGAS‐UVIGO Vigo Spain
- Dermatology Department Hospital do Meixoeiro and University of Vigo Vigo Spain
- Psichodermatology Task for (CILAD) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - E. Martínez‐Herrera
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD) Health Research InstituteSERGAS‐UVIGO Vigo Spain
- Psichodermatology Task for (CILAD) Buenos Aires Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - J.C. Szepietowski
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology Wroclaw Medical University Wroclaw Poland
| | - R. Pinto‐Almazán
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - M.G. Frías‐De‐León
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - V.M. Espinosa‐Hernández
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - E. Chávez‐Gutiérrez
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - E. García‐Salazar
- Psichodermatology Task for (CILAD) Buenos Aires Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca Ixtapaluca México
| | - D.C. Vega‐Sánchez
- Psichodermatology Task for (CILAD) Buenos Aires Argentina
- Sección de Micología Hospital General ‘Dr. Manuel Gea González’ Ciudad de México México
| | - R. Arenas
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD) Health Research InstituteSERGAS‐UVIGO Vigo Spain
- Psichodermatology Task for (CILAD) Buenos Aires Argentina
- Sección de Micología Hospital General ‘Dr. Manuel Gea González’ Ciudad de México México
| | - R. Hay
- St Johns Institute of Dermatology King's College London London UK
| | - D.M. Saunte
- Department of Dermatology Zealand University Hospital Roskilde Denmark
- Health Sciences Faculty University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
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7
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Alkeswani A, Cantrell W, Elewski B. Treatment of Tinea Capitis. Skin Appendage Disord 2019; 5:201-210. [PMCID: PMC6615323 DOI: 10.1159/000495909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tinea capitis is a common fungal infection of the hair of the scalp affecting predominately prepubertal children. In the US, griseofulvin has been considered a first-line therapy agent for tinea capitis since the 1960s. However, it has been falling out of favor due to significant treatment failure, high cost, and long duration of treatment. Other antifungal agents have been researched as an alternative to griseofulvin. This paper will review the relevant pharmacologic properties, dosing, cost, efficacy, and adverse events profile for griseofulvin, terbinafine, itraconazole, fluconazole, and some adjuvant therapy options such as selenium sulfide shampoos and topical ketoconazole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amena Alkeswani
- University of Alabama Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Wendy Cantrell
- UAB Department of Dermatology, Dermatology at the Whitaker Clinic, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Boni Elewski
- University of Alabama Birmingham, Department of Dermatology, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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8
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Sen S, Borah SN, Kandimalla R, Bora A, Deka S. Efficacy of a rhamnolipid biosurfactant to inhibit
Trichophyton rubrum
in vitro and in a mice model of dermatophytosis. Exp Dermatol 2019; 28:601-608. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.13921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Suparna Sen
- Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Resource Management and Environment Section Life Sciences Division Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology Guwahati Assam India
| | - Siddhartha Narayan Borah
- Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Resource Management and Environment Section Life Sciences Division Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology Guwahati Assam India
| | - Raghuram Kandimalla
- Drug Discovery Laboratory Life Sciences Division Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology Guwahati Assam India
| | - Arijit Bora
- Department of Bioengineering and Technology Institute of Science and Technology Gauhati University Guwahati Assam India
| | - Suresh Deka
- Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Resource Management and Environment Section Life Sciences Division Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology Guwahati Assam India
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9
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Allahdadi M, Hajihossein R, Kord M, Rahmati E, Amanloo S, Didehdar M. Molecular characterization and antifungal susceptibility profile of dermatophytes isolated from scalp dermatophyte carriage in primary school children in Arak city, Center of Iran. J Mycol Med 2019; 29:19-23. [PMID: 30660447 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Asymptomatic carriage is a condition of positive dermatophyte scalp culture without signs and symptoms of tinea capitis. Carriers are the source of dermatophytes that are able to transfer fungal agents to other people. The aim of this study was evaluating asymptomatic dermatophyte scalp carriage among students of primary schools in Arak city. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling by a sterilized hairbrush from scalp was performed among 3174 students. Hairbrush was inoculated onto Mycosel agar plates. Dermatophyte isolates were identified by PCR-RFLP using MvaI enzyme. In vitro antifungal susceptibility test was done according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) M38-A2 protocol. The antifungal drugs used included griseofulvin (GRZ), terbinafine (TER), itraconazole (ITC) and fluconazole (FLU). RESULTS A total of 3174 schoolchildren were screened, 15 cases (0.48%) had a positive culture for dermatophytes. Asymptomatic carriers including 11 (73.3%) boys and 4 (26.7%) girls and their age range were between 7-12 years. Trichophyton tonsurans (80%), T. interdigitale (13.3%) and T. rubrum (6.7%) were the most common isolated dermatophyte. Based on the obtained antifungal susceptibility results, terbinafine had the lowest and fluconazole had the highest MIC values for all of the tested dermatophyte isolates. CONCLUSION In the study, T. tonsurans was the most common species isolated from asymptomatic carriers and of the four antifungals tested, terbinafine had the most active antifungal in vitro against all isolates. Identifying and treating scalp dermatophyte carriers can prevent the spread of tinea capitis in the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Allahdadi
- Department of microbiology, Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch, Arak, Iran
| | - R Hajihossein
- Department of medical parasitology and mycology, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - M Kord
- Department of medical parasitology and mycology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - E Rahmati
- Department of medical laboratory sciences, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - S Amanloo
- Department of medical parasitology and mycology, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - M Didehdar
- Infectious Diseases Research Center (IDRC), Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran.
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Bassyouni RH, El-Sherbiny NA, Abd El Raheem TA, Mohammed BH. Changing in the Epidemiology of Tinea Capitis among School Children in Egypt. Ann Dermatol 2017; 29:13-19. [PMID: 28223741 PMCID: PMC5318518 DOI: 10.5021/ad.2017.29.1.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tinea capitis remains a prevalent health problem among school-aged children. Objective To estimate the prevalence of tinea capitis among primary school students, in Fayoum, Egypt with identification of etiological agents in both public and private primary schools. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in twelve primary schools. The students were selected from different grades with a total number of 12,128 students. Hair and scalp were clinically examined for any lesions that may suspect tinea capitis and mycological samples were collected for direct microscopy and culture. Results The prevalence of tinea capitis in the study group was 0.4% and higher in public than private schools (73.5% versus 26.5% respectively). Boys were more affected than girls with boy to girls' ratio 5:1. Intrafamily history of infection was present in 40.8% of tested group while 51% showed low social standard profile. Mycological culture revealed that Microsporum canis was the predominant isolated organism followed by M. audouinii (52% and 36% respectively). Conclusion M. canis is replacing Trichophyton violaceum as an etiology for tinea capitis in Egypt with lower prevalence rate than reported previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasha H Bassyouni
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
| | - Naglaa A El-Sherbiny
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
| | - Talal A Abd El Raheem
- Department of Dermatology & STD and Anderology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
| | - Basma H Mohammed
- Department of Dermatology & STD and Anderology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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11
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Kouara S, Ait Hlilou B, Abbadi A, Khalki H, Benbella I, Lahmadi K, Er-Rami M. [Trichophyton tonsurans associated with non-albicans Candida species in hands onychomycosis about a Moroccan case]. J Mycol Med 2017; 27:119-123. [PMID: 28040418 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Trichophyton tonsurans is an anthropophilic dermatophyte, frequent in the USA and in Asia where it is responsible for causing tinea capitis. At present, we attend an emergence of this species in certain regions where it was not or little met. Here, we report a case of onychomycosis of the hand due to T. tonsurans associated with non-albicans Candida species at an adult woman. OBSERVATION The patient is a 62-year-old woman, with hypertension and diabetes. She reports the rather frequent use of chemical cleaners for the housework. She presented one year previously a distal onycholysis of the last four fingers of the left hand. The clinical examination objectified a presence of intertrigo in the second interdigital space. The mycological examination showed at the direct examination mycelial elements and the culture allowed the isolation of T. tonsurans associated with non-albicans Candida species. DISCUSSION-CONCLUSION Our observation highlights especially the identification of a species, which has been described only once in Morocco about a case with onychomycosis of the feet. A possible emergence of this species in our country is not far from being possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kouara
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc.
| | - B Ait Hlilou
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
| | - A Abbadi
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
| | - H Khalki
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
| | - I Benbella
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
| | - K Lahmadi
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
| | - M Er-Rami
- Laboratoire de parasitologie-mycologie, hôpital militaire Moulay Ismaïl, boulevard Mohamed, El Hansali, Meknès 50000, Maroc
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12
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Fukutomi Y, Taniguchi M. Sensitization to fungal allergens: Resolved and unresolved issues. Allergol Int 2015; 64:321-31. [PMID: 26433528 DOI: 10.1016/j.alit.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure and sensitization to fungal allergens can promote the development and worsening of allergic diseases. Although numerous species of fungi have been associated with allergic diseases in the literature, the significance of fungi from the genera Alternaria, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Malassezia has been well documented. However, it should be emphasized that the contribution of different fungal allergens to allergic diseases is not identical, but species-specific. Alternaria and Cladosporium species are considered to be important outdoor allergens, and sensitization and exposure to species of these genera is related to the development of asthma and rhinitis, as well as epidemics of asthma exacerbation, including life-threatening asthma exacerbation. In contrast, xerophilic species of Penicillium and Aspergillus, excluding Aspergillus fumigatus, are implicated in allergic diseases as indoor allergens. A. fumigatus has a high capacity to colonize the bronchial tract of asthmatic patients, causing severe persistent asthma and low lung function, and sometimes leading to allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Malassezia are common commensals of healthy skin, although they are also associated with atopic dermatitis, especially on the head and neck, but not with respiratory allergies. Despite its importance in the management of allergic diseases, precise recognition of species-specific IgE sensitization to fungal allergens is often challenging because the majority of fungal extracts exhibit broad cross-reactivity with taxonomically unrelated fungi. Recent progress in gene technology has contributed to the identification of specific and cross-reactive allergen components from different fungal sources. However, data demonstrating the clinical relevance of IgE reactivity to these allergen components are still insufficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Fukutomi
- Clinical Research Center for Allergy and Rheumatology, Sagamihara National Hospital, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Masami Taniguchi
- Clinical Research Center for Allergy and Rheumatology, Sagamihara National Hospital, Kanagawa, Japan
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13
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Admani S, Jinna S, Friedlander SF, Sloan B. Cutaneous infectious diseases: Kids are not just little people. Clin Dermatol 2015; 33:657-71. [PMID: 26686017 DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2015.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The changes in immune response that occur with age play a significant role in disease presentation and patient management. Evolution of the innate and adaptive immune systems throughout life, influenced partly by hormonal changes associated with puberty, plays a role in the differences between pediatric and adult response to disease. We review a series of manifestations of dermatologic infectious diseases spanning bacterial, viral, and fungal origins that can be seen in both pediatric and adult age groups and highlight similarities and differences in presentation and disease course. Therapeutic options are also discussed for these infectious diseases, with particular attention to variations in management between these population subgroups, given differences in pharmacokinetics and side effect profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shehla Admani
- Department of Pediatric Dermatology, University of California at San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, CA
| | - Sphoorthi Jinna
- Department of Dermatology, University of Connecticut Health Sciences, 21 South Road, Farmington, CT, 06032
| | - Sheila Fallon Friedlander
- Fellowship Training Program, Rady Children's Hospital, Department of Clinical Pediatrics & Medicine, University of California at San Diego School of Medicine, 8010 Frost Street, Suite 602, San Diego, CA 92123
| | - Brett Sloan
- Department of Dermatology, University of Connecticut Health Sciences, 21 South Road, Farmington, CT, 06032.
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Abd Elmegeed ASM, Ouf S, Moussa TA, Eltahlawi S. Dermatophytes and other associated fungi in patients attending to some hospitals in Egypt. Braz J Microbiol 2015; 46:799-805. [PMID: 26413063 PMCID: PMC4568886 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-838246320140615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are keratinophilic fungi that infect keratinized tissues causing diseases known as dermatophytoses. Dermatophytes are classified in three genera, Epidermophyton, Microsporum, and Trichophyton. This investigation was performed to study the prevalence of dermatomycosis among 640 patients being evaluated at the dermatology clinics at Kasr elainy, El-Husein and Said Galal hospitals in Cairo and Giza between January 2005 and December 2006. The patients were checked for various diseases. Tinea capitis was the most common clinical disease followed by tinea pedis and tinea corporis. Tinea cruris and tinea unguium were the least in occurrence. Tinea versicolor also was detected. The most susceptible persons were children below 10 years followed by those aged 31-40 years. Unicellular yeast was the most common etiological agent and T. tonsuranswas the second most frequent causative agent followed by M. canis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S.A. Ouf
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza,
Egypt
| | - Tarek A.A. Moussa
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza,
Egypt
| | - S.M.R. Eltahlawi
- Dermatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Giza,
Egypt
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Sharma V, Kumawat TK, Sharma A, Seth R, Chandra S. Distribution and Prevalence of Dermatophytes in Semi-Arid Region of India. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.4236/aim.2015.52010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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Nawaf AM, Joshi A, Zaki A, Nour-Eldin O, Al-Sheltawy M, El-Adawy I, Sharma AK. Tinea Capitis among Children and Adolescents in the Farwaniya Region of Kuwait. J Dermatol 2014; 30:904-9. [PMID: 14739518 DOI: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.2003.tb00346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2003] [Accepted: 08/05/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of 325 patients (182 males, 143 females) of mycologically proven tinea capitis (TC) seen over a period of two years from January 2001--December 2002 in the Farwaniya region of Kuwait is presented in this study. The age range was 8 months to 17 years. Peak incidence was observed in the 3-14 year age group (79.6%). Positive family history and contact with pets were noted in 22% and 36.7% of the cases, respectively. The non-inflammatory 'gray patch' variety was the most common clinical type, seen in 163 (50.2%) children, followed by the black-dot variant in 100 (30.2%) patients. A significant proportion of the cases (16.6%) had the uncommonly reported seborrheic dermatitis or dandruff like pattern. Highly inflammatory kerion was encountered infrequently (2.5%). Seven species of dermatophytes were isolated; Trichophyton violaceum in 135 (41.5%), followed by Microsporum canis in 89 (27.4%), Microsporum audouinii in 48 (14.8%), Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes in 31 (9.5%), Trichophyton verrucosum in 15 (4.6%), Trichophyton tonsurans in 6 (1.9%) and Microsporum gypseum in 1 (0.3%) patient. T. violaceum was the most common fungus responsible for the black-dot variety (89/100) and kerion (4/8) patients. Three cases of kerion (33.3%) grew T. verrucosum. M. canis was the most common species isolated from the 'gray patch' cases (79/163; 48.5%) followed by almost equal prevalences of T. violaceum (16.6%), M. audouinii (15.3%), and T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes (12.3%). Among the seborrheic type of cases, M. audouinii was the most common fungus isolated in 20/54 (37%) followed by T. violaceum in 15 (27.8%), T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes in 9 (16.7%), M. canis in 8 (14.8%) and T. verrucosum and T. tonsurans in one (0.3%) patient each. The results are significantly different from those in earlier studies in Kuwait.
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Epidemiologic trends in pediatric tinea capitis: A population-based study from Kaiser Permanente Northern California. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013; 69:916-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2013.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 08/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Viera M, Costales S, Regalado J, Alonso-Llamazares J. Inflammatory Tinea Faciei Mimicking Sweet's Syndrome. ACTAS DERMO-SIFILIOGRAFICAS 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.adengl.2012.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Pai VV, Hanumanthayya K, Tophakhane RS, Nandihal NW, Kikkeri NSN. Clinical study of Tinea capitis in Northern Karnataka: A three-year experience at a single institute. Indian Dermatol Online J 2013; 4:22-6. [PMID: 23439970 PMCID: PMC3573447 DOI: 10.4103/2229-5178.105461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tinea capitis is a superficial fungal infection of the hair follicle of scalp. Most of the dermatophytosis do not have such age propensity as tinea capitis which almost invariably involves the paediatric age group. The exact incidence of tinea capitis is not known. This study is done in order to isolate the species variation in an area, to know the changing patterns of occurrence of different species and their association with clinical pattern MATERIALS AND METHODS All clinically diagnosed cases of tinea capitis which presented to our out patient department over a period of one year were included in the study. RESULTS 70 cases of Tinea capitis were studied. DISCUSSION Tinea capitis is a disease of prepubertal children with common in age group of 5- 15 years. The incidence varies from 0.5% to 10%. Most common presenting feature was alopecia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varadraj V. Pai
- Department of Dermatology, SDM College of Medical Sciences, Dharwad, Karnatak, India
| | | | | | - Namrata W. Nandihal
- Department of Dermatology, SDM College of Medical Sciences, Dharwad, Karnatak, India
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20
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Kundu D, Mandal L, Sen G. Prevalence of Tinea capitis in school going children in Kolkata, West Bengal. J Nat Sci Biol Med 2012; 3:152-5. [PMID: 23225977 PMCID: PMC3510909 DOI: 10.4103/0976-9668.101894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: In recent years the incidence of Tinea capitis, infection of scalp by dermatophytes, has increased in United Kingdom and North America. The trend may be similar in India. The objective of this study is to find the prevalence of Tinea capitis in school going urban children in Kolkata, West Bengal state. Materials and Methods: The present study is a cross-sectional study conducted in a government higher primary school in Kolkata. Results: Totally 505 students were screened and 52 were diagnosed to have Tinea capitis by clinical examination, giving a prevalence rate of 10% among school children. Prevalence rates among the age groups of 6–8, 9–11 and 12–14 years were almost the same, ranging from 9 to 11%. The prevalence rate was significantly high among the boys (14%). There was no significant difference in prevalence of infection among coconut oil users and castor oil users. Measures of general hygiene were similar among those who were infected with Tinea capitis and those who were not. The commonest clinical type of infection found was dull grey patches. Itching with hair loss was the major symptom and most of the infected children had cervical lymphadenopathy. The potassium hydroxide studies revealed endothrix spores in majority of samples. Conclusion: Tinea capitis in prevalent in school going urban children in Kolkata, West Bengal state and necessary measures must be undertaken to curtail this incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kundu
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical College, Jadavpur, India
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21
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Viera MH, Costales SM, Regalado J, Alonso-Llamazares J. Inflammatory tinea faciei mimicking Sweet's syndrome. ACTAS DERMO-SIFILIOGRAFICAS 2012; 104:75-6. [PMID: 22785150 DOI: 10.1016/j.ad.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M H Viera
- University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Surgery, FL 33136, United States.
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22
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Döğen A, Gümral R, Oksüz Z, Kaplan E, Serin MS, Ilkit M. Epidemiology of dermatophytosis in junior combat and non-combat sports participants. Mycoses 2012; 56:95-100. [PMID: 22621172 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2012.02209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Participation in competitive sports is popular and widely encouraged worldwide. Herein, we investigated 252 male and 67 female sports players, aged 16.4 ± 1.3 years, active in 15 different types of combat (n = 143) and non-combat (n = 176) sports. Of the 319 participants in this study, 11 (3.5%) players, including six wrestlers, four football players and one handball player, all of whom were men, harboured dermatophytic fungi. Briefly, Trichophyton tonsurans was present in three athletes, who were scalp carriers of the fungus. Furthermore, T. rubrum (4), T. interdigitale (3) and Arthroderma simii (1) were recovered from eight participants with tinea inguinalis (4), tinea pedis (2) or both (1). One patient was a trunk carrier of concomitant tinea pedis. All dermatophytic fungi were identified using both direction sequence of the rDNA regions spanning the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and 5.8 rRNA gene. Although sports-active individuals are active and sweat more, we observed a low prevalence of dermatophytosis, both in combat (5.2%) and non-combat sports participants (3.4%) (P > 0.05). However, dermatophyte infections require more attention and appropriate management to eradicate the infection and to prevent possible outbreaks. This study also documents the first case of zoophilic A. simii in Turkey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylin Döğen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Mersin, Mersin, Turkey
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23
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Bookstaver PB, Watson HJ, Winters SD, Carlson AL, Schulz RM. Prophylactic ketoconazole shampoo for tinea capitis in a high-risk pediatric population. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 2012; 16:199-203. [PMID: 22479162 DOI: 10.5863/1551-6776-16.3.199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Although topical agents for the treatment of tinea capitis decrease viable fungal elements and reduce shedding, their use as a prophylactic agent has not been investigated. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a prophylactic ketoconazole shampoo (Nizoral 2%) protocol to reduce the number of clinically evident tinea capitis infections in a high-risk African American, urban population. METHODS We conducted a retrospective analysis of a ketoconazole prophylaxis protocol that was implemented at an urban pediatric clinic for medically fragile children. Patients at high risk for tinea capitis received twice-weekly ketoconazole shampoo. The primary outcome of the study was a reduction in the number of documented tinea capitis infections between the 12-month preprotocol and 12-month postprotocol periods. A secondary outcome included the evaluation of predisposing risk factors for acquiring tinea infections. RESULTS Ninety-seven patients, with a mean age of 8.06 years, were included. Most patients (78%) were African American. There were a total of 13 tinea capitis infections during the 12-month preprotocol period. During the 12-month postprotocol period, 41 infections were documented: 37 (90.2%) in the prophylaxis group and 4 (9.8%) in the nonprophylaxis group. The average numbers of per-patient infections in the postprotocol period were 0.79 and 0.08 in the prophylaxis and nonprophylaxis groups, respectively. Initiation of prophylaxis did not reduce tinea capitis infections (p=NS). Previous history of infection and a high level of care were significant predictors of infections (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Improved hygiene, adherence to prescribed treatment regimens, and prevention of recurrent environmental exposure to surviving fomites should be stressed in high-risk patients and supersede the need for an antifungal (ketoconazole shampoo) prophylaxis protocol.
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Sajomsang W, Gonil P, Saesoo S, Ovatlarnporn C. Antifungal property of quaternized chitosan and its derivatives. Int J Biol Macromol 2012; 50:263-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2011] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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25
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Nweze EI. Dermatophytoses in domesticated animals. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2011; 53:94-9. [PMID: 21537757 DOI: 10.1590/s0036-46652011000200007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are among the most frequent causes of ringworm infections in domesticated animals. They are known to serve as reservoirs of the zoophilic dermatophytes and these infections have important zoonotic implication. In Nigeria and probably West Africa, there are not many studies on the incidence of dermatophytosis in domesticated animals. In the current study, 538 domesticated animals with clinically suggestive lesions were investigated for dermatophytes. Identification of dermatophyte species was performed by macro- and micro morphological examination of colonies and by biochemical methods. In the cases of isolates that had atypical morphology and/or biochemical test results, the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS 2) sequencing was performed. Out of this number, 214 (39.8%) were found to be colonized by a variety of ten species of dermatophytes. M. canis was the most frequently isolated species (37.4%), followed by T. mentagrophytes (22.9%) and T. verrucosum (15.9%). M. persicolor and T. gallinae were jointly the least species isolated with a frequency of 0.55% respectively. The recovery of dermatophyte isolates previously shown to be common etiological agents of dermatophytosis especially from children in the same region suggests that animal to human transmission may be common. Possible implications and recommendations are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeka I Nweze
- Department of Microbiology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nsukka, Nigeria.
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26
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Cantrell WC, Jacobs MK, Sobera JO, Parrish CA, Warner J, Elewski BE. Tinea capitis in Birmingham: survey of elementary school students. Pediatr Dermatol 2011; 28:476-7. [PMID: 20553397 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton tonsurans is currently the leading cause of tinea capitis, but was only introduced into the United States less than six decades ago. In this study, we found a prevalence of 11% in Birmingham, Alabama, which is similar to earlier reports from other geographic regions. Despite previous reports concerning escalation, the prevalence appears to be stable over the past decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy C Cantrell
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35233, USA.
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Nweze EI. Dermatophytosis among children of Fulani/Hausa herdsmen living in southeastern Nigeria. Rev Iberoam Micol 2010; 27:191-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2010.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2010] [Revised: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Chen C, Koch LH, Dice JE, Dempsey KK, Moskowitz AB, Barnes-Eley ML, Hubbard TW, Williams JV. A randomized, double-blind study comparing the efficacy of selenium sulfide shampoo 1% and ciclopirox shampoo 1% as adjunctive treatments for tinea capitis in children. Pediatr Dermatol 2010; 27:459-62. [PMID: 20735804 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01093.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Our objective was to compare the efficacy of selenium sulfide shampoo 1% and ciclopirox shampoo 1% as adjunctive treatments for tinea capitis in children. Forty children aged 1-11 years with clinically diagnosed tinea capitis were randomized to receive selenium sulfide shampoo 1% or ciclopirox shampoo 1% twice a week as adjuncts to an 8-week course of ultramicronized griseofulvin dosed at 10-12 mg/kg/day. At weeks 2, 4, and 8, subjects returned to the clinic for evaluation and scalp cultures. Subjects then returned for follow-up visits 4 weeks after completing treatment. Overall, by 8 weeks, 30 of 33 (90.9%) treated children demonstrated mycological cure. Selenium sulfide shampoo 1% and ciclopirox shampoo 1% were equally effective as adjunctive treatments for tinea capitis in children in our study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
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Abdel-Rahman SM, Farrand N, Schuenemann E, Stering TK, Preuett B, Magie R, Campbell A. The prevalence of infections with Trichophyton tonsurans in schoolchildren: the CAPITIS study. Pediatrics 2010; 125:966-73. [PMID: 20403937 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-2522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Trichophyton tonsurans has become the leading cause of tinea capitis in the United States, reported infection rates vary widely, and prevalence estimates for the pediatric population at large remain poorly characterized. METHODS A prospective, cross-sectional, surveillance study of children attending kindergarten through fifth grade in 44 schools across the bi-state (Kansas/Missouri), Kansas City metropolitan area was conducted. Fungal cultures were collected from all participants, and molecular analyses were used to characterize the patterns of infection within the population. RESULTS Of 10,514 children (age: 8.3 +/- 1.9 years) examined for the presence of T tonsurans on their scalps, 6.6% exhibited positive cultures. Infection rates at participating schools ranged from 0% to 19.4%, exceeding 30% at a given grade level in some schools. Black children demonstrated the highest rates of infection (12.9%), with prevalence estimates for the youngest members of this racial group approaching 18%. Infection rates for Hispanic (1.6%) and white (1.1%) children were markedly lower. A single genetic strain of T tonsurans was identified in only 16.6% of classrooms, whereas each child harbored a unique genetic strain in 51.4%. CONCLUSIONS We report a large-scale, citywide, surveillance study of T tonsurans infection rates among children in primary school in a metropolitan area. The striking prevalence rates and genetic heterogeneity among the fungal isolates confirm the relatively large degree to which this pathogen has become integrated into metropolitan communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Abdel-Rahman
- Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical Toxicology, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA.
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Lorch Dauk KC, Comrov E, Blumer JL, O'Riordan MA, Furman LM. Tinea capitis: predictive value of symptoms and time to cure with griseofulvin treatment. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2010; 49:280-6. [PMID: 19487765 DOI: 10.1177/0009922809338313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe (a) the predictive value of symptoms for diagnosis of tinea capitis and (b) the rate and timing of cure with high-dose griseofulvin treatment. METHODS This prospective open-label study enrolled children aged 1 to 12 years with clinical tinea capitis. Participants with a positive dermatophyte culture received oral griseofulvin (20-25 mg/kg/day) and topical selenium sulfide shampoo for 6 weeks. Main outcome measures. The rate of symptoms of tinea capitis, and rates of mycologic and clinical cure. RESULTS The positive predictive values of any 1, 2, 3, or 4 symptoms for a positive culture were 88%, 82%, 78%, and 77%, respectively. The observed rates of mycologic, clinical, and complete cure were 89%, 66%, and 49%, respectively. conclusion: In a high-risk population it is reasonable to diagnose tinea capitis using one or more cardinal symptoms. Oral griseofulvin at 20 to 25 mg/ kg/day with adjunctive shampooing for 6 weeks is moderately successful as treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly C Lorch Dauk
- Department of Pediatrics, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Hirose N, Suganami M, Ogawa YS, Hiruma M, Ogawa H. Screening examination and treatment of Trichophyton tonsurans infection in judo athletes affiliated with the University Judo Federation of Tokyo. Mycoses 2009; 54:e35-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2009.01823.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pérez-González M, Torres-Rodríguez JM, Martínez-Roig A, Segura S, Griera G, Triviño L, Pasarín M. Prevalence of tinea pedis, tinea unguium of toenails and tinea capitis in school children from Barcelona. Rev Iberoam Micol 2009; 26:228-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2009.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Shiraki Y, Hiruma M, Hirose N, Ikeda S. Commonly affected body sites in 92 Japanese combat sports participants withTrichophyton tonsuransinfection. Mycoses 2009; 52:339-42. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01603.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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35
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Coloe JR, Diab M, Moennich J, Diab D, Pawaskar M, Balkrishnan R, Bechtel MA. Tinea capitis among children in the Columbus area, Ohio, USA. Mycoses 2009; 53:158-62. [PMID: 19302461 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Tinea capitis is a fungal infection of the hair follicles of the scalp. In the US, the most common organisms have traditionally been Trichophyton tonsurans, and occasionally Microsporum canis. This study was designed to examine patterns of organisms causing tinea capitis and determine factors associated with infection. A retrospective database analysis was conducted to locate records of patients with tinea capitis from May 2001 to May 2006 at Nationwide Children's Hospital in Columbus, OH. Descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, chi-squared test, and Student's t-test were performed to evaluate types of causative organisms and associated patient characteristics. One hundred and eighty-nine charts of patients with a positive scalp culture for tinea capitis were located. Trichophyton tonsurans (88.9%) was the foremost causative agent followed by Trichophyton violaceum (4.2%). Tinea capitis was more prevalent among African Americans and was more common in urban areas (P < 0.05). Children of African descent inhabiting urban settings were most vulnerable to tinea capitis. The most common organism isolated in this retrospective study was T. tonsurans. Trichophyton violaceum and Trichophyton soudanense were also isolated, which are not commonly reported causes of tinea capitis in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelyn R Coloe
- College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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Mirmirani P, Willey A, Chamlin S, Frieden IJ, Price VH. Tinea capitis mimicking cicatricial alopecia: What host and dermatophyte factors lead to this unusual clinical presentation? J Am Acad Dermatol 2009; 60:490-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2008] [Revised: 08/31/2008] [Accepted: 09/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Survey of Scalp Dermatophyte Carriage in a Day Care Center in Turkey. Mycopathologia 2008; 167:139-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9170-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2008] [Accepted: 11/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Ayanbimpe GM, Taghir H, Diya A, Wapwera S. Tinea capitis among primary school children in some parts of central Nigeria. Mycoses 2008; 51:336-40. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2007.01476.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Akbaba M, Ilkit M, Sutoluk Z, Ates A, Zorba H. Comparison of hairbrush, toothbrush and cotton swab methods for diagnosing asymptomatic dermatophyte scalp carriage. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2008; 22:356-62. [PMID: 18269603 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2007.02442.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tinea capitis may also present as a minimal infection, termed carrier state. Anthropophilic dermatophytes (i.e. Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton violaceum) have been generally associated with high rates of asymptomatic carriage. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of the hairbrush, toothbrush and cotton swab methods for diagnosing scalp carriage as well as to determine the prevalence and related dermatophyte species for both asymptomatic and symptomatic tinea capitis in Adana Province, Turkey. PATIENTS AND METHODS A screening study was carried out between February 2006 and May 2006, covering three schools and a total of 1560 children with 857 (54.9%) boys and 703 (45.1%) girls, aged between 7 and 17 years (10.6 +/- 2.3 years). The diagnosis was made by using three of the methods mentioned above with inoculation onto Sabouraud glucose agar. RESULTS Symptomatic tinea capitis was not detected in the study; however, 21 (1.3%) asymptomatic carriers, with 9 (42.9%) boys and 12 (57.1%) girls, aged 7 to 13 years (9.7 +/- 1.9 years) were detected. The diagnosis was made via hairbrush in 13, via cotton swab in 4 and via toothbrush in 4. The mean age (P = 0.075) and gender differences were found to be statistically insignificant (P = 0.26). The most common isolated species was Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes (90.4%) followed by Trichophyton audouinii (4.8%) and Microsporum gypseum (4.8%). Nine children had Arab origin (P = 0.005), and 12 had immigrated from the south-eastern region of Anatolia, Turkey. The screening of 32 households of 21 children with asymptomatic carriage enabled the researchers to detect the carrier state in three mothers and one sister, resulting in a total of four households (12.5%), with T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes isolated, by hairbrush method in three cases and cotton swab in one case. If the methods were to be used alone, the prevalence of asymptomatic carriage would be found as 1.0% (16 of 1592) in the hairbrush, 0.3% (4 of 1592) in the toothbrush and 0.3% (5 of 1592) in the cotton swab methods; whereas the combined use of these three methods could reveal a total prevalence of 1.6% (25 of 1592). The hairbrush method was significantly found to be more effective in detecting dermatophyte fungi than the toothbrush (P < 0.01) and the cotton swab methods (P < 0.05). There was also a statistically significant difference between the use of a single method and the combination of all other three methods (P < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS In summary, it was found that the prevalence of asymptomatic carriage did not cover symptomatic tinea capitis prevalence (1.6% vs. 0%), and the dominant species was zoophilic T. mentagrophytes (92%, 23 of 25). Asymptomatic carriage was not found to be related to age, gender and the coexistence of other dermatophytoses; however, race (Arab origin) was found to be the only risk factor. For laboratory diagnosis, no method was found to be nominated as a gold standard; hence, a combined use of diagnosing methods was suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Akbaba
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cukurova, Adana, Turkey
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Hirose N, Suganami M, Shiraki Y, Hiruma M, Ogawa H. Management and follow-up survey of Trichophyton tonsurans infection in a university judo club. Mycoses 2008; 51:243-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2007.01463.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Rapid identification and differentiation of Trichophyton species, based on sequence polymorphisms of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer regions, by rolling-circle amplification. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:1192-9. [PMID: 18234865 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02235-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA sequencing analyses have demonstrated relatively limited polymorphisms within the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions among Trichophyton spp. We sequenced the ITS region (ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2) for 42 dermatophytes belonging to seven species (Trichophyton rubrum, T. mentagrophytes, T. soudanense, T. tonsurans, Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, and M. gypseum) and developed a novel padlock probe and rolling-circle amplification (RCA)-based method for identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that could be exploited to differentiate between Trichophyton spp. Sequencing results demonstrated intraspecies genetic variation for T. tonsurans, T. mentagrophytes, and T. soudanense but not T. rubrum. Signature sets of SNPs between T. rubrum and T. soudanense (4-bp difference) and T. violaceum and T. soudanense (3-bp difference) were identified. The RCA assay correctly identified five Trichophyton species. Although the use of two "group-specific" probes targeting both the ITS1 and the ITS2 regions were required to identify T. soudanense, the other species were identified by single ITS1- or ITS2-targeted species-specific probes. There was good agreement between ITS sequencing and the RCA assay. Despite limited genetic variation between Trichophyton spp., the sensitive, specific RCA-based SNP detection assay showed potential as a simple, reproducible method for the rapid (2-h) identification of Trichophyton spp.
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Shiraki Y, Hiruma M, Sugita T, Ikeda S. Assessment of the Treatment Protocol Described in the Guidelines for Trichophyton tonsurans Infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 49:27-31. [DOI: 10.3314/jjmm.49.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Bassiri-Jahromi S, Khaksar AA. Outbreak of tinea gladiatorum in wrestlers in Tehran (Iran). Indian J Dermatol 2008; 53:132-6. [PMID: 19882012 PMCID: PMC2763744 DOI: 10.4103/0019-5154.43219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, skin diseases in wrestling have finally received the attention they deserve. Outbreaks of tinea corporis are often associated with sports involving extensive bodily contact; such sports include wrestling. Tinea corporis gladiatorum is primarily caused by Trichophyton tonsurans, infecting wrestlers at alarming rates. The management of skin infections in wrestlers and other athletes in sports involving skin-to-skin contact entails numerous challenges, from making an accurate diagnosis to determining eligibility for playing the sports. To control outbreaks, we conducted an epidemiologic investigation. The purpose of this article is to determine the prevalence of tinea corporis gladiatorum in wrestlers in Tehran, Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS A study of dermatophytosis was carried out during the period of March 2004 to December 2005 on 612 mycological proven cases of dermatophytosis found in male wrestlers in Tehran. Mycological examination consisted of culturing of pathologic material followed by direct microscopic observation. Diagnosis was based on macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the colonies. RESULTS T. tonsurans was the predominant dermatophyte, accounting for >90% of all tinea corporis gladiatorum isolates during the 2 year analysis. Tinea corporis gladiatorum was found to be more frequent in individuals between the ages of 10 and 20 years of age (72.7%). Wrestlers with tinea corporis gladiatorum were predominantly from wrestling clubs in southern and southeastern Tehran. Transmission of tinea corporis is primarily through skin-to-skin contact. CONCLUSION Rapid identification and treatment of tinea corporis gladiatorum is required to minimize the disruption of team practices and competitions. Infection with dermatophytes can disqualify a wrestler from competing in matches, and thus, vigilant surveillance and rapid initiation of treatment is important to prevent the suspension of team practices and competitions.
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Asymptomatic dermatophyte scalp carriage: laboratory diagnosis, epidemiology and management. Mycopathologia 2007; 165:61-71. [PMID: 18034369 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-007-9081-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2007] [Accepted: 11/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Asymptomatic carrier is defined as an individual who has dermatophyte-positive scalp culture without signs or symptoms of tinea capitis. The prevalence of asymptomatic carriage differs from region to region with a rate of 0.1-49%. Anthropophilic dermatophytes, Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton violaceum, have been generally associated with high rates of asymptomatic carriage. Hence, the presence of dermatophytes on healthy scalp hairs of children may be a potential source of infection for schoolmates, playmates and/or households. Although it was also reported in adults, most carriage has been observed in children especially among those between 4 and 8 years of age, while male to female ratios vary between studies. It is still unclear, whether carriers should be treated with topical antifungal shampoos or oral antifungals or both, as some studies indicate that some untreated cases become culture-negative after 2-12 months. This review provides details on related dermatophyte fungi, laboratory diagnosis, epidemiology, ways of spreading as well as treatment and follow-up results of asymptomatic carriage. An integration into the school health programs is proposed, which will render the possible dealing of the subject in a comprehensive and reasonable manner.
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Tong Z, Widmer F, Sorrell TC, Guse Z, Jolliffe KA, Halliday C, Lee OC, Kong F, Wright LC, Chen SCA. In vitro activities of miltefosine and two novel antifungal biscationic salts against a panel of 77 dermatophytes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:2219-22. [PMID: 17371821 PMCID: PMC1891392 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01382-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The susceptibilities of 77 dermatophytes to miltefosine (MI), 1,12-bis(4-pentylpyridinium)dodecane (PYR), 1,12-bis(tributylammonium)dodecane (AM), itraconazole (ITC), terbinafine (TRB), and butenafine (BTF) were compared. Geometric mean MICs of TRB, BTF, ITC, MI, PYR, and AM were 0.039, 0.059, 1.718, 0.671, 6.006, and 4.771 microg/ml, respectively. MI was more active than ITC (P < 0.001).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongsheng Tong
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
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Ilkit M, Demirhindi H, Yetgin M, Ates A, Turaç-Biçer A, Yula E. Asymptomatic dermatophyte scalp carriage in school children in Adana, Turkey. Mycoses 2007; 50:130-4. [PMID: 17305777 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2006.01335.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of asymptomatic dermatophyte scalp carriage and symptomatic tinea capitis in Adana Province, Cukurova region, Turkey. For this purpose, a screening study was performed in five schools, between January 2004 and May 2005, covering a total of 5143 children with 2740 (53.3%) boys and 2403 (46.7%) girls, aged 7-14 years (9.6 +/- 2.0). The diagnosis was made using the cotton swab method with inoculation onto Sabouraud glucose agar amended with cycloheximide, chloramphenicol and gentamicin. Among 10 (0.2%) cases, six asymptomatic carriers (mean age 10.7 +/- 2.3) and four symptomatic cases (mean age 8.3 +/- 0.5) were detected, all of whom were boys and had immigrated from the south-eastern and eastern region of Anatolia, Turkey. The mean age differences were found to be statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U=3.000, P=0.046). Boys were found to be more prone to asymptomatic carriage (P=0.033), but not tinea capitis (P>0.05). Zoophilic dermatophytes, namely Microsporum canis (40%) and Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes (40%) were the most commonly isolated species, followed by anthropophilic Trichophyton tonsurans (10%), while no causative agent was detected in a case (10%) with tinea capitis superficialis. Scalp cultures were found to be dermatophyte-negative after 3- to 8-month follow-up in cases with asymptomatic carriage. As a conclusion, the prevalence of asymptomatic carrier state was similar with the prevalence of symptomatic cases, and we found a predominance of zoophilic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Macit Ilkit
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cukurova, Adana, Turkey.
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Abstract
Tropical mycoses vary from the commonplace to the rare and exotic but they are seen regularly even as imported conditions and it is important to consider the diagnosis, where possible, in individuals who have visited remote areas. Patients may present many years after they have left an endemic area with subcutaneous or endemic systemic mycoses. In establishing a diagnosis, it is always important to take an accurate travel history so that the movements of the individual can be correlated with the potential risk for exposure to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roderick J Hay
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
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Magill SS, Manfredi L, Swiderski A, Cohen B, Merz WG. Isolation of Trichophyton violaceum and Trichophyton soudanense in Baltimore, Maryland. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 45:461-5. [PMID: 17151204 PMCID: PMC1829009 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02033-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tinea capitis is of public health importance because of its transmissibility. Trichophyton violaceum and Trichophyton soudanense, which are common causes of tinea capitis in parts of Africa and West Asia, have only rarely been reported to cause dermatophytoses in the United States. We identified 24 patients with 25 positive cultures for T. violaceum or T. soudanense that were processed in a single hospital laboratory in Baltimore, Maryland, between 1 January 2000 and 30 June 2006. Most patients for whom clinical information was available had tinea capitis. There was a marked increase in the isolation of these organisms between the period from 2000 to 2002 and the period from 2003 to 2006, possibly associated with changes in immigration to the Baltimore metropolitan area. The changing epidemiology of this transmissible fungal infection not only is of public health interest as an example of the introduction of a "new" pathogen to an area where it traditionally was not endemic but also is of clinical and microbiological importance given reports suggesting an increasing incidence of tinea capitis in some areas and increasing clinical failure rates of current therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley S Magill
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument St., 4th Floor, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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