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Wang H, Zhao S, Wang S, Zheng Y, Wang S, Chen H, Pang J, Ma J, Yang X, Chen Y. Global magnitude of encephalitis burden and its evolving pattern over the past 30 years. J Infect 2022; 84:777-787. [PMID: 35452715 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2022.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We aimed to estimate the spatiotemporal patterns of the encephalitis burden along with its attributable risk factors at the national, regional, and global levels, which may be helpful in guiding targeted prevention and treatment programs. METHODS Based on available data sources, the incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of encephalitis in 204 countries and regions from 1990 to 2019 were reconstructed by the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 using the Cause of Death Ensemble model, spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and DisMod-MR 2.1. We conducted a systematic analysis on the epidemiological characteristics of encephalitis in detail by gender, region, and age over the past three decades. RESULTS Globally, 1,444,720 incident cases, 89,900 deaths, and 4.80 million DALYs related to encephalitis were estimated in 2019. The age-standardized incidence rate and age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) decreased from 23.17 and 2.18 to 19.33 and 1.19 per 100,000 person-years over the past 30 years, respectively. However, beginning in 2011-2013, the burden of encephalitis has shown an inflection point, with a further decline of the ASRs ceasing. Lower socio-demographic index (SDI) regions in South Asia, Western and Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest burden of encephalitis in 2019. During the past three decades, most countries of South Asia achieved significant control of the burden. In contrast, developed countries with a higher SDI have shown a notable increase in ASMR and age-standardized DALYs rate. Children and older adults have always been high-risk groups for encephalitis. CONCLUSION Although the global burden of encephalitis has decreased in the past 30 years, a further decline stopped from 2011-2013. The diverse burden in different regions calls for differentiated management, and the persistent high burden in some low-SDI regions and the increased burden in developed countries with higher SDIs deserve more attention. ABBREVIATIONS ASDR: age-standardized DALY rate, ASIR: age-standardized incidence rate, ASMR: age-standardized mortality rate, ASR: age-standardized rate, CI: confidence interval, DALY: disability-adjusted life-year, EAPC: estimated annual percentage change, GBD: Global Burden of Disease Study, HAP: household air pollution from solid fuels, HSE: herpes simplex encephalitis, HSV: herpes simplex virus, ICD: International Classification of Diseases, JE: Japanese encephalitis, PCR: polymerase chain reaction, SDI: socio-demographic index, TBE: tick-borne encephalitis, UI: uncertainty interval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China; Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shaohua Zhao
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China; Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Proteomics of Shandong Province, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shengjun Wang
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yue Zheng
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China; Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Clinical Research Center of Shandong University, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shaohua Wang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Jinan Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Hui Chen
- Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Clinical Research Center of Shandong University, Shandong University, Jinan, China; Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Jiaojiao Pang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Juan Ma
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Xiaorong Yang
- Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Clinical Research Center of Shandong University, Shandong University, Jinan, China; Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
| | - Yuguo Chen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China; Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Clinical Research Center of Shandong University, Shandong University, Jinan, China; Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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Ijaz MK, Sattar SA, Rubino JR, Nims RW, Gerba CP. Combating SARS-CoV-2: leveraging microbicidal experiences with other emerging/re-emerging viruses. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9914. [PMID: 33194365 PMCID: PMC7485481 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan City, China, late in December 2019 is an example of an emerging zoonotic virus that threatens public health and international travel and commerce. When such a virus emerges, there is often insufficient specific information available on mechanisms of virus dissemination from animal-to-human or from person-to-person, on the level or route of infection transmissibility or of viral release in body secretions/excretions, and on the survival of virus in aerosols or on surfaces. The effectiveness of available virucidal agents and hygiene practices as interventions for disrupting the spread of infection and the associated diseases may not be clear for the emerging virus. In the present review, we suggest that approaches for infection prevention and control (IPAC) for SARS-CoV-2 and future emerging/re-emerging viruses can be invoked based on pre-existing data on microbicidal and hygiene effectiveness for related and unrelated enveloped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Khalid Ijaz
- Global Research & Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ, USA.,Department of Biology, Medgar Evers College of the City University of New York (CUNY), Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Syed A Sattar
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Joseph R Rubino
- Global Research & Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ, USA
| | | | - Charles P Gerba
- Water & Energy Sustainable Technology Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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Boucher A, Herrmann JL, Morand P, Buzelé R, Crabol Y, Stahl JP, Mailles A. Epidemiology of infectious encephalitis causes in 2016. Med Mal Infect 2017; 47:221-235. [PMID: 28341533 DOI: 10.1016/j.medmal.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We performed a literature search in the Medline database, using the PubMed website. The incidence of presumably infectious encephalitis is estimated at 1.5-7 cases/100,000 inhabitants/year, excluding epidemics. Infectious encephalitis and immune-mediated encephalitis share similar clinical signs and symptoms. The latter accounts for a significant proportion of presumably infectious encephalitis cases without any established etiological diagnosis; as shown from a prospective cohort study where 21% of cases were due to an immune cause. Several infectious agents are frequently reported in all studies: Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most frequent pathogen in 65% of studies, followed by Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in several studies. Enteroviruses are also reported; being the most frequent viruses in two studies, and the 2nd or 3rd viruses in five other studies. There are important regional differences, especially in case of vector-borne transmission: Asia and the Japanese encephalitis virus, Eastern and Northern Europe/Eastern Russia and the tick-borne encephalitis virus, Northern America and Flavivirus or Alphavirus. Bacteria can also be incriminated: Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Listeria monocytogenes are the most frequent, after HSV and VZV, in a French prospective study. The epidemiology of encephalitis is constantly evolving. Epidemiological data may indicate the emergence and/or dissemination of new causative agents. The dissemination and emergence of causative agents are fostered by environmental, social, and economical changes, but prevention programs (vaccination, vector controls) help reduce the incidence of other infectious diseases and associated encephalitis (e.g., measles).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Boucher
- Maladies infectieuses, CHU de Lille, 59000 Lille, France
| | - J L Herrmann
- Microbiologie, CHU de Garches, 92380 Garches, France
| | - P Morand
- Virologie, CHU Grenoble Alpes, 38700 La Tronche, France
| | - R Buzelé
- Médecine interne, centre hospitalier de Saint-Brieuc, 22027 Saint-Brieuc, France
| | - Y Crabol
- Médecine interne, centre hospitalier Vannes-Aufray, 56000 Vannes, France
| | - J P Stahl
- Maladies infectieuses, CHU Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble - "European Study Group for the Infections of the Brain (ESGIB)", 38700 La Tronche, France.
| | - A Mailles
- Direction des maladies infectieuses, santé publique France - "European Study Group for the Infections of the Brain (ESGIB)", 94410 Saint-Maurice, France
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4
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Openshaw JJ, Hegde S, Sazzad HMS, Khan SU, Hossain MJ, Epstein JH, Daszak P, Gurley ES, Luby SP. Increased Morbidity and Mortality in Domestic Animals Eating Dropped and Bitten Fruit in Bangladeshi Villages: Implications for Zoonotic Disease Transmission. ECOHEALTH 2016; 13:39-48. [PMID: 26668032 PMCID: PMC4940180 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-015-1080-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We used data on feeding practices and domestic animal health gathered from 207 Bangladeshi villages to identify any association between grazing dropped fruit found on the ground or owners directly feeding bat- or bird-bitten fruit and animal health. We compared mortality and morbidity in domestic animals using a mixed effects model controlling for village clustering, herd size, and proxy measures of household wealth. Thirty percent of household heads reported that their animals grazed on dropped fruit and 20% reported that they actively fed bitten fruit to their domestic herds. Household heads allowing their cattle to graze on dropped fruit were more likely to report an illness within their herd (adjusted prevalence ratio 1.17, 95% CI 1.02-1.31). Household heads directly feeding goats bitten fruit were more likely to report illness (adjusted prevalence ratio 1.35, 95% CI 1.16-1.57) and deaths (adjusted prevalence ratio 1.64, 95% CI 1.13-2.4). Reporting of illnesses and deaths among goats rose as the frequency of feeding bitten fruit increased. One possible explanation for this finding is the transmission of bat pathogens to domestic animals via bitten fruit consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Openshaw
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Dr, Lane L134, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Sonia Hegde
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Hossain M S Sazzad
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Salah Uddin Khan
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - M Jahangir Hossain
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | | | - Emily S Gurley
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- International Center for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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5
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Britton PN, Eastwood K, Paterson B, Durrheim DN, Dale RC, Cheng AC, Kenedi C, Brew BJ, Burrow J, Nagree Y, Leman P, Smith DW, Read K, Booy R, Jones CA. Consensus guidelines for the investigation and management of encephalitis in adults and children in Australia and New Zealand. Intern Med J 2016; 45:563-76. [PMID: 25955462 DOI: 10.1111/imj.12749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Encephalitis is a complex neurological syndrome caused by inflammation of the brain parenchyma. The management of encephalitis is challenging because: the differential diagnosis of encephalopathy is broad; there is often rapid disease progression; it often requires intensive supportive management; and there are many aetiologic agents for which there is no definitive treatment. Patients with possible meningoencephalitis are often encountered in the emergency care environment where clinicians must consider differential diagnoses, perform appropriate investigations and initiate empiric antimicrobials. For patients who require admission to hospital and in whom encephalitis is likely, a staged approach to investigation and management is preferred with the potential involvement of multiple medical specialties. Key considerations in the investigation and management of patients with encephalitis addressed in this guideline include: Which first-line investigations should be performed?; Which aetiologies should be considered possible based on clinical features, risk factors and radiological features?; What tests should be arranged in order to diagnose the common causes of encephalitis?; When to consider empiric antimicrobials and immune modulatory therapies?; and What is the role of brain biopsy?
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Affiliation(s)
- P N Britton
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health and Marie Bashir Institute for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - K Eastwood
- Health Protection, Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.,Biopreparedness, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - B Paterson
- Biopreparedness, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - D N Durrheim
- Biopreparedness, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - R C Dale
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health and Marie Bashir Institute for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Neurology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - A C Cheng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - C Kenedi
- Departments of, General Medicine, Auckland City Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand, USA.,Liaison Psychiatry, Auckland City Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand, USA.,Department of Medicine and Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - B J Brew
- St Vincent's Centre for applied medical research, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Neurology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - J Burrow
- Department of Neurology, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Y Nagree
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.,Emergency Department, Fremantle Hospital, Fremantle, Western Australia, Australia
| | - P Leman
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.,Emergency Department, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, Australia
| | - D W Smith
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - K Read
- Department of Infectious Diseases, North Shore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand, USA
| | - R Booy
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health and Marie Bashir Institute for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia.,National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - C A Jones
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health and Marie Bashir Institute for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
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6
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EASTWOOD K, PATERSON BJ, LEVI C, GIVNEY R, LOEWENTHAL M, DE MALMANCHE T, LAI K, GRANEROD J, DURRHEIM DN. Adult encephalitis surveillance: experiences from an Australian prospective sentinel site study. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 143:3300-7. [PMID: 25865518 PMCID: PMC9150937 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268815000527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Few countries routinely collect comprehensive encephalitis data, yet understanding the epidemiology of this condition has value for clinical management, detecting novel and emerging pathogens, and guiding timely public health interventions. When this study was conducted there was no standardized diagnostic algorithm to aid identification of encephalitis or systematic surveillance for adult encephalitis. In July 2012 we tested three pragmatic surveillance options aimed at identifying possible adult encephalitis cases admitted to a major Australian hospital: hospital admissions searches, clinician notifications and laboratory test alerts (CSF herpes simplex virus requests). Eligible cases underwent structured laboratory investigation and a specialist panel arbitrated on the final diagnosis. One hundred and thirteen patients were initially recruited into the 10-month study; 20/113 (18%) met the study case definition, seven were diagnosed with infectious or immune-mediated encephalitis and the remainder were assigned alternative diagnoses. The laboratory alert identified 90% (102/113) of recruited cases including six of the seven cases of confirmed encephalitis suggesting that this may be a practical data source for case ascertainment. The application of a standardized diagnostic algorithm and specialist review by an expert clinical panel aided diagnosis of patients with encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. EASTWOOD
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - B. J. PATERSON
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - C. LEVI
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - R. GIVNEY
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Pathology North, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - M. LOEWENTHAL
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - T. DE MALMANCHE
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Pathology North, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - K. LAI
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | | | - D. N. DURRHEIM
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
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7
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Britton PN, Dale RC, Booy R, Jones CA. Acute encephalitis in children: Progress and priorities from an Australasian perspective. J Paediatr Child Health 2015; 51:147-58. [PMID: 24953748 DOI: 10.1111/jpc.12650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitis is a complex neurological syndrome caused by inflammation of the brain that occurs with highest incidence in children. It is challenging to diagnose and manage due to the variety of aetiologies and non-specific clinical presentations. We discuss the recent progress in clinical case definitions; review recent, large, prospective epidemiological studies; and describe aetiologies. We emphasise infectious causes relevant to children in Australasia but also consider emerging immune-mediated syndromes responsive to immune therapies. We identify priorities for future research in children, given the potential for climate change and international travel to influence the emergence of infectious agents in our region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip N Britton
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity (MBI), University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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8
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to describe new features on the epidemiology of encephalitis world-wide. As this neurological presentation is most frequently related to transmitted viruses, surveillance of encephalitis is of major importance to detect their emergence or re-emergence. RECENT FINDINGS Rabies causes one of the most severe types of encephalitis as it is lethal in all cases, and it is endemic in some countries. It was thought that the virus had been eradicated in Western Europe, but it re-emerged in Greece and Italy. Physicians should be aware of this diagnosis in the case of severe encephalitis. Some viruses (Powassan, Nipah, and Hendra) are becoming endemic in some new parts of the world (USA and Australia). Because of their severity, they are healthcare concerns in those countries and for travelers (e.g. in Asia). Finally, a concept is emerging: herpes simplex virus is suspected to be a trigger for autoimmune encephalitis. This is of major importance for the future management of patients (corticosteroids early in the course of the disease?), and the epidemiology of sequelae. SUMMARY Encephalitis is a good marker for the detection of emerging infections. New findings about the relationship between herpes simplex virus encephalitis and autoimmune encephalitis open a new concept for a better management of patients.
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Paterson BJ, Butler MT, Eastwood K, Cashman PM, Jones A, Durrheim DN. Cross sectional survey of human-bat interaction in Australia: public health implications. BMC Public Health 2014; 14:58. [PMID: 24443960 PMCID: PMC3908316 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flying foxes (megachiroptera) and insectivorous microbats (microchiroptera) are the known reservoirs for a range of recently emerged, highly pathogenic viruses. In Australia there is public health concern relating to bats' role as reservoirs of Australian Bat Lyssavirus (ABLV), which has clinical features identical to classical rabies. Three deaths from ABLV have occurred in Australia. A survey was conducted to determine the frequency of bat exposures amongst adults in Australia's most populous state, New South Wales; explore reasons for handling bats; examine reported practices upon encountering injured or trapped bats or experiencing bat bites or scratches; and investigate knowledge of bat handling warnings. METHODS A representative sample of 821 New South Wales adults aged 16 years and older were interviewed during May and June 2011, using a computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) method. Frequencies, proportions and statistical differences in proportion were performed. Using an α-value of 0.05 and power of 80%, it was calculated that a sample size of 800 was required to provide statistical significance of +/- 5% for dichotomous variables. RESULTS One-hundred-and-twenty-seven (15.5%) respondents indicated that they had previously handled a bat, being 22% (48/218) rural and 13% (78/597) urban respondents (χ2 = 9.8, p = 0.0018). Twenty one percent of males (63/304) had handled bats compared with 12% (64/517) of females (χ2 = 10.2, p = 0.0014). Overall, 42.0% (n = 345) of respondents reported having seen or heard a warning about handling bats. If faced with an injured or trapped bat, 25% (206/821) indicated that they would handle the bat, with 17% (36/206) saying that they would use their bare hands. For minor scratches, 14% (117/821) indicated that they would ignore the injury while four respondents would ignore major scratches or bites. CONCLUSIONS Previous human-bat interactions were relatively common. Bat exposures most frequently occurred with sick or injured bats, which have the highest risk of ABLV. On encountering an injured or sick bat, potentially high risk practices were commonly reported, particularly among rural males. It is important to understand why people still handle bats despite public health warnings to inform future communication strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverley J Paterson
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
| | | | - Keith Eastwood
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, Australia
| | | | - Alison Jones
- Graduate School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - David N Durrheim
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, Australia
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10
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Mann RA, Fegan M, O'Riley K, Motha J, Warner S. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Murray Valley encephalitis virus and West Nile virus (Kunjin subtype) from an arbovirus disease outbreak in horses in Victoria, Australia, in 2011. J Vet Diagn Invest 2013; 25:35-44. [PMID: 23345269 DOI: 10.1177/1040638712467985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus was detected in the central nervous system (CNS) tissue of 11 horses from Victoria that died displaying neurological symptoms during an outbreak of disease in Australia in 2011. Five horses were identified as being infected with Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) and 6 as being infected with West Nile virus subtype Kunjin (WNV(KUN)). Analysis of partial sequence information from the NS5 and E genes indicated that the MVEVs within the samples were highly homogenous and all belonged to lineage I, which is enzootic to the tropical regions of northern Australia. Likewise, analysis of partial NS5 and E gene and full genome sequences indicated that the WNV(KUN) within the samples were also highly homogenous and clustered with WNV lineage 1, clade b, which is consistent with other WNV(KUN) isolates. Full genomes of 1 MVEV isolate and 2 WNV(KUN) isolates were sequenced and characterized. The genome sequences of Victorian WNV(KUN) are almost identical (3 amino acid differences) to that of the recently sequenced WNV isolate WNV(NSW2011). Metagenome sequencing directly from CNS tissue identified the presence of WNV(KUN) and MVEV within infected CNS tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Mann
- Biosciences Research Division, Department of Primary Industries, AgriBio, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
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11
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Liu S, Li X, Chen Z, Chen Y, Zhang Q, Liao Y, Zhou J, Ke X, Ma L, Xiao J, Wu Y, Chen Z, Zhou J, Zheng X, Li J, Chen Q. Comparison of genomic and amino acid sequences of eight Japanese encephalitis virus isolates from bats. Arch Virol 2013; 158:2543-52. [PMID: 23836395 PMCID: PMC7086626 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1777-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We compared nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of eight Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) isolates derived from bats in China. We also compared the bat JEV isolates with other JEV isolates available from GenBank to determine their genetic similarity. We found a high genetic homogeneity among the bat JEVs isolated in different geographical areas from various bat species at different time periods. All eight bat JEV isolates belonged to genotype III. The mean evolutionary rate of bat JEV isolates was lower than those of isolates of other origin, but this difference was not statistically significant. Based on these results, we presume that the bat JEV isolates might be evolutionarily conserved. The eight bat JEV isolates were phylogenetically similar to mosquito BN19 and human Liyujie isolates of JEV. These results indicate that bats might be involved in natural cycle of JEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Liu
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Southern Medical University, 1838 Guangzhou North Road, Guangzhou, 510515, Guangdong, China
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12
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Adams RA, Pedersen SC. Threats to Bats and Educational Challenges. BAT EVOLUTION, ECOLOGY, AND CONSERVATION 2013:363-391. [PMCID: PMC7121850 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-7397-8_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Like most animals, bats are threatened by habitat loss and degradation. However, they are also uniquely threatened almost universally by humans. In this chapter, I will emphasize the educational issues I believe will be most important to the next generation of bat conservationists. Though threat levels and possible solutions vary widely, the importance of addressing unfounded fear cannot be ignored. Putting disease concerns in perspective has been essential throughout the history of bat conservation efforts and is currently a resurgent issue that threatens the educational progress that has been made in recent decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick A. Adams
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado USA
| | - Scott C. Pedersen
- Department of Biology, South Dakota State, Brookings, South Dakota USA
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Abstract
Hendra virus, first identified in 1994 in Queensland, is an emerging zoonotic pathogen gaining importance in Australia because a growing number of infections are reported in horses and people. The virus, a member of the family Paramyxoviridae (genus Henipavirus), is transmitted to horses by pteropid bats (fruit bats or flying foxes), with human infection a result of direct contact with infected horses. Case-fatality rate is high in both horses and people, and so far, more than 60 horses and four people have died from Hendra virus infection in Australia. Human infection is characterised by an acute encephalitic syndrome or relapsing encephalitis, for which no effective treatment is currently available. Recent identification of Hendra virus infection in a domestic animal outside the laboratory setting, and the large range of pteropid bats in Australia, underpins the potential of this virus to cause greater morbidity and mortality in both rural and urban populations and its importance to both veterinary and human health. Attempts at treatment with ribavirin and chloroquine have been unsuccessful. Education, hygiene, and infection control measures have hitherto been the mainstay of prevention, while access to monoclonal antibody treatment and development of an animal vaccine offer further opportunities for disease prevention and control.
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