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Bury NA, Jenkin M, Allison RS, Herpers R, Harris LR. Vection underwater illustrates the limitations of neutral buoyancy as a microgravity analog. NPJ Microgravity 2023; 9:42. [PMID: 37301926 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-023-00282-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutral buoyancy has been used as an analog for microgravity from the earliest days of human spaceflight. Compared to other options on Earth, neutral buoyancy is relatively inexpensive and presents little danger to astronauts while simulating some aspects of microgravity. Neutral buoyancy removes somatosensory cues to the direction of gravity but leaves vestibular cues intact. Removal of both somatosensory and direction of gravity cues while floating in microgravity or using virtual reality to establish conflicts between them has been shown to affect the perception of distance traveled in response to visual motion (vection) and the perception of distance. Does removal of somatosensory cues alone by neutral buoyancy similarly impact these perceptions? During neutral buoyancy we found no significant difference in either perceived distance traveled nor perceived size relative to Earth-normal conditions. This contrasts with differences in linear vection reported between short- and long-duration microgravity and Earth-normal conditions. These results indicate that neutral buoyancy is not an effective analog for microgravity for these perceptual effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils-Alexander Bury
- Institute of Visual Computing, Hochschule Bonn-Rhein-Sieg, Grantham-Allee 20, 53757, St. Augustin, Germany.
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada.
- Dept. of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada.
| | - Michael Jenkin
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Robert S Allison
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Rainer Herpers
- Institute of Visual Computing, Hochschule Bonn-Rhein-Sieg, Grantham-Allee 20, 53757, St. Augustin, Germany
- Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
- Faculty of Computer Science, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada
| | - Laurence R Harris
- Centre for Vision Research, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
- Dept. of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele St., Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada
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2
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Kooijman L, Asadi H, Mohamed S, Nahavandi S. A virtual reality study investigating the train illusion. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221622. [PMID: 37063997 PMCID: PMC10090874 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The feeling of self-movement that occurs in the absence of physical motion is often referred to as vection, which is commonly exemplified using the train illusion analogy (TIA). Limited research exists on whether the TIA accurately exemplifies the experience of vection in virtual environments (VEs). Few studies complemented their vection research with participants' qualitative feedback or by recording physiological responses, and most studies used stimuli that contextually differed from the TIA. We investigated whether vection is experienced differently in a VE replicating the TIA compared to a VE depicting optic flow by recording subjective and physiological responses. Additionally, we explored participants' experience through an open question survey. We expected the TIA environment to induce enhanced vection compared to the optic flow environment. Twenty-nine participants were visually and audibly immersed in VEs that either depicted optic flow or replicated the TIA. Results showed optic flow elicited more compelling vection than the TIA environment and no consistent physiological correlates to vection were identified. The post-experiment survey revealed discrepancies between participants' quantitative and qualitative feedback. Although the dynamic content may outweigh the ecological relevance of the stimuli, it was concluded that more qualitative research is needed to understand participants' vection experience in VEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Kooijman
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Houshyar Asadi
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Shady Mohamed
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Saeid Nahavandi
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- Harvard Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Allston, MA 02134, USA
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3
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Murovec B, Spaniol J, Campos JL, Keshavarz B. Multisensory Effects on Illusory Self-Motion (Vection): the Role of Visual, Auditory, and Tactile Cues. Multisens Res 2021; 34:1-22. [PMID: 34384047 DOI: 10.1163/22134808-bja10058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A critical component to many immersive experiences in virtual reality (VR) is vection, defined as the illusion of self-motion. Traditionally, vection has been described as a visual phenomenon, but more recent research suggests that vection can be influenced by a variety of senses. The goal of the present study was to investigate the role of multisensory cues on vection by manipulating the availability of visual, auditory, and tactile stimuli in a VR setting. To achieve this, 24 adults (Mage = 25.04) were presented with a rotating stimulus aimed to induce circular vection. All participants completed trials that included a single sensory cue, a combination of two cues, or all three cues presented together. The size of the field of view (FOV) was manipulated across four levels (no-visuals, small, medium, full). Participants rated vection intensity and duration verbally after each trial. Results showed that all three sensory cues induced vection when presented in isolation, with visual cues eliciting the highest intensity and longest duration. The presence of auditory and tactile cues further increased vection intensity and duration compared to conditions where these cues were not presented. These findings support the idea that vection can be induced via multiple types of sensory inputs and can be intensified when multiple sensory inputs are combined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy Murovec
- KITE, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Julia Spaniol
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Jennifer L Campos
- KITE, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Behrang Keshavarz
- KITE, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
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4
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Wang W, Yang K, Zhu Y. Optimal Frequency and Amplitude of Vertical Viewpoint Oscillation for Improving Vection Strength and Reducing Neural Constrains on Gait. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 23:541. [PMID: 33924864 PMCID: PMC8145014 DOI: 10.3390/e23050541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Inducing self-motion illusions referred as vection are critical for improving the sensation of walking in virtual environments (VE). Adding viewpoint oscillations to a constant forward velocity in VE is effective for improving vection strength under static conditions. However, the effects of oscillation frequency and amplitude on vection strength under treadmill walking conditions are still unclear. Besides, due to the visuomotor entrainment mechanism, these visual oscillations would affect gait patterns and be detrimental for achieving natural walking if not properly designed. This study was aimed at determining the optimal frequency and amplitude of vertical viewpoint oscillations for improving vection strength and reducing gait constraints. Seven subjects walked on a treadmill while watching a visual scene. The visual scene presented a constant forward velocity equal to the treadmill velocity with different vertical viewpoint oscillations added. Five oscillation patterns with different combinations of frequency and amplitude were tested. Subjects gave verbal ratings of vection strength. The mediolateral (M-L) center of pressure (CoP) complexity was calculated to indicate gait constraints. After the experiment, subjects were asked to give the best and the worst oscillation pattern based on their walking experience. The oscillation frequency and amplitude had strong positive correlations with vection strength. The M-L CoP complexity was reduced under oscillations with low frequency. The medium oscillation amplitude had greater M-L CoP complexity than the small and large amplitude. Besides, subjects preferred those oscillation patterns with large gait complexity. We suggested that the oscillation amplitude with largest M-L CoP complexity should first be chosen to reduce gait constraints. Then, increasing the oscillation frequency to improve vection strength until individual preference or the boundary of motion sickness. These findings provide important guidelines to promote the sensation of natural walking in VE.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kaiming Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Precision and Ultra-Precision Manufacturing Equipment and Control, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; (W.W.); (Y.Z.)
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Keshner EA, Lamontagne A. The Untapped Potential of Virtual Reality in Rehabilitation of Balance and Gait in Neurological Disorders. FRONTIERS IN VIRTUAL REALITY 2021; 2:641650. [PMID: 33860281 PMCID: PMC8046008 DOI: 10.3389/frvir.2021.641650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic systems theory transformed our understanding of motor control by recognizing the continual interaction between the organism and the environment. Movement could no longer be visualized simply as a response to a pattern of stimuli or as a demonstration of prior intent; movement is context dependent and is continuously reshaped by the ongoing dynamics of the world around us. Virtual reality is one methodological variable that allows us to control and manipulate that environmental context. A large body of literature exists to support the impact of visual flow, visual conditions, and visual perception on the planning and execution of movement. In rehabilitative practice, however, this technology has been employed mostly as a tool for motivation and enjoyment of physical exercise. The opportunity to modulate motor behavior through the parameters of the virtual world is often ignored in practice. In this article we present the results of experiments from our laboratories and from others demonstrating that presenting particular characteristics of the virtual world through different sensory modalities will modify balance and locomotor behavior. We will discuss how movement in the virtual world opens a window into the motor planning processes and informs us about the relative weighting of visual and somatosensory signals. Finally, we discuss how these findings should influence future treatment design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A. Keshner
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Correspondence: Emily A. Keshner,
| | - Anouk Lamontagne
- School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Virtual Reality and Mobility Laboratory, CISSS Laval—Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital Site of the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater Montreal, Laval, QC, Canada
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6
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Fauville G, Queiroz ACM, Woolsey ES, Kelly JW, Bailenson JN. The effect of water immersion on vection in virtual reality. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1022. [PMID: 33441803 PMCID: PMC7806968 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80100-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Research about vection (illusory self-motion) has investigated a wide range of sensory cues and employed various methods and equipment, including use of virtual reality (VR). However, there is currently no research in the field of vection on the impact of floating in water while experiencing VR. Aquatic immersion presents a new and interesting method to potentially enhance vection by reducing conflicting sensory information that is usually experienced when standing or sitting on a stable surface. This study compares vection, visually induced motion sickness, and presence among participants experiencing VR while standing on the ground or floating in water. Results show that vection was significantly enhanced for the participants in the Water condition, whose judgments of self-displacement were larger than those of participants in the Ground condition. No differences in visually induced motion sickness or presence were found between conditions. We discuss the implication of this new type of VR experience for the fields of VR and vection while also discussing future research questions that emerge from our findings.
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7
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Kitazaki M. Virtual Walking Sensation by Prerecorded Oscillating Optic Flow and Synchronous Foot Vibration. Iperception 2019; 10:2041669519882448. [PMID: 31662838 PMCID: PMC6796215 DOI: 10.1177/2041669519882448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This article reports the first psychological evidence that the combination of oscillating optic flow and synchronous foot vibration evokes a walking sensation. In this study, we first captured a walker's first-person-view scenes with footstep timings. Participants observed the naturally oscillating scenes on a head-mounted display with vibrations on their feet and rated walking-related sensations using a Visual Analogue Scale. They perceived stronger sensations of self-motion, walking, leg action, and telepresence from the oscillating visual flow with foot vibrations than with randomized-timing vibrations or without vibrations. The artificial delay of foot vibrations with respect to the scenes diminished the walking-related sensations. These results suggest that the oscillating visual scenes and synchronous foot vibrations are effective for creating virtual walking sensations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiteru Kitazaki
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan
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8
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Inhibition of vection by grasping an object. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:3215-3221. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5375-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
Visually induced illusions of self-motion are often referred to as vection. This article developed and tested a model of responding to visually induced vection. We first constructed a mathematical model based on well-documented characteristics of vection and human behavioral responses to this illusion. We then conducted 10,000 virtual trial simulations using this Oscillating Potential Vection Model (OPVM). OPVM was used to generate simulated vection onset, duration, and magnitude responses for each of these trials. Finally, we compared the properties of OPVM's simulated vection responses with real responses obtained in seven different laboratory-based vection experiments. The OPVM output was found to compare favorably with the empirically obtained vection data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeharu Seno
- Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Minami-ku, Fukuoka, Japan
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10
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Becker W, Kliegl K, Kassubek J, Jürgens R. Podokinetic circular vection: characteristics and interaction with optokinetic circular vection. Exp Brain Res 2016; 234:2045-2058. [PMID: 26965438 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-016-4604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Stabilising horizontal body orientation in space without sight on a rotating platform by holding to a stationary structure and circular 'treadmill' stepping in the opposite direction can elicit an illusion of self-turning in space (Bles and Kapteyn in Agressologie 18:325-328, 1977). Because this illusion is analogous to the well-known illusion of optokinetic circular vection (oCV), we call it 'podokinetic circular vection' (pCV) here. Previous studies using eccentric stepping on a path tangential to the rotation found that pCV was always contraversive relative to platform rotation. In contrast, when our subjects stepped at the centre of rotation about their vertical axis, we observed an inverted, ipsiversive pCV as a reproducible trait in many of our subjects. This ipCV occurred at the same latency as the pCV of subjects reporting the actually expected contraversive direction, but had lower gain. In contrast to pCV, the nystagmus accompanying circular treadmill stepping had the same direction in all individuals (slow phase in the direction of platform motion). The direction of an individual's pCV predicted the characteristics of the CV resulting from combined opto- and podokinetic stimulation (circular treadmill stepping while viewing a pattern rotating together with the platform): in individuals with contraversive pCV, latency shortened and both gain and felt naturalness increased in comparison with pure oCV, whereas the opposite (longer latency, reduced gain and naturalness) occurred in individuals with ipCV. Taken together, the reproducibility of ipCV, the constant direction of nystagmus and the fact that pCV direction predicts the outcome of combined stimulation suggest that ipCV is an individual trait of many subjects during compensatory stepping at the centre of rotation. A hypothetical model is presented of how ipCV possibly could arise.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Becker
- Sektion Neurophysiologie, Universität Ulm, Oberer Eselsberg 45, 89081, Ulm, Germany.
| | - K Kliegl
- Abteilung Allgemeine Psychologie, Universität Ulm, Albert Einstein Allee 47, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - J Kassubek
- Sektion Neurophysiologie, Universität Ulm, Oberer Eselsberg 45, 89081, Ulm, Germany.,Klinik für Neurologie, Universität Ulm, Oberer Eselsberg 45, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - R Jürgens
- Sektion Neurophysiologie, Universität Ulm, Oberer Eselsberg 45, 89081, Ulm, Germany
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Palmisano S, Allison RS, Schira MM, Barry RJ. Future challenges for vection research: definitions, functional significance, measures, and neural bases. Front Psychol 2015; 6:193. [PMID: 25774143 PMCID: PMC4342884 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper discusses four major challenges facing modern vection research. Challenge 1 (Defining Vection) outlines the different ways that vection has been defined in the literature and discusses their theoretical and experimental ramifications. The term vection is most often used to refer to visual illusions of self-motion induced in stationary observers (by moving, or simulating the motion of, the surrounding environment). However, vection is increasingly being used to also refer to non-visual illusions of self-motion, visually mediated self-motion perceptions, and even general subjective experiences (i.e., “feelings”) of self-motion. The common thread in all of these definitions is the conscious subjective experience of self-motion. Thus, Challenge 2 (Significance of Vection) tackles the crucial issue of whether such conscious experiences actually serve functional roles during self-motion (e.g., in terms of controlling or guiding the self-motion). After more than 100 years of vection research there has been surprisingly little investigation into its functional significance. Challenge 3 (Vection Measures) discusses the difficulties with existing subjective self-report measures of vection (particularly in the context of contemporary research), and proposes several more objective measures of vection based on recent empirical findings. Finally, Challenge 4 (Neural Basis) reviews the recent neuroimaging literature examining the neural basis of vection and discusses the hurdles still facing these investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Palmisano
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Robert S Allison
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, York University Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Mark M Schira
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Robert J Barry
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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Palmisano S, Allison RS, Ash A, Nakamura S, Apthorp D. Evidence against an ecological explanation of the jitter advantage for vection. Front Psychol 2014; 5:1297. [PMID: 25426096 PMCID: PMC4227477 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual-vestibular conflicts have been traditionally used to explain both perceptions of self-motion and experiences of motion sickness. However, sensory conflict theories have been challenged by findings that adding simulated viewpoint jitter to inducing displays enhances (rather than reduces or destroys) visual illusions of self-motion experienced by stationary observers. One possible explanation of this jitter advantage for vection is that jittering optic flows are more ecological than smooth displays. Despite the intuitive appeal of this idea, it has proven difficult to test. Here we compared subjective experiences generated by jittering and smooth radial flows when observers were exposed to either visual-only or multisensory self-motion stimulations. The display jitter (if present) was generated in real-time by updating the virtual computer-graphics camera position to match the observer’s tracked head motions when treadmill walking or walking in place, or was a playback of these head motions when standing still. As expected, the (more naturalistic) treadmill walking and the (less naturalistic) walking in place were found to generate very different physical head jitters. However, contrary to the ecological account of the phenomenon, playbacks of treadmill walking and walking in place display jitter both enhanced visually induced illusions of self-motion to a similar degree (compared to smooth displays).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Palmisano
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Robert S Allison
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, York University Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - April Ash
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Shinji Nakamura
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Child Development, Nihon Fukushi University Nagoya, Japan
| | - Deborah Apthorp
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW, Australia ; Research School of Psychology, Australian National University Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Apthorp D, Palmisano S. The role of perceived speed in vection: does perceived speed modulate the jitter and oscillation advantages? PLoS One 2014; 9:e92260. [PMID: 24651861 PMCID: PMC3961335 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Illusory self-motion (‘vection’) in depth is strongly enhanced when horizontal/vertical simulated viewpoint oscillation is added to optic flow inducing displays; a similar effect is found for simulated viewpoint jitter. The underlying cause of these oscillation and jitter advantages for vection is still unknown. Here we investigate the possibility that perceived speed of motion in depth (MID) plays a role. First, in a 2AFC procedure, we obtained MID speed PSEs for briefly presented (vertically oscillating and smooth) radial flow displays. Then we examined the strength, duration and onset latency of vection induced by oscillating and smooth radial flow displays matched either for simulated or perceived MID speed. The oscillation advantage was eliminated when displays were matched for perceived MID speed. However, when we tested the jitter advantage in the same manner, jittering displays were found to produce greater vection in depth than speed-matched controls. In summary, jitter and oscillation advantages were the same across experiments, but slower MID speed was required to match jittering than oscillating stimuli. Thus, to the extent that vection is driven by perceived speed of MID, this effect is greater for oscillating than for jittering stimuli, which suggests that the two effects may arise from separate mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Apthorp
- Research School of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Stephen Palmisano
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
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