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Motovilov KA, Mostert AB. Melanin: Nature's 4th bioorganic polymer. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:5635-5651. [PMID: 39012013 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00491d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
The pigments known as the melanins are widely recognized for their responsibility in the coloration of human skin, eyes, hair, and minimising the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet radiation. But specialists are aware that the melanins are present in all living kingdoms, barring viruses, and have functionality that extends beyond neutralizing ionising radiation. The ubiquitous presence of melanin in almost all human organs, recognized in recent years, as well as the presence of melanin in organisms that are evolutionarily distant from each other, indicate the fundamental importance of this class of material for all life forms. In this review, we argue for the need to accept melanins as the fourth primordial class of biological polymers, along with nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides. We consistently compare the properties of these canonical biological polymers with the properties of melanin and highlight key features that fundamentally distinguish melanins, their function and its mysteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Motovilov
- Center for Photonics and 2D Materials, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Institutsky Lane 9, Dolgoprudny 141701, Moscow Region, Russia.
| | - A B Mostert
- Department of Physics and Centre for Integrative Semiconductor Materials, Swansea University Bay Campus, Fabian Way, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
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Currim F, Tanwar R, Brown-Leung JM, Paranjape N, Liu J, Sanders LH, Doorn JA, Cannon JR. Selective dopaminergic neurotoxicity modulated by inherent cell-type specific neurobiology. Neurotoxicology 2024; 103:266-287. [PMID: 38964509 PMCID: PMC11288778 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2024.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Hallmark features of PD pathology are the formation of Lewy bodies in neuromelanin-containing dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), and the subsequent irreversible death of these neurons. Although genetic risk factors have been identified, around 90 % of PD cases are sporadic and likely caused by environmental exposures and gene-environment interaction. Mechanistic studies have identified a variety of chemical PD risk factors. PD neuropathology occurs throughout the brain and peripheral nervous system, but it is the loss of DAergic neurons in the SNpc that produce many of the cardinal motor symptoms. Toxicology studies have found specifically the DAergic neuron population of the SNpc exhibit heightened sensitivity to highly variable chemical insults (both in terms of chemical structure and mechanism of neurotoxic action). Thus, it has become clear that the inherent neurobiology of nigral DAergic neurons likely underlies much of this neurotoxic response to broad insults. This review focuses on inherent neurobiology of nigral DAergic neurons and how such neurobiology impacts the primary mechanism of neurotoxicity. While interactions with a variety of other cell types are important in disease pathogenesis, understanding how inherent DAergic biology contributes to selective sensitivity and primary mechanisms of neurotoxicity is critical to advancing the field. Specifically, key biological features of DAergic neurons that increase neurotoxicant susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatema Currim
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA
| | - Reeya Tanwar
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA
| | - Josephine M Brown-Leung
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA
| | - Neha Paranjape
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Jennifer Liu
- Departments of Neurology and Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Laurie H Sanders
- Departments of Neurology and Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Jonathan A Doorn
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Jason R Cannon
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47901, USA.
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Cai W, Wakamatsu K, Zucca FA, Wang Q, Yang K, Mohamadzadehonarvar N, Srivastava P, Tanaka H, Holly G, Casella L, Ito S, Zecca L, Chen X. DOPA pheomelanin is increased in nigral neuromelanin of Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2023; 223:102414. [PMID: 36746222 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2023.102414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Neuromelanin (NM) in dopaminergic neurons of human substantia nigra (SN) has a melanic component that consists of pheomelanin and eumelanin moieties and has been proposed as a key factor contributing to dopaminergic neuron vulnerability in Parkinson's disease (PD). While eumelanin is considered as an antioxidant, pheomelanin and related oxidative stress are associated with compromised drug and metal ion binding and melanoma risk. Using postmortem SN from patients with PD or Alzheimer's disease (AD) and unaffected controls, we identified increased L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) pheomelanin and increased ratios of dopamine (DA) pheomelanin markers to DA in PD SN compared to controls. Eumelanins derived from both DOPA and DA were reduced in PD group. In addition, we report an increase in DOPA pheomelanin relative to DA pheomelanin in PD SN. In AD SN, we observed unaltered melanin markers despite reduced DOPA compared to controls. Furthermore, synthetic DOPA pheomelanin induced neuronal cell death in vitro while synthetic DOPA eumelanin showed no significant effect on cell viability. Our findings provide insights into the different roles of pheomelanin and eumelanin in PD pathophysiology. We anticipate our study will lead to further investigations on pheomelanin and eumelanin individually as biomarkers and possibly therapeutic targets for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waijiao Cai
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, USA
| | - Kai Yang
- Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Niyaz Mohamadzadehonarvar
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, USA
| | - Pranay Srivastava
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, USA
| | - Hitomi Tanaka
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Health Sciences, Gifu University of Medical Science, Seki, Japan
| | - Gabriel Holly
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Luigi Casella
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Shosuke Ito
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Xiqun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, USA.
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Mokrzyński K, Sarna M, Sarna T. Photoreactivity and phototoxicity of experimentally photodegraded hair melanosomes from individuals of different skin phototypes. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B: BIOLOGY 2023; 243:112704. [PMID: 37030132 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2023.112704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Even though melanin is commonly viewed as natural photoprotectant, the pigment demonstrates residual photoreactivity, which under certain conditions could contribute to UVA-dependent melanomagenesis. Skin melanin is constantly exposed to external stressors, including solar radiation, which could induce photodegradation of the pigment. Although photodegradation of melanin pigments was studied in synthetic models and RPE melanosomes, photochemical and photobiological effects of experimental photodegradation of human skin melanin of different chemical composition remain unknown. In this work, melanosomes isolated from hair of individuals of different skin phototypes (I-III, V) were exposed to high-intensity violet light and its impact on physical and chemical properties of the pigments were analyzed using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), spectrophotometry and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Photoreactivity of photodegraded melanins was examined by EPR oximetry, EPR spin-trapping and time-resolved singlet oxygen phosphorescence. Antioxidant potential of the pigments was measured using the EPR DPPH assay. Cellular effect of the exposure of melanosome-loaded HaCaT cells to UV-Vis light was determined by MTT assay, JC-10 assay, and iodometric assay. The data revealed that experimental photodegradation increased photoreactivity of natural melanins, while decreasing their antioxidant capacity. Photodegraded melanin was responsible for higher cell death, a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and elevated levels of lipid hydroperoxides.
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Ito S, Napolitano A, Sarna T, Wakamatsu K. Iron and copper ions accelerate and modify dopamine oxidation to eumelanin: implications for neuromelanin genesis. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2023; 130:29-42. [PMID: 36527527 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-02574-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a precursor of neuromelanin (NM) synthesized in the substantia nigra of the brain. NM is known to contain considerable levels of Fe and Cu. However, how Fe and Cu ions affect DA oxidation to DA-eumelanin (DA-EM) and modify its structure is poorly understood. EMs were prepared from 500 µM DA, dopaminechrome (DAC), or 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI). Autoxidation was carried out in the absence or presence of 50 µM Fe(II) or Cu(II) at pH 7.4 and 37 ℃. EMs were characterized by Soluene-350 solubilization analyzing absorbances at 500 nm (A500) and 650 nm (A650) and alkaline hydrogen peroxide oxidation (AHPO) yielding various pyrrole carboxylic acids. Pyrrole-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid (PTeCA) served as a molecular marker of cross-linked DHI units. Importantly, Fe and Cu accelerated DA oxidation to DA-EM and DHI oxidation to DHI-EM several-fold, whereas these metals only weakly affected the production of DAC-EM. The A500 values indicated that DA-EM contains considerable portions of uncyclized DA units. Analysis of the A650/A500 ratios suggests that Fe and Cu caused some degradation of DHI units of DA-EM during 72-h incubation. Results with AHPO were consistent with the A500 values and additionally revealed that (1) DA-EM is less cross-linked than DAC-EM and DHI-EM and (2) Fe and Cu promote cross-linking of DHI units. In conclusion, Fe and Cu not only accelerate the oxidation of DA to DA-EM but also promote cross-linking and degradation of DHI units. These results help to understand how Fe and Cu in the brain affect the production and properties of NM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shosuke Ito
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan.
| | | | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
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Zucca FA, Capucciati A, Bellei C, Sarna M, Sarna T, Monzani E, Casella L, Zecca L. Neuromelanins in brain aging and Parkinson's disease: synthesis, structure, neuroinflammatory, and neurodegenerative role. IUBMB Life 2023; 75:55-65. [PMID: 35689524 PMCID: PMC10084223 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Neuromelanins are compounds accumulating in neurons of human and animal brain during aging, with neurons of substantia nigra and locus coeruleus having the highest levels of neuromelanins. These compounds have melanic, lipid, peptide, and inorganic components and are contained inside special autolysosomes. Neuromelanins can participate in neuroprotective or toxic processes occurring in Parkinson's disease according to cellular environment. Their synthesis depends on the concentration of cytosolic catechols and is a protective process since it prevents the toxic accumulation of catechols-derived reactive compounds. Neuromelanins can be neuroprotective also by binding reactive/toxic metals to produce stable and non-toxic complexes. Extraneuronal neuromelanin released by dying dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease activates microglia which generate reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and proinflammatory molecules, thus producing still neuroinflammation and neuronal death. Synthetic neuromelanins have been prepared with melanic, protein structure, and metal content closely mimicking the natural brain pigment, and these models are also able to activate microglia. Neuromelanins have different structure, synthesis, cellular/subcellular distribution, and role than melanins of hair, skin, and other tissues. The main common aspect between brain neuromelanin and peripheral melanin is the presence of eumelanin and/or pheomelanin moieties in their structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate (Milan), Italy
| | | | - Chiara Bellei
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate (Milan), Italy
| | - Michał Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Enrico Monzani
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Luigi Casella
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate (Milan), Italy
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The retinal pigmentation pathway in human albinism: Not so black and white. Prog Retin Eye Res 2022; 91:101091. [PMID: 35729001 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2022.101091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Albinism is a pigment disorder affecting eye, skin and/or hair. Patients usually have decreased melanin in affected tissues and suffer from severe visual abnormalities, including foveal hypoplasia and chiasmal misrouting. Combining our data with those of the literature, we propose a single functional genetic retinal signalling pathway that includes all 22 currently known human albinism disease genes. We hypothesise that defects affecting the genesis or function of different intra-cellular organelles, including melanosomes, cause syndromic forms of albinism (Hermansky-Pudlak (HPS) and Chediak-Higashi syndrome (CHS)). We put forward that specific melanosome impairments cause different forms of oculocutaneous albinism (OCA1-8). Further, we incorporate GPR143 that has been implicated in ocular albinism (OA1), characterised by a phenotype limited to the eye. Finally, we include the SLC38A8-associated disorder FHONDA that causes an even more restricted "albinism-related" ocular phenotype with foveal hypoplasia and chiasmal misrouting but without pigmentation defects. We propose the following retinal pigmentation pathway, with increasingly specific genetic and cellular defects causing an increasingly specific ocular phenotype: (HPS1-11/CHS: syndromic forms of albinism)-(OCA1-8: OCA)-(GPR143: OA1)-(SLC38A8: FHONDA). Beyond disease genes involvement, we also evaluate a range of (candidate) regulatory and signalling mechanisms affecting the activity of the pathway in retinal development, retinal pigmentation and albinism. We further suggest that the proposed pigmentation pathway is also involved in other retinal disorders, such as age-related macular degeneration. The hypotheses put forward in this report provide a framework for further systematic studies in albinism and melanin pigmentation disorders.
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Jian H, Zu P, Rao Y, Li W, Mou T, Lin J, Zhang F. Comparative analysis of melanin deposition between Chishui silky fowl and Taihe silky fowl. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2021.1981911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huafeng Jian
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Panyu Zu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yongchao Rao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Li
- Guizhou Province Management Station of Livestock Genetic Resources, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tenghui Mou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiadong Lin
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fuping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountainous Region, The Ministry of Education, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou Province Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Research Institute of Poultry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
- Guizhou University Science and Research Poultry Farm, Guiyang, People’s Republic of China
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Chen Q, Zhou D, Abdel-Malek Z, Zhang F, Goff PS, Sviderskaya EV, Wakamatsu K, Ito S, Gross SS, Zippin JH. Measurement of Melanin Metabolism in Live Cells by [U-13C]-L-Tyrosine Fate Tracing Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. J Invest Dermatol 2021; 141:1810-1818.e6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Lawana V, Um SY, Rochet JC, Turesky RJ, Shannahan JH, Cannon JR. Neuromelanin Modulates Heterocyclic Aromatic Amine-Induced Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity. Toxicol Sci 2021; 173:171-188. [PMID: 31562763 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are mutagens and potential human carcinogens. Our group and others have demonstrated that HAAs may also produce selective dopaminergic neurotoxicity, potentially relevant to Parkinson's disease (PD). The goal of this study was to elucidate mechanisms of HAA-induced neurotoxicity through examining a translational biochemical weakness of common PD models. Neuromelanin is a pigmented byproduct of dopamine metabolism that has been debated as being both neurotoxic and neuroprotective in PD. Importantly, neuromelanin is known to bind and potentially release dopaminergic neurotoxicants, including HAAs (eg, β-carbolines such as harmane). Binding of other HAA subclasses (ie, aminoimidazoaazarenes) to neuromelanin has not been investigated, nor has a specific role for neuromelanin in mediating HAA-induced neurotoxicity been examined. Thus, we investigated the role of neuromelanin in modulating HAA-induced neurotoxicity. We characterized melanin from Sepia officinalis and synthetic dopamine melanin, proposed neuromelanin analogs with similar biophysical properties. Using a cell-free assay, we demonstrated strong binding of harmane and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) to neuromelanin analogs. To increase cellular neuromelanin, we transfected SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with tyrosinase. Relative to controls, tyrosinase-expressing cells exhibited increased neuromelanin levels, cellular HAA uptake, cell toxicity, and oxidative damage. Given that typical cellular and rodent PD models form far lower neuromelanin levels than humans, there is a critical translational weakness in assessing HAA-neurotoxicity. The primary impacts of these results are identification of a potential mechanism by which HAAs accumulate in catecholaminergic neurons and support for the need to conduct neurotoxicity studies in systems forming neuromelanin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Lawana
- School of Health Sciences.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience
| | | | - Jean-Christophe Rochet
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - Robert J Turesky
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | | | - Jason R Cannon
- School of Health Sciences.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience
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11
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Wakamatsu K, Zippin JH, Ito S. Chemical and biochemical control of skin pigmentation with special emphasis on mixed melanogenesis. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2021; 34:730-747. [PMID: 33751833 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Melanins are widely distributed in animals and plants; in vertebrates, most melanins are present on the body surface. The diversity of pigmentation in vertebrates is mainly attributed to the quantity and ratio of eumelanin and pheomelanin synthesis. Most natural melanin pigments in animals consist of both eumelanin and pheomelanin in varying ratios, and thus, their combined synthesis is called "mixed melanogenesis." Gene expression is an established mechanism for controlling melanin synthesis; however, there are multiple factors that affect melanin synthesis besides gene expression. Due to the differential sensitivity of the eumelanin and pheomelanin synthetic pathways to pH, melanosomal pH likely plays a major role in mixed melanogenesis. Here, we focused on various factors affecting mixed melanogenesis including (1) chemical regulation of melanin synthesis, (2) melanosomal pH regulation during normal melanogenesis and effect on mixed melanogenesis, and (3) mechanisms of melanosomal pH control (proton pumps, channels, transporters, and signaling pathways).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Jonathan H Zippin
- Department of Dermatology, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shosuke Ito
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Japan
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12
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Cao W, Zhou X, McCallum NC, Hu Z, Ni QZ, Kapoor U, Heil CM, Cay KS, Zand T, Mantanona AJ, Jayaraman A, Dhinojwala A, Deheyn DD, Shawkey MD, Burkart MD, Rinehart JD, Gianneschi NC. Unraveling the Structure and Function of Melanin through Synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:2622-2637. [PMID: 33560127 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c12322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Melanin is ubiquitous in living organisms across different biological kingdoms of life, making it an important, natural biomaterial. Its presence in nature from microorganisms to higher animals and plants is attributed to the many functions of melanin, including pigmentation, radical scavenging, radiation protection, and thermal regulation. Generally, melanin is classified into five types-eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin, allomelanin, and pyomelanin-based on the various chemical precursors used in their biosynthesis. Despite its long history of study, the exact chemical makeup of melanin remains unclear, and it moreover has an inherent diversity and complexity of chemical structure, likely including many functions and properties that remain to be identified. Synthetic mimics have begun to play a broader role in unraveling structure and function relationships of natural melanins. In the past decade, polydopamine, which has served as the conventional form of synthetic eumelanin, has dominated the literature on melanin-based materials, while the synthetic analogues of other melanins have received far less attention. In this perspective, we will discuss the synthesis of melanin materials with a special focus beyond polydopamine. We will emphasize efforts to elucidate biosynthetic pathways and structural characterization approaches that can be harnessed to interrogate specific structure-function relationships, including electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) spectroscopy. We believe that this timely Perspective will introduce this class of biopolymer to the broader chemistry community, where we hope to stimulate new opportunities in novel, melanin-based poly-functional synthetic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Qing Zhe Ni
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Utkarsh Kapoor
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Colburn Laboratory, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Christian M Heil
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Colburn Laboratory, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Kristine S Cay
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Tara Zand
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Alex J Mantanona
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Arthi Jayaraman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Colburn Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Ali Dhinojwala
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Dimitri D Deheyn
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093-0202, United States
| | - Matthew D Shawkey
- Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Department of Biology, The University of Ghent, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Michael D Burkart
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jeffrey D Rinehart
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nathan C Gianneschi
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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13
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The Neuromelanin Paradox and Its Dual Role in Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10010124. [PMID: 33467040 PMCID: PMC7829956 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10010124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is associated with an increasing dysfunction of key brain homeostasis mechanisms and represents the main risk factor across most neurodegenerative disorders. However, the degree of dysregulation and the affectation of specific pathways set apart normal aging from neurodegenerative disorders. In particular, the neuronal metabolism of catecholaminergic neurotransmitters appears to be a specifically sensitive pathway that is affected in different neurodegenerations. In humans, catecholaminergic neurons are characterized by an age-related accumulation of neuromelanin (NM), rendering the soma of the neurons black. This intracellular NM appears to serve as a very efficient quencher for toxic molecules. However, when a neuron degenerates, NM is released together with its load (many undegraded cellular components, transition metals, lipids, xenobiotics) contributing to initiate and worsen an eventual immune response, exacerbating the oxidative stress, ultimately leading to the neurodegenerative process. This review focuses on the analysis of the role of NM in normal aging and neurodegeneration related to its capabilities as an antioxidant and scavenging of harmful molecules, versus its involvement in oxidative stress and aberrant immune response, depending on NM saturation state and its extracellular release.
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14
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Chrissian C, Camacho E, Kelly JE, Wang H, Casadevall A, Stark RE. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy identifies three classes of lipids in Cryptococcus neoformans melanized cell walls and whole fungal cells. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:15083-15096. [PMID: 32859751 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.015201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A primary virulence-associated trait of the opportunistic fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans is the production of melanin pigments that are deposited into the cell wall and interfere with the host immune response. Previously, our solid-state NMR studies of isolated melanized cell walls (melanin "ghosts") revealed that the pigments are strongly associated with lipids, but their identities, origins, and potential roles were undetermined. Herein, we exploited spectral editing techniques to identify and quantify the lipid molecules associated with pigments in melanin ghosts. The lipid profiles were remarkably similar in whole C. neoformans cells, grown under either melanizing or nonmelanizing conditions; triglycerides (TGs), sterol esters (SEs), and polyisoprenoids (PPs) were the major constituents. Although no quantitative differences were found between melanized and nonmelanized cells, melanin ghosts were relatively enriched in SEs and PPs. In contrast to lipid structures reported during early stages of fungal growth in nutrient-rich media, variants found herein could be linked to nutrient stress, cell aging, and subsequent production of substances that promote chronic fungal infections. The fact that TGs and SEs are the typical cargo of lipid droplets suggests that these organelles could be connected to C. neoformans melanin synthesis. Moreover, the discovery of PPs is intriguing because dolichol is a well-established constituent of human neuromelanin. The presence of these lipid species even in nonmelanized cells suggests that they could be produced constitutively under stress conditions in anticipation of melanin synthesis. These findings demonstrate that C. neoformans lipids are more varied compositionally and functionally than previously recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Chrissian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, City College of New York, New York, New York, USA; Ph.D. Program in Biochemistry, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
| | - Emma Camacho
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - John E Kelly
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, City College of New York, New York, New York, USA
| | - Hsin Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, City College of New York, New York, New York, USA
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ruth E Stark
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, City College of New York, New York, New York, USA; Ph.D. Program in Biochemistry, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, New York, USA; Ph.D. Program in Chemistry, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, New York, USA.
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15
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Ye Q, Wen Y, Al-Kuwari N, Chen X. Association Between Parkinson's Disease and Melanoma: Putting the Pieces Together. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:60. [PMID: 32210791 PMCID: PMC7076116 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) generally have reduced risk of developing many types of cancers, except melanoma—a malignant tumor of melanin-producing cells in the skin. For decades, a large number of epidemiological studies have reported that the occurrence of melanoma is higher than expected among subjects with PD, and the occurrence of PD is reciprocally higher than expected among patients with melanoma. More recent epidemiological studies further indicated a bidirectional association, not only in the patients themselves but also in their relatives. This association between PD and melanoma offers a unique opportunity to understand PD. Here, we summarize epidemiological, clinical, and biological evidence in regard to shared risk factors and possible underlying mechanisms for these two seemingly distinct conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Ye
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ya Wen
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Ietheory Institute, Burlington, MA, United States
| | - Nasser Al-Kuwari
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xiqun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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16
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Roy A, Pittman M, Saitta ET, Kaye TG, Xu X. Recent advances in amniote palaeocolour reconstruction and a framework for future research. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:22-50. [PMID: 31538399 PMCID: PMC7004074 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Preserved melanin pigments have been discovered in fossilised integumentary appendages of several amniote lineages (fishes, frogs, snakes, marine reptiles, non-avialan dinosaurs, birds, and mammals) excavated from lagerstätten across the globe. Melanisation is a leading factor in organic integument preservation in these fossils. Melanin in extant vertebrates is typically stored in rod- to sphere-shaped, lysosome-derived, membrane-bound vesicles called melanosomes. Black, dark brown, and grey colours are produced by eumelanin, and reddish-brown colours are produced by phaeomelanin. Specific morphotypes and nanostructural arrangements of melanosomes and their relation to the keratin matrix in integumentary appendages create the so-called 'structural colours'. Reconstruction of colour patterns in ancient animals has opened an exciting new avenue for studying their life, behaviour and ecology. Modern relationships between the shape, arrangement, and size of avian melanosomes, melanin chemistry, and feather colour have been applied to reconstruct the hues and colour patterns of isolated feathers and plumages of the dinosaurs Anchiornis, Sinosauropteryx, and Microraptor in seminal papers that initiated the field of palaeocolour reconstruction. Since then, further research has identified countershading camouflage patterns, and informed subsequent predictions on the ecology and behaviour of these extinct animals. However, palaeocolour reconstruction remains a nascent field, and current approaches have considerable potential for further refinement, standardisation, and expansion. This includes detailed study of non-melanic pigments that might be preserved in fossilised integuments. A common issue among existing palaeocolour studies is the lack of contextualisation of different lines of evidence and the wide variety of techniques currently employed. To that end, this review focused on fossil amniotes: (i) produces an overarching framework that appropriately reconstructs palaeocolour by accounting for the chemical signatures of various pigments, morphology and local arrangement of pigment-bearing vesicles, pigment concentration, macroscopic colour patterns, and taphonomy; (ii) provides background context for the evolution of colour-producing mechanisms; and (iii) encourages future efforts in palaeocolour reconstructions particularly of less-studied groups such as non-dinosaur archosaurs and non-archosaur amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Roy
- Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory, Department of Earth SciencesThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong Kong SARChina
| | - Michael Pittman
- Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory, Department of Earth SciencesThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong Kong SARChina
| | - Evan T. Saitta
- Integrative Research Center, Section of Earth SciencesField Museum of Natural History1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, ChicagoIL60605U.S.A.
| | - Thomas G. Kaye
- Foundation for Scientific Advancement7023 Alhambra Drive, Sierra VistaAZ85650U.S.A.
| | - Xing Xu
- Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and PaleoanthropologyChinese Academy of Sciences142 Xizhimenwai Street.Beijing100044China
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17
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18
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Yao L, Bao A, Hong W, Hou C, Zhang Z, Liang X, Aniwashi J. Transcriptome profiling analysis reveals key genes of different coat color in sheep skin. PeerJ 2019; 7:e8077. [PMID: 31772839 PMCID: PMC6875393 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To investigate the molecular mechanisms determining the coat color of native breed sheep in Xinjiang. Methods Bashibai sheep, Yemule white sheep and Tulufan black sheep were selected. Illumina HiSeq X Ten sequencing technology was used to detect the genes responsible for the white, light brown, black and cyan gray coat colors in sheep. Sequence analysis and functional gene annotation analysis were performed to analyze the results. The signal pathways and differentially expressed genes related to sheep hair color production regulation were screened and finally verified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results Functional annotation by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis revealed significant differences in enrichment of immunity-related pathways as well as melanogenesis synthetic and tyrosine metabolism pathways. Our results showed that the DCT, TYR, TYRP1, PMEL, SLC45A2 and MLANA six genes may be associated with the regulation of coat color development and provide a theoretical basis for selecting natural coat colors of sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidan Yao
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Aodungerile Bao
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Wenjuan Hong
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Chenxi Hou
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Zhenliang Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Xiaopeng Liang
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
| | - Jueken Aniwashi
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China
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19
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Slc7a11 Modulated by POU2F1 is Involved in Pigmentation in Rabbit. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20102493. [PMID: 31137576 PMCID: PMC6566412 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Solute carrier family 7 member 11 (Slc7a11) is a cystine/glutamate xCT transporter that controls the production of pheomelanin pigment to change fur and skin color in animals. Previous studies have found that skin expression levels of Slc7a11 varied significantly with fur color in Rex rabbits. However, the molecular regulation mechanism of Slc7a11 in pigmentation is unknown. Here, rabbit melanocytes were first isolated and identified. The distribution and expression pattern of Slc7a11 was confirmed in skin from rabbits with different fur colors. Slc7a11 affected the expression of pigmentation related genes and thus affected melanogenesis. Meanwhile, Slc7a11 decreased melanocyte apoptosis, but inhibition of Slc7a11 enhanced apoptosis. Furthermore, the POU2F1 protein was found to bind to the −713 to −703 bp region of Slc7a11 promoter to inhibit its activity in a dual-luciferase reporter and site-directed mutagenesis assay. This study reveals the function of the Slc7a11 in melanogenesis and provides in-depth analysis of the mechanism of fur pigmentation.
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20
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Xing Y, Sapuan A, Dineen RA, Auer DP. Life span pigmentation changes of the substantia nigra detected by neuromelanin-sensitive MRI. Mov Disord 2018; 33:1792-1799. [PMID: 30423212 PMCID: PMC6659388 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Neuromelanin is a pigment with strong iron‐chelating properties preferentially found in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Parkinson's disease is characterized by pronounced, MRI‐detectable neuromelanin loss, but the neuroprotective or neurotoxic role of neuromelanin remains debated. Histological studies have demonstrated neuromelanin increases with age, but this has not been confirmed in vivo, and there is uncertainty whether neuromelanin declines, stabilizes, or increases from middle age. Methods: This study aimed to establish physiological changes of pigmentation of the SNpc using a pooled data set of neuromelanin‐sensitive 3T MRI from 134 healthy individuals aged 5‐83 years. Neuromelanin‐related brightness (regional contrast to ratio) and calibrated hyperintense volumes were analyzed using linear and nonlinear regression models to characterize age effects. Laterality, sex, and subregional effects were also assessed. Results: For brightness, age effects were best described as a quadratic trajectory explaining 81.5% of the observed variance in the SNpc showing a strong increase from childhood to adolescence, with plateauing in middle age and a decline in older age. Similar but less pronounced effects were seen in hyperintense volumes. We also show an anterior‐posterior gradient in SNpc contrast, larger normalized neuromelanin‐rich volume in women > 47 years old, but no laterality effect. Conclusions: Using optimized neuromelanin MRI in a life span sample, we demonstrate a strong age effect with inverted U‐shaped SNpc pigmentation‐related contrast from childhood to old age. This age trajectory of physiological SNpc pigmentation needs to be taken into account for diagnostic applications of depigmentation. The study also paves the way for systematic investigations of the mechanisms of neuromelanin in healthy and pathological brain development and aging. © 2018 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xing
- Radiological Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Abdul Sapuan
- Radiological Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Rob A Dineen
- Radiological Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Nottingham NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Dorothee P Auer
- Radiological Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.,Nottingham NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham, UK
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21
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Hong S, Wang Y, Park SY, Lee H. Progressive fuzzy cation-π assembly of biological catecholamines. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaat7457. [PMID: 30202784 PMCID: PMC6128673 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat7457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Biological functions depend on biomolecular assembly processes. Assemblies of lipid bilayers, actins, microtubules, or chromosomes are indispensable for cellular functions. These hierarchical assembly processes are reasonably predictable by understanding chemical structures of the defined building blocks and their interactions. However, biopigment assembly is rather fuzzy and unpredictable because a series of covalently coupled intermediates from catecholamine oxidation pathways progressively form a higher-level hierarchy. This study reports a different yet unexplored type of assembly process named "cation-π progressive assembly." We demonstrated for the first time that the cation-π is the primary mechanism for intermolecular assembly in dopamine-melanin biopigment. We also found that the self-assembled products physically grow and chemically gain new functions "progressively" over time in which cation-π plays important roles. The progressive assembly explains how biological systems produce wide spectra of pigment colors and broad wavelength absorption through energy-efficient processes. Furthermore, we also demonstrate surface-independent wettability control using cation-π progressive assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seonki Hong
- Department of Emerging Materials Science, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, 333 Techno Jungang-daero, Hyeonpung-myeon, Dalseong-gun, Daegu 42988, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. (H.L.); (S.H.)
| | - Younseon Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Young Park
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungju 380-702, Republic of Korea
| | - Haeshin Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. (H.L.); (S.H.)
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22
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Rourk CJ. Ferritin and neuromelanin "quantum dot" array structures in dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus. Biosystems 2018; 171:48-58. [PMID: 30048795 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In this review, the author shows that ferritin has documented quantum dot material properties that have been reported in numerous independent studies, and can enable quantum mechanical electron transport over substantial distances. In addition, neuromelanin is a pi-conjugated polymer, and quantum dot/pi-conjugated polymer combinations have been reported in numerous independent studies to facilitate electron transport for solar photovoltaic and other applications. Both ferritin and neuromelanin are present in large quantities in the dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compactaand the norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus. The unique structure of subgroups of these neurons that have a large number of axon branches and synapses may have evolved to take advantage of this electron transport mechanism, if it is present, such as to coordinate conscious action, or for other purposes. Independent clinical and laboratory studies are also reviewed that corroborate this theory of coordinated action in these neuron groups. Research to validate the theory using charge transport measurements, materials characterization, existing fluorescent probe material and reaction time testing is proposed.
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23
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Barek H, Veraksa A, Sugumaran M. Drosophila melanogaster has the enzymatic machinery to make the melanic component of neuromelanin. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2018; 31:683-692. [PMID: 29741814 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In Drosophila, the same set of genes that are used for cuticle pigmentation and sclerotization are present in the nervous system and are responsible for neurotransmitter recycling. In this study, we carried out biochemical analysis to determine whether insects have the enzymatic machinery to make melanic component of neuromelanin. We focused our attention on two key enzymes of melanogenesis, namely phenoloxidase and dopachrome decarboxylase/tautomerase. Activity staining of the proteins isolated from the Drosophila larval brain tissue, separated by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, indicated the presence of these two enzymes. Mass spectral sequence analysis of the band also supported this finding. To best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence of the enzymatic machinery to make melanin part of neuromelanin in any insect brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanine Barek
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alexey Veraksa
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Manickam Sugumaran
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
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24
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Temoçin Z, Kim E, Li J, Panzella L, Alfieri ML, Napolitano A, Kelly DL, Bentley WE, Payne GF. The Analgesic Acetaminophen and the Antipsychotic Clozapine Can Each Redox-Cycle with Melanin. ACS Chem Neurosci 2017; 8:2766-2777. [PMID: 28945963 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanins are ubiquitous but their complexity and insolubility has hindered characterization of their structures and functions. We are developing electrochemical reverse engineering methodologies that focus on properties and especially on redox properties. Previous studies have shown that melanins (i) are redox-active and can rapidly and repeatedly exchange electrons with diffusible oxidants and reductants, and (ii) have redox potentials in midregion of the physiological range. These properties suggest the functional activities of melanins will depend on their redox context. The brain has a complex redox context with steep local gradients in O2 that can promote redox-cycling between melanin and diffusible redox-active chemical species. Here, we performed in vitro reverse engineering studies and report that melanins can redox-cycle with two common redox-active drugs. Experimentally, we used two melanin models: a convenient natural melanin derived from cuttlefish (Sepia melanin) and a synthetic cysteinyldopamine-dopamine core-shell model of neuromelanin. One drug, acetaminophen (APAP), has been used clinically for over a century, and recent studies suggest that low doses of APAP can protect the brain from oxidative-stress-induced toxicity and neurodegeneration, while higher doses can have toxic effects in the brain. The second drug, clozapine (CLZ), is a second generation antipsychotic with polypharmacological activities that remain incompletely understood. These in vitro observations suggest that the redox activities of drugs may be relevant to their modes-of-action, and that melanins may interact with drugs in ways that affect their activities, metabolism, and toxicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zülfikar Temoçin
- Department
of Chemistry, Science and Arts Faculty, Kırıkkale University, Yahs̨ihan,71450 Kırıkkale, Turkey
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Eunkyoung Kim
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Jinyang Li
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Lucia Panzella
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Alfieri
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Deanna L. Kelly
- Maryland
Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21228, United States
| | - William E. Bentley
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gregory F. Payne
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, 5115 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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25
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Zucca FA, Segura-Aguilar J, Ferrari E, Muñoz P, Paris I, Sulzer D, Sarna T, Casella L, Zecca L. Interactions of iron, dopamine and neuromelanin pathways in brain aging and Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 155:96-119. [PMID: 26455458 PMCID: PMC4826627 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There are several interrelated mechanisms involving iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin in neurons. Neuromelanin accumulates during aging and is the catecholamine-derived pigment of the dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra and norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus, the two neuronal populations most targeted in Parkinson's disease. Many cellular redox reactions rely on iron, however an altered distribution of reactive iron is cytotoxic. In fact, increased levels of iron in the brain of Parkinson's disease patients are present. Dopamine accumulation can induce neuronal death; however, excess dopamine can be removed by converting it into a stable compound like neuromelanin, and this process rescues the cell. Interestingly, the main iron compound in dopamine and norepinephrine neurons is the neuromelanin-iron complex, since neuromelanin is an effective metal chelator. Neuromelanin serves to trap iron and provide neuronal protection from oxidative stress. This equilibrium between iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin is crucial for cell homeostasis and in some cellular circumstances can be disrupted. Indeed, when neuromelanin-containing organelles accumulate high load of toxins and iron during aging a neurodegenerative process can be triggered. In addition, neuromelanin released by degenerating neurons activates microglia and the latter cause neurons death with further release of neuromelanin, then starting a self-propelling mechanism of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Considering the above issues, age-related accumulation of neuromelanin in dopamine neurons shows an interesting link between aging and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Juan Segura-Aguilar
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Emanuele Ferrari
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Patricia Muñoz
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Irmgard Paris
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile; Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Santo Tomás University, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - David Sulzer
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Luigi Casella
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy.
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Martin-Bastida A, Pietracupa S, Piccini P. Neuromelanin in parkinsonian disorders: an update. Int J Neurosci 2017; 127:1116-1123. [PMID: 28460588 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2017.1325883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Neuromelanin (NM) is a dark pigment that accumulates linearly with aging in substantia nigra (SN) and locus coeruleus (LC). The dual protective and toxic role of NM has been hypothesized according to its intraneuronal or extraneuronal deposition. The melanized dopaminergic neurons in SN and LC seem to have special vulnerability to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). The paramagnetic properties of NM due to its association to metals like iron induce T1 prolongation; hence the measurement of SN-sensitive contrast could be a useful diagnostic biomarker in neurodegenerative disease like PD and other atypical parkinsonisms. This paper will review NM histopathology and neurochemistry studies in health and diseases and the role of imaging targeting NM load in parkinsonian disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Martin-Bastida
- a Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences , Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Sara Pietracupa
- b Department of Neurology , IRCCS Neuromed , Pozzilli , Italy
| | - Paola Piccini
- a Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences , Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom
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27
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Kim YO, You JM, Jang HS, Choi SK, Jung BY, Kang O, Kim JW, Lee YS. Eumelanin as a support for efficient palladium nanoparticle catalyst for Suzuki coupling reaction of aryl chlorides in water. Tetrahedron Lett 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2017.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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28
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Chen X, Feng D, Schwarzschild MA, Gao X. Red hair, MC1R variants, and risk for Parkinson's disease - a meta-analysis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2017; 4:212-216. [PMID: 28275654 PMCID: PMC5338132 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies have been conducted with mixed results since our initial report of increased Parkinson's disease risk in individuals with red hair and/or red hair‐associated p.R151C variant of the MC1R gene, both of which confer high melanoma risk. We performed a meta‐analysis of six publications on red hair, MC1R, and Parkinson's disease. We found that red hair (pooled odds ratios = 1.68, 95% confidence intervals: 1.07, 2.64) and p.R151C (pooled odds ratios = 1.10, 95% confidence intervals: 1.00, 1.21), but not p.R160W, were associated with greater risk for Parkinson's disease. Our results support potential roles of pigmentation and its key regulator MC1R in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiqun Chen
- Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease Department of Neurology Harvard Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital Boston 02129 Massachusetts; Shanghai 10th Hospital Tongji University School of Medicine Shanghai China
| | - Danielle Feng
- Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease Department of Neurology Harvard Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital Boston 02129 Massachusetts
| | - Michael A Schwarzschild
- Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease Department of Neurology Harvard Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital Boston 02129 Massachusetts
| | - Xiang Gao
- Department of Nutritional Sciences The Pennsylvania State University University Park 16802 Pennsylvania
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29
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Kim E, Leverage WT, Liu Y, Panzella L, Alfieri ML, Napolitano A, Bentley WE, Payne GF. Paraquat-Melanin Redox-Cycling: Evidence from Electrochemical Reverse Engineering. ACS Chem Neurosci 2016; 7:1057-67. [PMID: 27246915 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with oxidative stress and the death of melanin-containing neurons of the substantia nigra. Epidemiological evidence links exposure to the pesticide paraquat (PQ) to Parkinson's disease, and this link has been explained by a redox cycling mechanism that induces oxidative stress. Here, we used a novel electrochemistry-based reverse engineering methodology to test the hypothesis that PQ can undergo reductive redox cycling with melanin. In this method, (i) an insoluble natural melanin (from Sepia melanin) and a synthetic model melanin (having a cysteinyldopamine-melanin core and dopamine-melanin shell) were entrapped in a nonconducting hydrogel film adjacent to an electrode, (ii) the film-coated electrode was immersed in solutions containing PQ (putative redox cycling reductant) and a redox cycling oxidant (ferrocene dimethanol), (iii) sequences of input potentials (i.e., voltages) were imposed to the underlying electrode to systematically engage reductive and oxidative redox cycling, and (iv) output response currents were analyzed for signatures of redox cycling. The response characteristics of the PQ-melanin systems to various input potential sequences support the hypothesis that PQ can directly donate electrons to melanin. This observation of PQ-melanin redox interactions demonstrates an association between two components that have been individually linked to oxidative stress and Parkinson's disease. Potentially, melanin's redox activity could be an important component in understanding the etiology of neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunkyoung Kim
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - W. Taylor Leverage
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Yi Liu
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Lucia Panzella
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Alfieri
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - William E. Bentley
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gregory F. Payne
- Institute
for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Fischell
Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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30
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian M Menter
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Immunology Morehouse School of Medicine 720 Westview Drive SW Atlanta GA 30310 USA
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31
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d'Ischia M, Wakamatsu K, Cicoira F, Di Mauro E, Garcia-Borron JC, Commo S, Galván I, Ghanem G, Kenzo K, Meredith P, Pezzella A, Santato C, Sarna T, Simon JD, Zecca L, Zucca FA, Napolitano A, Ito S. Melanins and melanogenesis: from pigment cells to human health and technological applications. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2016; 28:520-44. [PMID: 26176788 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
During the past decade, melanins and melanogenesis have attracted growing interest for a broad range of biomedical and technological applications. The burst of polydopamine-based multifunctional coatings in materials science is just one example, and the list may be expanded to include melanin thin films for organic electronics and bioelectronics, drug delivery systems, functional nanoparticles and biointerfaces, sunscreens, environmental remediation devices. Despite considerable advances, applied research on melanins and melanogenesis is still far from being mature. A closer intersectoral interaction between research centers is essential to raise the interests and increase the awareness of the biomedical, biomaterials science and hi-tech sectors of the manifold opportunities offered by pigment cells and related metabolic pathways. Starting from a survey of biological roles and functions, the present review aims at providing an interdisciplinary perspective of melanin pigments and related pathway with a view to showing how it is possible to translate current knowledge about physical and chemical properties and control mechanisms into new bioinspired solutions for biomedical, dermocosmetic, and technological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco d'Ischia
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Fabio Cicoira
- Department of Chemical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Eduardo Di Mauro
- Department of Engineering Physics, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Stephane Commo
- L'Oréal Recherche & Innovation, Aulnay sous Bois, France
| | - Ismael Galván
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Estación Biológica de Doñana - CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Ghanem Ghanem
- LOCE, Institut J. Bordet, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Koike Kenzo
- Development Research - Hair Care Products, KAO Corporation, Sumida, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Paul Meredith
- Centre for Organic Photonics and Electronics, School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Alessandro Pezzella
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Clara Santato
- Department of Engineering Physics, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - John D Simon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies - National Research Council of Italy, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies - National Research Council of Italy, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Shosuke Ito
- Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
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32
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Kim E, Panzella L, Micillo R, Bentley WE, Napolitano A, Payne GF. Reverse Engineering Applied to Red Human Hair Pheomelanin Reveals Redox-Buffering as a Pro-Oxidant Mechanism. Sci Rep 2015; 5:18447. [PMID: 26669666 PMCID: PMC4680885 DOI: 10.1038/srep18447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pheomelanin has been implicated in the increased susceptibility to UV-induced melanoma for people with light skin and red hair. Recent studies identified a UV-independent pathway to melanoma carcinogenesis and implicated pheomelanin's pro-oxidant properties that act through the generation of reactive oxygen species and/or the depletion of cellular antioxidants. Here, we applied an electrochemically-based reverse engineering methodology to compare the redox properties of human hair pheomelanin with model synthetic pigments and natural eumelanin. This methodology exposes the insoluble melanin samples to complex potential (voltage) inputs and measures output response characteristics to assess redox activities. The results demonstrate that both eumelanin and pheomelanin are redox-active, they can rapidly (sec-min) and repeatedly redox-cycle between oxidized and reduced states, and pheomelanin possesses a more oxidative redox potential. This study suggests that pheomelanin's redox-based pro-oxidant activity may contribute to sustaining a chronic oxidative stress condition through a redox-buffering mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunkyoung Kim
- Institute for Biosystems and Biotechnology Research University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Lucia Panzella
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, I-80126 Naples (Italy)
| | - Raffaella Micillo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, I-80126 Naples (Italy)
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples “Federico II” – Via Pansini 5, I-80131 Naples, Italy
| | - William E. Bentley
- Institute for Biosystems and Biotechnology Research University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, I-80126 Naples (Italy)
| | - Gregory F. Payne
- Institute for Biosystems and Biotechnology Research University of Maryland 5115 Plant Sciences Building College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742, USA
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33
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Using Sepia melanin as a PD model to describe the binding characteristics of neuromelanin – A critical review. J Chem Neuroanat 2015; 64-65:20-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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34
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d’Ischia M, Napolitano A, Ball V, Chen CT, Buehler MJ. Polydopamine and eumelanin: from structure-property relationships to a unified tailoring strategy. Acc Chem Res 2014; 47:3541-50. [PMID: 25340503 DOI: 10.1021/ar500273y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 375] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
CONSPECTUS: Polydopamine (PDA), a black insoluble biopolymer produced by autoxidation of the catecholamine neurotransmitter dopamine (DA), and synthetic eumelanin polymers modeled to the black functional pigments of human skin, hair, and eyes have burst into the scene of materials science as versatile bioinspired functional systems for a very broad range of applications. PDA is characterized by extraordinary adhesion properties providing efficient and universal surface coating for diverse settings that include drug delivery, microfluidic systems, and water-treatment devices. Synthetic eumelanins from dopa or 5,6-dihydroxyindoles are the focus of increasing interest as UV-absorbing agents, antioxidants, free radical scavengers, and water-dependent hybrid electronic-ionic semiconductors. Because of their peculiar physicochemical properties, eumelanins and PDA hold considerable promise in nanomedicine and bioelectronics, as they are biocompatible, biodegradable, and exhibit suitable mechanical properties for integration with biological tissues. Despite considerable similarities, very few attempts have so far been made to provide an integrated unifying perspective of these two fields of technology-oriented chemical research, and progress toward application has been based more on empirical approaches than on a solid conceptual framework of structure-property relationships. The present Account is an attempt to fill this gap. Following a vis-à-vis of PDA and eumelanin chemistries, it provides an overall view of the various levels of chemical disorder in both systems and draws simple correlations with physicochemical properties based on experimental and computational approaches. The potential of large-scale simulations to capture the macroproperties of eumelanin-like materials and their hierarchical structures, to predict the physicochemical properties of new melanin-inspired materials, to understand the structure-property-function relationships of these materials from the bottom up, and to design and optimize materials to achieve desired properties is illustrated. The impact of synthetic conditions on melanin structure and physicochemical properties is systematically discussed for the first time. Rational tailoring strategies directed to critical control points of the synthetic pathways, such as dopaquinone, DAquinone, and dopachrome, are then proposed, with a view to translating basic chemical knowledge into practical guidelines for material manipulation and tailoring. This key concept is exemplified by the recent demonstration that varying DA concentration, or using Tris instead of phosphate as the buffer, results in PDA materials with quite different structural properties. Realizing that PDA and synthetic eumelanins belong to the same family of functional materials may foster unprecedented synergisms between research fields that have so far been apart in the pursuit of tailorable and marketable materials for energy, biomedical, and environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco d’Ischia
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department
of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia
4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Vincent Ball
- Faculty of
Dental Surgery, University of Strasbourg, 8 rue Sainte Elizabeth Strasbourg, FR 67070 Strasbourg, France
- Institut National
de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité
Mixte de Recherche 1121 11 rue Humann, 67085 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Chun-Teh Chen
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Markus J. Buehler
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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35
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Xu Y, Zhang XH, Pang YZ. Association of Tyrosinase (TYR) and Tyrosinase-related Protein 1 (TYRP1) with Melanic Plumage Color in Korean Quails (Coturnix coturnix). ASIAN-AUSTRALASIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2014; 26:1518-22. [PMID: 25049736 PMCID: PMC4093817 DOI: 10.5713/ajas.2013.13162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Revised: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
TYR (Tyrosinase) and TYRP1 (Tyrosinase-related protein 1) play crucial roles in determining the coat color of birds. In this paper, we aimed to characterize the relationship of TYR and TYRP1 genes with plumage colors in Korean quails. The SNPs were searched by cDNA sequencing and PCR-SSCP in three plumage color Korean quails (maroon, white and black plumage). Two SNPs (367T→C and 1153C→T) were found in the coding region of TYRP1 gene, but had no significant association with plumage phenotype in Korean quails. The expression of TYR was higher in black plumage quails than that in maroon plumage quails. In contrast, the expression of TYRP1 was lower in black plumage quails than that in maroon plumage quails. This study suggested that the melanic plumage color in Korean quails may be associated with either increased production of TYR or decreased production of TYRP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- College of Animal Science, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China
| | - Xiao-Hui Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China
| | - You-Zhi Pang
- College of Animal Science, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China
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36
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Napolitano A, Panzella L, Monfrecola G, d'Ischia M. Pheomelanin-induced oxidative stress: bright and dark chemistry bridging red hair phenotype and melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2014; 27:721-33. [PMID: 24814217 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The complex interplay of genetic and epigenetic factors linking sun exposure to melanoma in the red hair phenotype hinges on the peculiar physical and chemical properties of pheomelanins and the underlying biosynthetic pathway, which is switched on by the effects of inactivating polymorphisms in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene. In addition to the long recognized UV-dependent pathways of toxicity and cell damage, a UV-independent pro-oxidant state induced by pheomelanin within the genetically determined background of the red hair phenotype has recently been disclosed. This review provides a detailed discussion of the possible UV-dependent and UV-independent chemical mechanisms underlying pheomelanin-mediated oxidative stress, with special reference to the oxygen-dependent depletion of glutathione and other cell antioxidants. The new concept of pheomelanin as a 'living' polymer and biocatalyst that may grow by exposure to monomer building blocks and may trigger autooxidative processes is also discussed. As a corollary, treatment of inflammatory skin diseases in RHP patients is briefly commented. Finally, possible concerted strategies for melanoma prevention in the red hair phenotype are proposed.
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37
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Segura-Aguilar J, Paris I, Muñoz P, Ferrari E, Zecca L, Zucca FA. Protective and toxic roles of dopamine in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2014; 129:898-915. [PMID: 24548101 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms causing the loss of dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin in the substantia nigra and responsible for motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease are still unknown. The discovery of genes associated with Parkinson's disease (such as alpha synuclein (SNCA), E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (parkin), DJ-1 (PARK7), ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase isozyme L1 (UCHL-1), serine/threonine-protein kinase (PINK-1), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), cation-transporting ATPase 13A1 (ATP13A), etc.) contributed enormously to basic research towards understanding the role of these proteins in the sporadic form of the disease. However, it is generally accepted by the scientific community that mitochondria dysfunction, alpha synuclein aggregation, dysfunction of protein degradation, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are involved in neurodegeneration. Dopamine oxidation seems to be a complex pathway in which dopamine o-quinone, aminochrome and 5,6-indolequinone are formed. However, both dopamine o-quinone and 5,6-indolequinone are so unstable that is difficult to study and separate their roles in the degenerative process occurring in Parkinson's disease. Dopamine oxidation to dopamine o-quinone, aminochrome and 5,6-indolequinone seems to play an important role in the neurodegenerative processes of Parkinson's disease as aminochrome induces: (i) mitochondria dysfunction, (ii) formation and stabilization of neurotoxic protofibrils of alpha synuclein, (iii) protein degradation dysfunction of both proteasomal and lysosomal systems and (iv) oxidative stress. The neurotoxic effects of aminochrome in dopaminergic neurons can be inhibited by: (i) preventing dopamine oxidation of the transporter that takes up dopamine into monoaminergic vesicles with low pH and dopamine oxidative deamination catalyzed by monoamino oxidase (ii) dopamine o-quinone, aminochrome and 5,6-indolequinone polymerization to neuromelanin and (iii) two-electron reduction of aminochrome catalyzed by DT-diaphorase. Furthermore, dopamine conversion to NM seems to have a dual role, protective and toxic, depending mostly on the cellular context. Dopamine oxidation to dopamine o-quinone, aminochrome and 5,6-indolequinone plays an important role in neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease since they induce mitochondria and protein degradation dysfunction; formation of neurotoxic alpha synuclein protofibrils and oxidative stress. However, the cells have a protective system against dopamine oxidation composed by dopamine uptake mediated by Vesicular monoaminergic transporter-2 (VMAT-2), neuromelanin formation, two-electron reduction and GSH-conjugation mediated by Glutathione S-transferase M2-2 (GSTM2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Segura-Aguilar
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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38
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Panzella L, Leone L, Greco G, Vitiello G, D'Errico G, Napolitano A, d'Ischia M. Red human hair pheomelanin is a potent pro-oxidant mediating UV-independent contributory mechanisms of melanomagenesis. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2014; 27:244-52. [PMID: 24387634 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The highest incidence of melanoma in red haired individuals is attributed to the synthesis and phototoxic properties of pheomelanin pigments. Recently, pheomelanin has also been implicated in UV-independent pathways of oxidative stress; however, the underlying mechanisms have remained uncharted. Herein, we disclose the unprecedented property of purified red human hair pheomelanin (RHP) to promote (i) the oxygen-dependent depletion of major cell antioxidants, for example glutathione and NADH; (ii) the autoxidative formation of melanin pigments from their precursors. RHP would thus behave as a unique 'living' polymer and biocatalyst that may grow by simple exposure to monomer building blocks and may trigger autoxidative processes. These results yield new clues as to the origin of the pro-oxidant state in the red hair phenotype, uncover non-enzymatic pathways of melanogenesis, and pave the way to innovative strategies for melanoma prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Panzella
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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39
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Neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra: an update. Neurotox Res 2013; 25:13-23. [PMID: 24155156 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-013-9435-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra selectively degenerate over the course of Parkinson's disease. These neurons are also the most heavily pigmented cells of the brain, accumulating the dark pigment neuromelanin over a lifetime. The massive presence of neuromelanin in these brain areas has long been suspected as a key factor involved in the selective vulnerability of neurons. The high concentration of neuromelanin in substantia nigra neurons seems to be linked to the presence of considerable amounts of cytosolic dopamine that have not been sequestered into synaptic vesicles. Over the past few years, studies have uncovered a dual nature of neuromelanin. Intraneuronal neuromelanin can be a protective factor, shielding the cells from toxic effects of redox active metals, toxins, and excess of cytosolic catecholamines. In contrast, neuromelanin released by dying neurons can contribute to the activation of neuroglia triggering the neuroinflammation that characterizes Parkinson's disease. This article reviews recent studies on the molecular aspects of neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra.
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40
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Napolitano A, Panzella L, Leone L, d’Ischia M. Red hair benzothiazines and benzothiazoles: mutation-inspired chemistry in the quest for functionality. Acc Chem Res 2013; 46:519-28. [PMID: 23270471 DOI: 10.1021/ar300219u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Nature provides a primary source of leads for the design of π-conjugated organic chromophores and other functional molecular systems useful for molecular recognition, light harvesting, photoconversion, and other technological applications. In this Account, we draw attention to a unique group of naturally occurring heterocyclic compounds, the 2H-1,4-benzothiazines and related benzothiazole derivatives. Derived from tyrosine and cysteine, these molecules arise from a mutation-induced deviation of the melanin pathway to provide the core structure of the red human hair pigments pheomelanins. Since the elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway of pheomelanins in the 1960s, researchers have focused on 1,4-benzothiazines and red hair pigments. Not only do these molecules have interesting photochemical and molecular recognition properties, they also have compelling biomedical significance. Numerous studies have linked higher levels of pheomelanins and mutations in the pathways that produce these pigments in individuals with red hair and fair skin with an increased sensitivity to UV light and a higher susceptibility to melanoma and other skin cancers. Prompted by new data about the structure and photochemistry of the bibenzothiazine system, this Account highlights the chemistry of benzothiazines in red-haired individuals as a novel source of inspiration in the quest for innovative scaffolds and biomimetic functional systems. Model studies have gradually shed light on a number of remarkable physical and chemical properties of benzothiazine-based systems. Bibenzothiazine is a robust visible chromophore that combines photochromism and acidichromism. Benzothiazine-based polymers (synthetic pheomelanins) show remarkable photochemical, paramagnetic, and redox cycling properties. Biomimetic or synthetic manipulations of the benzothiazine systems, through decarboxylation pathways controlled by metal ions or unusually facile ring-contraction processes, can produce a diverse set of molecular scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Napolitano
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Lucia Panzella
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Loredana Leone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Marco d’Ischia
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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Vaccinia virus-mediated melanin production allows MR and optoacoustic deep tissue imaging and laser-induced thermotherapy of cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:3316-20. [PMID: 23401518 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1216916110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We reported earlier the delivery of antiangiogenic single chain antibodies by using oncolytic vaccinia virus strains to enhance their therapeutic efficacy. Here, we provide evidence that gene-evoked production of melanin can be used as a therapeutic and diagnostic mediator, as exemplified by insertion of only one or two genes into the genome of an oncolytic vaccinia virus strain. We found that produced melanin is an excellent reporter for optical imaging without addition of substrate. Melanin production also facilitated deep tissue optoacoustic imaging as well as MRI. In addition, melanin was shown to be a suitable target for laser-induced thermotherapy and enhanced oncolytic viral therapy. In conclusion, melanin as a mediator for thermotherapy and reporter for different imaging modalities may soon become a versatile alternative to replace fluorescent proteins also in other biological systems. After ongoing extensive preclinical studies, melanin overproducing oncolytic virus strains might be used in clinical trials in patients with cancer.
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Wakamatsu K, Murase T, Zucca FA, Zecca L, Ito S. Biosynthetic pathway to neuromelanin and its aging process. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2012; 25:792-803. [PMID: 22938712 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Using model compounds of the melanic component of neuromelanin (NM) prepared by tyrosinase oxidation at various ratios of dopamine (DA) and cysteine (Cys) under physiological conditions, we examined a biosynthetic pathway to NM and its aging process by following the time course of oxidation to NM and the subsequent structural modification of NM under various heating conditions. Chemical degradation methods were applied to the synthetic NM. 4-Amino-3-hydroxyphenylethylamine (4-AHPEA) and thiazole-2,4,5-tricarboxylic acid (TTCA) were used as markers of benzothiazine and benzothiazole units, respectively. By following the time course of the biosynthetic pathway of synthetic NM, we found that neurotoxic molecules are trapped in NM. An aging simulation of synthetic NM showed that benzothiazine units in NM are gradually converted to benzothiazole during the aging process. Thus, natural NM was found to be similar to aged (heated) NM prepared from a 2:1 molar ratio of DA and Cys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Japan.
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Greco G, Panzella L, Gentile G, Errico ME, Carfagna C, Napolitano A, d'Ischia M. A melanin-inspired pro-oxidant system for dopa(mine) polymerization: mimicking the natural casing process. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 47:10308-10. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cc13731j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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44
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Peles DN, Simon JD. The Ultraviolet Absorption Coefficient of Melanosomes Decreases with Increasing Pheomelanin Content. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:9677-83. [DOI: 10.1021/jp102603b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dana N. Peles
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
| | - John D. Simon
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708
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45
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Reaction of dihydrolipoic acid with juglone and related naphthoquinones: unmasking of a spirocyclic 1,3-dithiane intermediate en route to naphtho[1,4]dithiepines. Tetrahedron 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2010.03.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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46
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Simon JD, Peles D, Wakamatsu K, Ito S. Current challenges in understanding melanogenesis: bridging chemistry, biological control, morphology, and function. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2009; 22:563-79. [PMID: 19627559 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2009.00610.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Melanin is a natural pigment produced within organelles, melanosomes, located in melanocytes. Biological functions of melanosomes are often attributed to the unique chemical properties of the melanins they contain; however, the molecular structure of melanins, the mechanism by which the pigment is produced, and how the pigment is organized within the melanosome remains to be fully understood. In this review, we examine the current understanding of the initial chemical steps in the melanogenesis. Most natural melanins are mixtures of eumelanin and pheomelanin, and so after presenting the current understanding of the individual pigments, we focus on the mixed melanin systems, with a critical eye towards understanding how studies on individual melanin do and do not provide insight in the molecular aspects of their structures. We conclude the review with a discussion of important issues that must be addressed in future research efforts to more fully understand the relationship between molecular and functional properties of this important class of natural pigments.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Simon
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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47
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Peles DN, Hong L, Hu DN, Ito S, Nemanich RJ, Simon JD. Human Iridal Stroma Melanosomes of Varying Pheomelanin Contents Possess a Common Eumelanic Outer Surface. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:11346-51. [DOI: 10.1021/jp904138n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dana N. Peles
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
| | - Lian Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
| | - Dan-Ning Hu
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
| | - Shosuke Ito
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
| | - Robert J. Nemanich
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
| | - John D. Simon
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, Tissue Culture Center, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York Medical College, New York, New York 10003, Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan, and Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1504
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Abstract
Melanins can be classified into two major groups-insoluble brown to black pigments termed eumelanin and alkali-soluble yellow to reddish-brown pigments termed pheomelanin. Both types of pigment derive from the common precursor dopaquinone (ortho-quinone of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) which is formed via the oxidation of l-tyrosine by the melanogenic enzyme tyrosinase. Dopaquinone is a highly reactive ortho-quinone that plays pivotal roles in the chemical control of melanogenesis. In the absence of sulfhydryl compounds, dopaquinone undergoes intramolecular cyclization to form cyclodopa, which is then rapidly oxidized by a redox reaction with dopaquinone to give dopachrome (and dopa). Dopachrome then gradually and spontaneously rearranges to form 5,6-dihydroxyindole and to a lesser extent 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid, the ratio of which is determined by a distinct melanogenic enzyme termed dopachrome tautomerase (tyrosinase-related protein-2). Oxidation and subsequent polymerization of these dihydroxyindoles leads to the production of eumelanin. However, when cysteine is present, this process gives rise preferentially to the production of cysteinyldopa isomers. Cysteinyldopas are subsequently oxidized through redox reaction with dopaquinone to form cysteinyldopaquinones that eventually lead to the production of pheomelanin. Pulse radiolysis studies of early stages of melanogenesis (involving dopaquinone and cysteine) indicate that mixed melanogenesis proceeds in three distinct stages-the initial production of cysteinyldopas, followed by their oxidation to produce pheomelanin, followed finally by the production of eumelanin. Based on these data, a casing model of mixed melanogenesis is proposed in which a preformed pheomelanic core is covered by a eumelanic surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shosuke Ito
- Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Aichi, Japan.
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Melanin directly converts light for vertebrate metabolic use: Heuristic thoughts on birds, Icarus and dark human skin. Med Hypotheses 2008; 71:190-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2008] [Revised: 03/18/2008] [Accepted: 03/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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50
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Wakamatsu K, Hu DN, McCormick SA, Ito S. Characterization of melanin in human iridal and choroidal melanocytes from eyes with various colored irides. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2008; 21:97-105. [PMID: 18353148 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2007.00415.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Variance in iris color is related to the incidence of several important ocular diseases, including uveal melanoma and age-related macular degeneration. The purposes of this study were to determine the quantity and the types of melanin in cultured human uveal melanocytes in relation to the iris color. Sixty-one cell cultures of pure uveal melanocytes were isolated from donor eyes with various iris colors. The amount of eumelanin (EM) and pheomelanin (PM) of these cells was measured by chemical degradation and microanalytical high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. The total amount of melanin was measured by both microanalytical methods and spectrophotometry. Total melanin content, measured by HPLC and spectrophotometry, correlated well with r = 0.872 (P < 0.0001). The quantity and type of melanin in iridal and choroidal melanocytes showed no significant difference (P > 0.05). When cells became senescent, the levels of EM, PM and total melanin were significantly increased. In both growing and senescent melanocytes, the quantity and type of melanin were closely correlated to the iris color. In cells from eyes with dark-colored irides (dark brown and brown), the amount of EM, the ratio of EM/PM and total melanin were significantly greater than that from eyes with light-colored irides (hazel, green, yellow-brown and blue) (P < 0.0001). The quantity of PM in uveal melanocytes from eyes with light-colored irides was slightly greater than that from dark-colored irides, although not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The present study shows that iris color is determined by both the quantity and the type of melanin in uveal melanocytes. These results suggest a possibility that uveal melanin in eyes with dark-colored irides is eumelanic at the surface and acts as an antioxidant while that in eyes with light-colored irides exposes pheomelanic core and behaves as a pro-oxidant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Department of Chemistry, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
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