Longitudinally propagating traveling waves of the mammalian tectorial membrane

Visualizing Collagen Fibrils in the Cochlea's Tectorial and Basilar Membranes Using a Fluorescently Labeled Collagen-Binding Protein Fragment

PURPOSE

A probe that binds to unfixed collagen fibrils was used to image the shapes and fibrous properties of the TM and BM. The probe (CNA35) is derived from the bacterial adhesion protein CNA. We present confocal images of hydrated gerbil TM, BM, and other cochlear structures stained with fluorescently labeled CNA35. A primary purpose of this article is to describe the use of the CNA35 collagen probe in the cochlea.

METHODS

Recombinant poly-histidine-tagged CNA35 was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified by cobalt-affinity chromatography, fluorescence labeled, and further purified by gel filtration chromatography. Cochleae from freshly harvested gerbil bullae were irrigated with and then incubated in CNA35 for periods ranging from 2 h - overnight. The cochleae were fixed, decalcified, and dissected. Isolated cochlear turns were imaged by confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

The CNA35 probe stained the BM and TM, and volumetric imaging revealed the shape of these structures and the collagen fibrils within them. The limbal zone of the TM stained intensely. In samples from the cochlear base, intense staining was detected on the side of the TM that faces hair cells. In the BM pectinate zone, staining was intense at the upper and lower boundaries. The BM arcuate zone was characterized by a prominent longitudinal collagenous structure. The spiral ligament, limbus and lamina stained for collagen, and within the spiral limbus the habenula perforata were outlined with intense staining.

CONCLUSION

The CNA35 probe provides a unique and useful view of collagenous structures in the cochlea.

Deiters Cells Act as Mechanical Equalizers for Outer Hair Cells

The outer hair cells in the mammalian cochlea are cellular actuators essential for sensitive hearing. The geometry and stiffness of the structural scaffold surrounding the outer hair cells will determine how the active cells shape mammalian hearing by modulating the organ of Corti (OoC) vibrations. Specifically, the tectorial membrane and the Deiters cell are mechanically in series with the hair bundle and soma, respectively, of the outer hair cell. Their mechanical properties and anatomic arrangement must determine the relative motion among different OoC structures. We measured the OoC mechanics in the cochleas acutely excised from young gerbils of both sexes at a resolution fine enough to distinguish the displacement of individual cells. A three-dimensional finite element model of fully deformable OoC was exploited to analyze the measured data in detail. As a means to verify the computer model, the basilar membrane deformations because of static and dynamic stimulations were measured and simulated. Two stiffness ratios have been identified that are critical to understand cochlear physics, which are the stiffness of the tectorial membrane with respect to the hair bundle and the stiffness of the Deiters cell with respect to the outer hair cell body. Our measurements suggest that the Deiters cells act like a mechanical equalizer so that the outer hair cells are constrained neither too rigidly nor too weakly.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mammals can detect faint sounds thanks to the action of mammalian-specific receptor cells called the outer hair cells. It is getting clearer that understanding the interactions between the outer hair cells and their surrounding structures such as the tectorial membrane and the Deiters cell is critical to resolve standing debates. Depending on theories, the stiffness of those two structures ranges from negligible to rigid. Because of their perceived importance, their properties have been measured in previous studies. However, nearly all existing data were obtained ex situ (after they were detached from the outer hair cells), which obscures their interaction with the outer hair cells. We quantified the mechanical properties of the tectorial membrane and the Deiters cell in situ.

The impact of targeted ablation of one row of outer hair cells and Deiters' cells on cochlear amplification

The mammalian cochlea contains three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) that amplify the basilar membrane traveling wave with high gain and exquisite tuning. The pattern of OHC loss caused by typical methods of producing hearing loss in animal models (noise, ototoxic exposure, or aging) is variable and not consistent along the length of the cochlea. Thus, it is difficult to use these approaches to understand how forces from multiple OHCs summate to create normal cochlear amplification. Here, we selectively removed the third row of OHCs and Deiters' cells in adult mice and measured cochlear amplification. In the mature cochlear epithelia, expression of the Wnt target gene Lgr5 is restricted to the third row of Deiters' cells, the supporting cells directly underneath the OHCs. Diphtheria toxin administration to Lgr5DTR-EGFP/+ mice selectively ablated the third row of Deiters' cells and the third row of OHCs. Basilar membrane vibration in vivo demonstrated disproportionately lower reduction in cochlear amplification by about 13.5 dB. On a linear scale, this means that the 33% reduction in OHC number led to a 79% reduction in gain. Thus, these experimental data describe the impact of reducing the force of cochlear amplification by a specific amount. Furthermore, these data argue that because OHC forces progressively and sequentially amplify the traveling wave as it travels to its peak, the loss of even a relatively small number of OHCs, when evenly distributed longitudinally, will cause a substantial reduction in cochlear amplification.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Normal cochlear physiology involves force production from three rows of outer hair cells to amplify and tune the traveling wave. Here, we used a genetic approach to target and ablate the third row of outer hair cells in the mouse cochlea and found it reduced cochlear amplification by 79%. This means that the loss of even a relatively small number of OHCs, when evenly distributed, causes a substantial reduction in cochlear amplification.

An outer hair cell-powered global hydromechanical mechanism for cochlear amplification

It is a common belief that the mammalian cochlea achieves its exquisite sensitivity, frequency selectivity, and dynamic range through an outer hair cell-based active process, or cochlear amplification. As a sound-induced traveling wave propagates from the cochlear base toward the apex, outer hair cells at a narrow region amplify the low level sound-induced vibration through a local feedback mechanism. This widely accepted theory has been tested by measuring sound-induced sub-nanometer vibrations within the organ of Corti in the sensitive living cochleae using heterodyne low-coherence interferometry and optical coherence tomography. The aim of this short review is to summarize experimental findings on the cochlear active process by the authors' group. Our data show that outer hair cells are able to generate substantial forces for driving the cochlear partition at all audible frequencies in vivo. The acoustically induced reticular lamina vibration is larger and more broadly tuned than the basilar membrane vibration. The reticular lamina and basilar membrane vibrate approximately in opposite directions at low frequencies and in the same direction at the best frequency. The group delay of the reticular lamina is larger than that of the basilar membrane. The magnitude and phase differences between the reticular lamina and basilar membrane vibration are physiologically vulnerable. These results contradict predictions based on the local feedback mechanism but suggest a global hydromechanical mechanism for cochlear amplification. This article is part of the Special Issue Outer hair cell Edited by Joseph Santos-Sacchi and Kumar Navaratnam.

Inner hair cell stereocilia displacement in response to focal stimulation of the basilar membrane in the ex vivo gerbil cochlea

The inner hair cells in the mammalian cochlea transduce mechanical signals to electrical signals that provide input to the auditory nerve. The spatial-temporal displacement of the inner hair cell stereocilia (IHCsc) relative to basilar membrane (BM) displacement is central to characterizing the transduction process. This study specifically focuses on measuring displacement of the stereocilia hair bundles in the radial dimensions where they are most sensitive. To simplify the mechanical response of the cochlear partition, a mechanical probe was used to drive the BM. Optical imaging was used to measure radial displacement of the inner hair cell stereocilia local to the probe in ex vivo gerbil cochleae. The mechanical probe displaced the BM in the transverse direction using sinusoidal stimuli with frequencies ranging from 10 Hz to 42.5 kHz. IHCsc displacement measurements were made in the radial dimension as a function of their longitudinal location along the length of the BM. The results were used to quantify the frequency response, longitudinal space coupling, traveling wave velocity, and wavelength of the radial displacement of the stereocilia. The measurements were centered at two best frequency locations along the BM: Proximal to the round window (first turn), and in the second turn. At both locations, frequency tuning was seen that was consistent with published place maps. At both locations, traveling waves were observed simultaneously propagating basal and apical from the probe. The velocity of the traveling waves at the center frequency (CF) of the location was higher in the first turn than in the second. As the stimulus frequency increased and approached CF for a location, the traveling wavelength decreased. Differential motion of the BM and IHCsc was observed in the second turn as the stimulus frequency increased toward CF. The longitudinal coupling measured in this study was longer than observed in previous studies. In summary the results suggest that the shape of the wave patterns present on the BM are not sufficient to characterize the displacement of the IHCsc.

Age-related degradation of tectorial membrane dynamics with loss of CEACAM16

Studies of genetic disorders of sensorineural hearing loss have been instrumental in delineating mechanisms that underlie the remarkable sensitivity and selectivity that are hallmarks of mammalian hearing. For example, genetic modifications of TECTA and TECTB, which are principal proteins that comprise the tectorial membrane (TM), have been shown to alter auditory thresholds and frequency tuning in ways that can be understood in terms of changes in the mechanical properties of the TM. Here, we investigate effects of genetic modification targeting CEACAM16, a third important TM protein. Loss of CEACAM16 has been recently shown to lead to progressive reductions in sensitivity. Whereas age-related hearing losses have previously been linked to changes in sensory receptor cells, the role of the TM in progressive hearing loss is largely unknown. Here, we show that TM stiffness and viscosity are significantly reduced in adult mice that lack functional CEACAM16 relative to age-matched wild-type controls. By contrast, these same mechanical properties of TMs from juvenile mice that lack functional CEACAM16 are more similar to those of wild-type mice. Thus, changes in hearing phenotype align with changes in TM material properties and can be understood in terms of the same TM wave properties that were previously used to characterize modifications of TECTA and TECTB. These results demonstrate that CEACAM16 is essential for maintaining TM mechanical and wave properties, which in turn are necessary for sustaining the remarkable sensitivity and selectivity of mammalian hearing with increasing age.

Millimeter-Wave Bat for Mapping and Quantifying Micromotions in Full Field of View

Echolocating bats possess remarkable capability of multitarget spatial localization and micromotion sensing in a full field of view (FFOV) even in cluttered environments. Artificial technologies with such capability are highly desirable for various fields. However, current techniques such as visual sensing and laser scanning suffer from numerous fundamental problems. Here, we develop a bioinspired concept of millimeter-wave (mmWave) full-field micromotion sensing, creating a unique mmWave Bat (“mmWBat”), which can map and quantify tiny motions spanning macroscopic to μm length scales of full-field targets simultaneously and accurately. In mmWBat, we show that the micromotions can be measured via the interferometric phase evolution tracking from range-angle joint dimension, integrating with full-field localization and tricky clutter elimination. With our approach, we demonstrate the capacity to solve challenges in three disparate applications: multiperson vital sign monitoring, full-field mechanical vibration measurement, and multiple sound source localization and reconstruction (radiofrequency microphone). Our work could potentially revolutionize full-field micromotion monitoring in a wide spectrum of applications, while may inspiring novel biomimetic wireless sensing systems.

Inner hair cell stereocilia are embedded in the tectorial membrane

Mammalian hearing depends on sound-evoked displacements of the stereocilia of inner hair cells (IHCs), which cause the endogenous mechanoelectrical transducer channels to conduct inward currents of cations including Ca²⁺. Due to their presumed lack of contacts with the overlaying tectorial membrane (TM), the putative stimulation mechanism for these stereocilia is by means of the viscous drag of the surrounding endolymph. However, despite numerous efforts to characterize the TM by electron microscopy and other techniques, the exact IHC stereocilia-TM relationship remains elusive. Here we show that Ca²⁺-rich filamentous structures, that we call Ca²⁺ ducts, connect the TM to the IHC stereocilia to enable mechanical stimulation by the TM while also ensuring the stereocilia access to TM Ca²⁺. Our results call for a reassessment of the stimulation mechanism for the IHC stereocilia and the TM role in hearing.

Kinetic Membrane Model of Outer Hair Cells

The effectiveness of outer hair cells (OHCs) in amplifying the motion of the organ of Corti, and thereby contributing to the sensitivity of mammalian hearing, depends on the mechanical power output of these cells. Electromechanical coupling in OHCs, which enables these cells to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, has been analyzed in detail using isolated cells using primarily static membrane models. The mechanical output of OHCs was previously evaluated by developing a kinetic theory based on a simplified one-dimensional model for OHCs. Here, a kinetic description of OHCs is extended by using the membrane model, which was used for analyzing in vitro experiments. This theory predicts, for systems without inertial load, that elastic load enhances positive shift of voltage dependence of the membrane capacitance because of turgor pressure. The effect of turgor pressure increases with increasing elastic load. For systems with inertia, the magnitude of mechanical power output could be ∼5% higher than the value predicted by the one-dimensional model at the optimal turgor pressure.

Manipulation of the Endocochlear Potential Reveals Two Distinct Types of Cochlear Nonlinearity

The mammalian hearing organ, the cochlea, contains an active amplifier to boost the vibrational response to low level sounds. Hallmarks of this active process are sharp location-dependent frequency tuning and compressive nonlinearity over a wide stimulus range. The amplifier relies on outer hair cell (OHC)-generated forces driven in part by the endocochlear potential, the ∼+80 mV potential maintained in scala media, generated by the stria vascularis. We transiently eliminated the endocochlear potential in vivo by an intravenous injection of furosemide and measured the vibrations of different layers in the cochlea's organ of Corti using optical coherence tomography. Distortion product otoacoustic emissions were also monitored. After furosemide injection, the vibrations of the basilar membrane lost the best frequency (BF) peak and showed broad tuning similar to a passive cochlea. The intra-organ of Corti vibrations measured in the region of the OHCs lost the BF peak and showed low-pass responses but retained nonlinearity. This strongly suggests that OHC electromotility was operating and being driven by nonlinear OHC current. Thus, although electromotility is presumably necessary to produce a healthy BF peak, the mere presence of electromotility is not sufficient. The BF peak recovered nearly fully within 2 h, along with the recovery of odd-order distortion product otoacoustic emissions. The recovery pattern suggests that physical shifts in operating condition are a critical step in the recovery process.

The interplay of organ-of-Corti vibrational modes, not tectorial- membrane resonance, sets outer-hair-cell stereocilia phase to produce cochlear amplification

The mechanical motions that deflect outer-hair-cell (OHC) stereocilia and the resulting effects of OHC motility are reviewed, concentrating on high-frequency cochlear regions. It has been proposed that a tectorial-membrane (TM) resonance makes the phase of OHC stereocilia motion be appropriate to produce cochlear amplification, i.e. so that the OHC force that pushes the basilar membrane (BM) is in the same direction as BM velocity. Evidence for and against the TM-resonance hypothesis are considered, including new cochlear-motion measurements using optical coherence tomography, and it is concluded that there is no such TM resonance. The evidence points to there being an advance in the phase of reticular lamina (RL) radial motion at a frequency approximately ½ octave below the BM characteristic frequency, and that this is the main source of the phase difference between the TM and RL radial motions that produces cochlear amplification. It appears that the change in phase of RL radial motion comes about because of a transition between different organ-of-Corti (OoC) vibrational modes that changes RL motion relative to BM and TM motion. The origins and consequences of the large phase change of RL radial motion relative to BM motion are considered; differences in the reported patterns of these changes may be due to different viewing angles. Detailed motion data and new models are needed to better specify the vibrational patterns of the OoC modes and the role of the various OoC structures in producing the modes and the mode transition.

Significance of the Microfluidic Flow Inside the Organ of Corti

We study the vibration modes of a short section in the middle turn of the gerbil cochlea including both longitudinal and radial interstitial fluid spaces between the pillar cells (PC) and the sensory hair cells to determine the role of the interstitial fluid flow within the organ of corti (OoC). Three detailed finite element (FE) models of the cochlear short section (CSS) are studied. In model 1, the CSS is without fluids; model 2 includes the OoC fluid, but not the exterior scalae fluids; and model 3 is the CSS with both scalae and OoC fluids. We find that: (1) the fundamental mode shape of models 1 or 3 is similar to the classical basilar membrane (BM) bending mode that includes pivoting of the arch of corti, and hence determines the low frequency vibrational mode shape of the cochlea in the presence of the cochlear wave. (2) The fundamental mode shape of model 2 is characterized by a cross-sectional shape change similar to the passive response of the cochlea. This mode shape includes a tilting motion of the inner hair cell (IHC) region, a fluid motion within the tunnel of corti (ToC) in the radial direction and along the OoC, and a bulging motion of the reticular lamina (RL) above the outer hair cell (OHC). Each of these motions provides a plausible mode of excitation of the sensory hair cells. (3) The higher vibrational modes of model 1 are similar to the electrically evoked response within the OoC and suggests that the higher vibrational modes are responsible for the active response of the cochlea. We also observed that the fluid flow through the OoC interstitial space is significant, and the model comparison suggests that the OoC fluid contributes to the biphasic BM motion seen in electrical stimulation experiments. The effect of fluid viscosity on cilium deflection was assessed by performing a transient analysis to calculate the cilium shearing gain. The gain values are found to be within the range of experimentally measured values reported by Dallos et al. (1996, The Cochlea, Springer-Verlag, New York).

Abnormal Tectorial Membranes in Sensorineural Hearing Loss: A Human Temporal Bone Study

HYPOTHESIS

This study evaluates the morphological changes of the tectorial membrane (TM) in conjunction with degeneration of hair cells, interdental cells, and presence of endolymphatic hydrops (EH) in sensorineural hearing loss (HL) in the human using histopathology techniques.

BACKGROUND

The TM plays an important role in mechanical transduction of acoustic energy, and pathology of the TM may result in HL.

METHODS

All temporal bone (TB) specimens from the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Otopathology Laboratory from patients with various causes of sensorineural HL and morphological abnormalities of the TM were evaluated. Cases with a history of cochlear trauma (other than acoustic trauma) and/or severe postmortem artifacts were excluded. The TBs were processed histologically, and the status of hair cells, supporting cells, interdental cells, presence of EH, and postmortem time were tabulated.

RESULTS

Two thousand two hundred ninety TBs from 1340 individuals were evaluated, and 164 of 748 TBs from the otological disorders in which the TM were abnormal, met the inclusion criteria. The most common disorders were idiopathic sudden deafness (57.1%), genetic etiology (53.7%), and ototoxicity (40.0%), as compared with cases with presbycusis (2.9%). EH was found in 33.3% of all cases with an identified abnormality of the TM.Abnormalities of the TM were 1) deformed, 2) shrunken, 3) detached from the limbus, 4) encapsulated, or 5) missing. Encapsulated, shrunken and missing patterns (36, 35, 31%, respectively) were the most common.

CONCLUSION

A relative high prevalence of EH among disorders with TM abnormalities suggests a possible common pathophysiology in both. In addition, anatomic abnormalities of the TM may play a role in the pathophysiology of HL in these disorders.

Two-tone distortion in reticular lamina vibration of the living cochlea

It has been demonstrated that isolated auditory sensory cells, outer hair cells, can generate distortion products at low frequencies. It remains unknown, however, whether or not motile outer hair cells are able to generate two-tone distortion at high frequencies in living cochleae under the mechanical loads caused by surounding tissues and fluids. By measuring sub-nanometer vibration directly from the apical ends of outer hair cells using a custom-built heterodyne low-coherence interferometer, here we show outer hair cell-generated two-tone distortion in reticular lamina motion in the living cochlea. Reticular-lamina distortion is significantly greater and occurs at a broader frequency range than that of the basilar membrane. Contrary to expectations, our results indicate that motile outer hair cells are capable of generating two-tone distortion in vivo not only at the locations tuned to primary tones but also at a broad region basal to these locations.

Ren et al. used an in house heterodyne low-coherence interferometer to measure sub-nanometer vibrations, a proxy for distortion products, in living cochleae of gerbils. They were able to locate the generation source of the outer hair cell in the reticular lamina versus the basilar membrane in vivo.

The Tectorial Membrane: Mechanical Properties and Functions

The tectorial membrane (TM) is widely believed to play a critical role in determining the remarkable sensitivity and frequency selectivity that are hallmarks of mammalian hearing. Recently developed mouse models of human hearing disorders have provided new insights into the molecular, nanomechanical mechanisms that underlie resonance and traveling wave properties of the TM. Herein we review recent experimental and theoretical results detailing TM morphology, local poroelastic and electromechanical interactions, and global spread of excitation via TM traveling waves, with direct implications for cochlear mechanisms.

Cochlear partition anatomy and motion in humans differ from the classic view of mammals

Mammals detect sound through mechanosensitive cells of the cochlear organ of Corti that rest on the basilar membrane (BM). Motions of the BM and organ of Corti have been studied at the cochlear base in various laboratory animals, and the assumption has been that the cochleas of all mammals work similarly. In the classic view, the BM attaches to a stationary osseous spiral lamina (OSL), the tectorial membrane (TM) attaches to the limbus above the stationary OSL, and the BM is the major moving element, with a peak displacement near its center. Here, we measured the motion and studied the anatomy of the human cochlear partition (CP) at the cochlear base of fresh human cadaveric specimens. Unlike the classic view, we identified a soft-tissue structure between the BM and OSL in humans, which we name the CP "bridge." We measured CP transverse motion in humans and found that the OSL moved like a plate hinged near the modiolus, with motion increasing from the modiolus to the bridge. The bridge moved almost as much as the BM, with the maximum CP motion near the bridge-BM connection. BM motion accounts for 100% of CP volume displacement in the classic view, but accounts for only 27 to 43% in the base of humans. In humans, the TM-limbus attachment is above the moving bridge, not above a fixed structure. These results challenge long-held assumptions about cochlear mechanics in humans. In addition, animal apical anatomy (in SI Appendix) doesn't always fit the classic view.

Unified cochlear model for low- and high-frequency mammalian hearing

The spatial variations of the intricate cytoarchitecture, fluid scalae, and mechano-electric transduction in the mammalian cochlea have long been postulated to provide the organ with the ability to perform a real-time, time-frequency processing of sound. However, the precise manner by which this tripartite coupling enables the exquisite cochlear filtering has yet to be articulated in a base-to-apex mathematical model. Moreover, while sound-evoked tuning curves derived from mechanical gains are excellent surrogates for auditory nerve fiber thresholds at the base of the cochlea, this correlation fails at the apex. The key factors influencing the divergence of both mechanical and neural tuning at the apex, as well as the spatial variation of mechanical tuning, are incompletely understood. We develop a model that shows that the mechanical effects arising from the combination of the taper of the cochlear scalae and the spatial variation of the cytoarchitecture of the cochlea provide robust mechanisms that modulate the outer hair cell-mediated active response and provide the basis for the transition of the mechanical gain spectra along the cochlear spiral. Further, the model predicts that the neural tuning at the base is primarily governed by the mechanical filtering of the cochlear partition. At the apex, microscale fluid dynamics and nanoscale channel dynamics must also be invoked to describe the threshold neural tuning for low frequencies. Overall, the model delineates a physiological basis for the difference between basal and apical gain seen in experiments and provides a coherent description of high- and low-frequency cochlear tuning.

Reducing tectorial membrane viscoelasticity enhances spontaneous otoacoustic emissions and compromises the detection of low level sound

The mammalian cochlea is able to detect faint sounds due to the presence of an active nonlinear feedback mechanism that boosts cochlear vibrations of low amplitude. Because of this feedback, self-sustained oscillations called spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAEs) can often be measured in the ear canal. Recent experiments in genetically modified mice have demonstrated that mutations of the genes expressed in the tectorial membrane (TM), an extracellular matrix located in the cochlea, can significantly enhance the generation of SOAEs. Multiple untested mechanisms have been proposed to explain these unexpected results. In this work, a physiologically motivated computational model of a mammalian species commonly studied in auditory research, the gerbil, is used to demonstrate that altering the viscoelastic properties of the TM tends to affect the linear stability of the cochlea, SOAE generation and the cochlear response to low amplitude stimuli. These results suggest that changes in TM properties might be the underlying cause for SOAE enhancement in some mutant mice. Furthermore, these theoretical findings imply that the TM contributes to keeping the mammalian cochlea near an oscillatory instability, which promotes high sensitivity and the detection of low level stimuli.

Revealing the morphology and function of the cochlea and middle ear with optical coherence tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has revolutionized physiological studies of the hearing organ, the vibration and morphology of which can now be measured without opening the surrounding bone. In this review, we provide an overview of OCT as used in the otological research, describing advances and different techniques in vibrometry, angiography, and structural imaging.

Power Dissipation in the Cochlea Can Enhance Frequency Selectivity

The cochlear cavity is filled with viscous fluids, and it is partitioned by a viscoelastic structure called the organ of Corti complex. Acoustic energy propagates toward the apex of the cochlea through vibrations of the organ of Corti complex. The dimensions of the vibrating structures range from a few hundred (e.g., the basilar membrane) to a few micrometers (e.g., the stereocilia bundle). Vibrations of microstructures in viscous fluid are subjected to energy dissipation. Because the viscous dissipation is considered to be detrimental to the function of hearing-sound amplification and frequency tuning-the cochlea uses cellular actuators to overcome the dissipation. Compared to extensive investigations on the cellular actuators, the dissipating mechanisms have not been given appropriate attention, and there is little consensus on damping models. For example, many theoretical studies use an inviscid fluid approximation and lump the viscous effect to viscous damping components. Others neglect viscous dissipation in the organ of Corti but consider fluid viscosity. We have developed a computational model of the cochlea that incorporates viscous fluid dynamics, organ of Corti microstructural mechanics, and electrophysiology of the outer hair cells. The model is validated by comparing with existing measurements, such as the viscoelastic response of the tectorial membrane, and the cochlear input impedance. Using the model, we investigated how dissipation components in the cochlea affect its function. We found that the majority of acoustic energy dissipation of the cochlea occurs within the organ of Corti complex, not in the scalar fluids. Our model suggests that an appropriate dissipation can enhance the tuning quality by reducing the spread of energy provided by the outer hair cells' somatic motility.

Control of hearing sensitivity by tectorial membrane calcium

A new mechanism that contributes to control of hearing sensitivity is described here. We show that an accessory structure in the hearing organ, the tectorial membrane, affects the function of inner ear sensory cells by storing calcium ions. When the calcium store is depleted, by brief exposure to rock concert-level sounds or by the introduction of calcium chelators, the sound-evoked responses of the sensory cells decrease. Upon restoration of tectorial membrane calcium, sensory cell function returns. This previously unknown mechanism contributes to explaining the temporary numbness in the ear that follows from listening to sounds that are too loud, a phenomenon that most people experience at some point in their lives.

When sound stimulates the stereocilia on the sensory cells in the hearing organ, Ca²⁺ ions flow through mechanically gated ion channels. This Ca²⁺ influx is thought to be important for ensuring that the mechanically gated channels operate within their most sensitive response region, setting the fraction of channels open at rest, and possibly for the continued maintenance of stereocilia. Since the extracellular Ca²⁺ concentration will affect the amount of Ca²⁺ entering during stimulation, it is important to determine the level of the ion close to the sensory cells. Using fluorescence imaging and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we measured the Ca²⁺ concentration near guinea pig stereocilia in situ. Surprisingly, we found that an acellular accessory structure close to the stereocilia, the tectorial membrane, had much higher Ca²⁺ than the surrounding fluid. Loud sounds depleted Ca²⁺ from the tectorial membrane, and Ca²⁺ manipulations had large effects on hair cell function. Hence, the tectorial membrane contributes to control of hearing sensitivity by influencing the ionic environment around the stereocilia.

Forward and Reverse Waves: Modeling Distortion Products in the Intracochlear Fluid Pressure

Distortion product otoacoustic emissions are sounds that are emitted by the cochlea due to the nonlinearity of the outer hair cells. These emissions play an important role both in clinical settings and research laboratories. However, how distortion products propagate from their generation location to the middle ear remains unclear; whether distortion products propagate as a slow reverse traveling wave, or as a fast compression wave, through the cochlear fluid has been debated. In this article, we evaluate the contributions of the slow reverse wave and fast compression wave to the propagation of intracochlear distortion products using a physiologically based nonlinear model of the gerbil cochlea. This model includes a 3D two-duct model of the intracochlear fluid and a realistic model of outer hair cell biophysics. Simulations of the distortion products in the cochlear fluid pressure in response to a two-tone stimulus are compared with published in vivo experimental results. Whereas experiments have characterized distortion products at a limited number of locations, this model provides a complete description of the fluid pressure at all locations in the cochlear ducts. As in experiments, the spatial variations of the distortion products in the fluid pressure have some similarities with what is observed in response to a pure tone. Analysis of the fluid pressure demonstrates that although a fast wave component is generated, the slow wave component dominates the response. Decomposition of the model simulations into forward and reverse wave components shows that a slow forward propagating wave is generated due to the reflection of the slow reverse wave at the stapes. Wave interference between the reverse and forward components sometimes complicates the analysis of distortion products propagation using measurements at a few locations.

The Competition between the Noise and Shear Motion Sensitivity of Cochlear Inner Hair Cell Stereocilia

Acoustical excitation of the organ of Corti induces radial fluid flow in the subtectorial space (STS) that excites the hair bundles (HBs) of the sensory inner hair cell of the mammalian cochlea. The inner hair cell HBs are bathed in endolymphatic fluid filling a thin gap in the STS between the tectorial membrane and the reticular lamina. According to the fluctuation dissipation theorem, the fluid viscosity gives rise to mechanical fluctuations that are transduced into current noise. Conversely, the stochastic fluctuations of the mechanically gated channels of the HBs also induce dissipation. We develop an analytic model of the STS complex in a cross section of the gerbil organ of Corti. We predict that the dominant noise at the apex is due to the channel stochasticity whereas viscous effects dominate at the base. The net root mean square fluctuation of the HB motion is estimated to be at least 1.18 nm at the base and 2.72 nm at the apex. By varying the HB height for a fixed STS gap, we find that taller HBs are better sensors with lower thresholds. An integrated active HB model is shown to reduce the hydrodynamic resistance through a cycle-by-cycle power addition through adaptation, reducing the thresholds of hearing, hinting at one potential role for HB activity in mammalian hearing. We determine that a Couette flow approximation in the STS underestimates the dissipation and that modeling the entire STS complex is necessary to correctly predict the low-frequency dissipation in the cochlea. Finally, the difference in the noise budget at the base and the apex of the cochlea indicate that a sensing modality other than the shear motion of the TM that may be used to achieve low-noise acoustic sensing at the apex.

Cochlear Frequency Tuning and Otoacoustic Emissions

Otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) evoked from the inner ear are the barely audible, signature byproduct of the delicate hydromechanical amplifier that evolved within its bony walls. Compared to the sounds evoked from the ears of common laboratory animals, OAEs from human ears have exceptionally long delays, typically exceeding those of cats, guinea pigs, and chinchillas by a factor of two to three. This review asks "Why are human OAE delays so long?" and recounts efforts to locate answers in the characteristics of mechanical frequency selectivity in the inner ear. The road to understanding species differences in OAE delay leads to the identification of new invariances and to the emergence of new questions.

Nanoscale Poroelasticity of the Tectorial Membrane Determines Hair Bundle Deflections

Stereociliary imprints in the tectorial membrane (TM) have been taken as evidence that outer hair cells are sensitive to shearing displacements of the TM, which plays a key role in shaping cochlear sensitivity and frequency selectivity via resonance and traveling wave mechanisms. However, the TM is highly hydrated (97% water by weight), suggesting that the TM may be flexible even at the level of single hair cells. Here we show that nanoscale oscillatory displacements of microscale spherical probes in contact with the TM are resisted by frequency-dependent forces that are in phase with TM displacement at low and high frequencies, but are in phase with TM velocity at transition frequencies. The phase lead can be as much as a quarter of a cycle, thereby contributing to frequency selectivity and stability of cochlear amplification.

Amplification and Suppression of Traveling Waves along the Mouse Organ of Corti: Evidence for Spatial Variation in the Longitudinal Coupling of Outer Hair Cell-Generated Forces

Mammalian hearing sensitivity and frequency selectivity depend on a mechanical amplification process mediated by outer hair cells (OHCs). OHCs are situated within the organ of Corti atop the basilar membrane (BM), which supports sound-evoked traveling waves. It is well established that OHCs generate force to selectively amplify BM traveling waves where they peak, and that amplification accumulates from one location to the next over this narrow cochlear region. However, recent measurements demonstrate that traveling waves along the apical surface of the organ of Corti, the reticular lamina (RL), are amplified over a much broader region. Whether OHC forces accumulate along the length of the RL traveling wave to provide a form of "global" cochlear amplification is unclear. Here we examined the spatial accumulation of RL amplification. In mice of either sex, we used tones to suppress amplification from different cochlear regions and examined the effect on RL vibrations near and far from the traveling-wave peak. We found that although OHC forces amplify the entire RL traveling wave, amplification only accumulates near the peak, over the same region where BM motion is amplified. This contradicts the notion that RL motion is involved in a global amplification mechanism and reveals that the mechanical properties of the BM and organ of Corti tune how OHC forces accumulate spatially. Restricting the spatial buildup of amplification enhances frequency selectivity by sharpening the peaks of cochlear traveling waves and constrains the number of OHCs responsible for mechanical sensitivity at each location.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Outer hair cells generate force to amplify traveling waves within the mammalian cochlea. This force generation is critical to the ability to detect and discriminate sounds. Nevertheless, how these forces couple to the motions of the surrounding structures and integrate along the cochlear length remains poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that outer hair cell-generated forces amplify traveling-wave motion on the organ of Corti throughout the wave's extent, but that these forces only accumulate longitudinally over a region near the wave's peak. The longitudinal coupling of outer hair cell-generated forces is therefore spatially tuned, likely by the mechanical properties of the basilar membrane and organ of Corti. Our findings provide new insight into the mechanical processes that underlie sensitive hearing.

Anisotropic Material Properties of Wild-Type and Tectb-/- Tectorial Membranes

The tectorial membrane (TM) is an extracellular matrix that is directly coupled with the mechanoelectrical receptors responsible for sensory transduction and amplification. As such, the TM is often hypothesized to play a key role in the remarkable sensory abilities of the mammalian cochlea. Genetic studies targeting TM proteins have shown that changes in TM structure dramatically affect cochlear function in mice. Precise information about the mechanical properties of the TMs of wild-type and mutant mice at audio frequencies is required to elucidate the role of the TM and to understand how these genetic mutations affect cochlear mechanics. In this study, images of isolated TM segments are used to determine both the radial and longitudinal motions of the TM in response to a harmonic radial excitation. The resulting longitudinally propagating radial displacement and highly spatially dependent longitudinal displacement are modeled using finite-element models that take into account the anisotropy and finite dimensions of TMs. An automated, least-square fitting algorithm is used to find the anisotropic material properties of wild-type and Tectb^-/- mice at audio frequencies. Within the auditory frequency range, it is found that the TM is a highly viscoelastic and anisotropic structure with significantly higher stiffness in the direction of the collagen fibers. Although no decrease in the stiffness in the fiber direction is observed, the stiffness of the TM in shear and in the transverse direction is found to be significantly reduced in Tectb^-/- mice. As a result, TMs of the mutant mice tend to be significantly more anisotropic within the frequency range examined in this study. The effects of the Tectb^-/- mutation on the TM's anisotropic material properties may be responsible for the changes in cochlear tuning and sensitivity that have been previously reported for these mice.

Spontaneous Otoacoustic Emissions in TectaY1870C/+ Mice Reflect Changes in Cochlear Amplification and How It Is Controlled by the Tectorial Membrane

Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAEs) recorded from the ear canal in the absence of sound reflect cochlear amplification, an outer hair cell (OHC) process required for the extraordinary sensitivity and frequency selectivity of mammalian hearing. Although wild-type mice rarely emit, those with mutations that influence the tectorial membrane (TM) show an incidence of SOAEs similar to that in humans. In this report, we characterized mice with a missense mutation in Tecta, a gene required for the formation of the striated-sheet matrix within the core of the TM. Mice heterozygous for the Y1870C mutation (Tecta^Y1870C/+) are prolific emitters, despite a moderate hearing loss. Additionally, Kimura’s membrane, into which the OHC stereocilia insert, separates from the main body of the TM, except at apical cochlear locations. Multimodal SOAEs are also observed in Tecta^Y1870C/+ mice where energy is present at frequencies that are integer multiples of a lower-frequency SOAE (the primary). Second-harmonic SOAEs, at twice the frequency of a lower-frequency primary, are the most frequently observed. These secondary SOAEs are found in spatial regions where stimulus-evoked OAEs are small or in the noise floor. Introduction of high-level suppressors just above the primary SOAE frequency reduce or eliminate both primary and second-harmonic SOAEs. In contrast, second-harmonic SOAEs are not affected by suppressors, either above or below the second-harmonic SOAE frequency, even when they are much larger in amplitude. Hence, second-harmonic SOAEs do not appear to be spatially separated from their primaries, a finding that has implications for cochlear mechanics and the consequences of changes to TM structure.

Timing of the reticular lamina and basilar membrane vibration in living gerbil cochleae

Auditory sensory outer hair cells are thought to amplify sound-induced basilar membrane vibration through a feedback mechanism to enhance hearing sensitivity. For optimal amplification, the outer hair cell-generated force must act on the basilar membrane at an appropriate time at every cycle. However, the temporal relationship between the outer hair cell-driven reticular lamina vibration and the basilar membrane vibration remains unclear. By measuring sub-nanometer vibrations directly from outer hair cells using a custom-built heterodyne low-coherence interferometer, we demonstrate in living gerbil cochleae that the reticular lamina vibration occurs after, not before, the basilar membrane vibration. Both tone- and click-induced responses indicate that the reticular lamina and basilar membrane vibrate in opposite directions at the cochlear base and they oscillate in phase near the best-frequency location. Our results suggest that outer hair cells enhance hearing sensitivity through a global hydromechanical mechanism, rather than through a local mechanical feedback as commonly supposed.

What is the quietest sound the ear can detect? All sounds begin as vibrating air molecules, which enter the ear and cause the eardrum to vibrate. We can detect vibrations that move the eardrum by a distance of less than one picometer. That’s one thousandth of a nanometer, or about 100 times smaller than a hydrogen atom. But how does the ear achieve this level of sensitivity?

Vibrations of the eardrum cause three small bones within the middle ear to vibrate. The vibrations then spread to the cochlea, a fluid-filled spiral structure in the inner ear. Tiny hair cells lining the cochlea move as a result of the vibrations. There are two types of hair cells: inner and outer. Outer hair cells amplify the vibrations. It is this amplification that enables us to detect such small movements of the eardrum. Inner hair cells then convert the amplified vibrations into electrical signals, which travel via the auditory nerve to the brain.

The bases of outer hair cells are connected to a structure called the basilar membrane, while their tops are anchored to a structure called the reticular lamina. It was generally assumed that outer hair cells amplify vibrations of the basilar membrane via a local positive feedback mechanism that requires the hair cells to vibrate first. But by comparing the timing of reticular lamina and basilar membrane vibrations in gerbils, He et al. show that this is not the case. Outer hair cells vibrate after the basilar membrane, not before. This indicates that outer hair cells use a mechanism other than commonly assumed local feedback to amplify sounds.

The results presented by He et al. change our understanding of how the cochlea works, and may help bioengineers to design better hearing aids and cochlea implants. Millions of patients worldwide who suffer from hearing loss may ultimately stand to benefit.

Hydromechanical Structure of the Cochlea Supports the Backward Traveling Wave in the Cochlea In Vivo

The discovery that an apparent forward-propagating otoacoustic emission (OAE) induced basilar membrane vibration has created a serious debate in the field of cochlear mechanics. The traditional theory predicts that OAE will propagate to the ear canal via a backward traveling wave on the basilar membrane, while the opponent theory proposed that the OAE will reach the ear canal via a compression wave. Although accepted by most people, the basic phenomenon of the backward traveling wave theory has not been experimentally demonstrated. In this study, for the first time, we showed the backward traveling wave by measuring the phase spectra of the basilar membrane vibration at multiple longitudinal locations of the basal turn of the cochlea. A local vibration source with a unique and precise location on the cochlear partition was created to avoid the ambiguity of the vibration source in most previous studies. We also measured the vibration pattern at different places of a mechanical cochlear model. A slow backward traveling wave pattern was demonstrated by the time-domain sequence of the measured data. In addition to the wave propagation study, a transmission line mathematical model was used to interpret why no tonotopicity was observed in the backward traveling wave.

Mammalian Auditory Hair Cell Bundle Stiffness Affects Frequency Tuning by Increasing Coupling along the Length of the Cochlea

The stereociliary bundles of cochlear hair cells convert mechanical vibrations into the electrical signals required for auditory sensation. While the stiffness of the bundles strongly influences mechanotransduction, its influence on the vibratory response of the cochlear partition is unclear. To assess this, we measured cochlear vibrations in mutant mice with reduced bundle stiffness or with a tectorial membrane (TM) that is detached from the sensory epithelium. We found that reducing bundle stiffness decreased the high-frequency extent and sharpened the tuning of vibratory responses obtained postmortem. Detaching the TM further reduced the high-frequency extent of the vibrations but also lowered the partition's resonant frequency. Together, these results demonstrate that the bundle's stiffness and attachment to the TM contribute to passive longitudinal coupling in the cochlea. We conclude that the stereociliary bundles and TM interact to facilitate passive-wave propagation to more apical locations, possibly enhancing active-wave amplification in vivo.

Structure, Function, and Development of the Tectorial Membrane: An Extracellular Matrix Essential for Hearing

The tectorial membrane is an extracellular matrix that lies over the apical surface of the auditory epithelia in the inner ears of reptiles, birds, and mammals. Recent studies have shown it is composed of a small set of proteins, some of which are only produced at high levels in the ear and many of which are the products of genes that, when mutated, cause nonsyndromic forms of human hereditary deafness. Quite how the proteins of the tectorial membrane are assembled within the lumen of the inner ear to form a structure that is precisely regulated in its size and physical properties along the length of a tonotopically organized hearing organ is a question that remains to be fully answered. In this brief review we will summarize what is known thus far about the structure, protein composition, and function of the tectorial membrane in birds and mammals, describe how the tectorial membrane develops, and discuss major events that have occurred during the evolution of this extracellular matrix.

Olivocochlear efferents: Their action, effects, measurement and uses, and the impact of the new conception of cochlear mechanical responses

The anatomy and physiology of olivocochlear (OC) efferents are reviewed. To help interpret these, recent advances in cochlear mechanics are also reviewed. Lateral OC (LOC) efferents innervate primary auditory-nerve (AN) fiber dendrites. The most important LOC function may be to reduce auditory neuropathy. Medial OC (MOC) efferents innervate the outer hair cells (OHCs) and act to turn down the gain of cochlear amplification. Cochlear amplification had been thought to act only through basilar membrane (BM) motion, but recent reports show that motion near the reticular lamina (RL) is amplified more than BM motion, and that RL-motion amplification extends to several octaves below the local characteristic frequency. Data on efferent effects on AN-fiber responses, otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) and human psychophysics are reviewed and reinterpreted in the light of the new cochlear-mechanical data. The possible origin of OAEs in RL motion is considered. MOC-effect measuring methods and MOC-induced changes in human responses are also reviewed, including that ipsilateral and contralateral sound can produce MOC effects with different patterns across frequency. MOC efferents help to reduce damage due to acoustic trauma. Many, but not all, reports show that subjects with stronger contralaterally-evoked MOC effects have better ability to detect signals (e.g. speech) in noise, and that MOC effects can be modulated by attention.

An elemental approach to modelling the mechanics of the cochlea

The motion along the basilar membrane in the cochlea is due to the interaction between the micromechanical behaviour of the organ of Corti and the fluid movement in the scalae. By dividing the length of the cochlea into a finite number of elements and assuming a given radial distribution of the basilar membrane motion for each element, a set of equations can be separately derived for the micromechanics and for the fluid coupling. These equations can then be combined, using matrix methods, to give the fully coupled response. This elemental approach reduces to the classical transmission line model if the micromechanics are assumed to be locally-reacting and the fluid coupling is assumed to be entirely one-dimensional, but is also valid without these assumptions. The elemental model is most easily formulated in the frequency domain, assuming quasi-linear behaviour, but a time domain formulation, using state space method, can readily incorporate local nonlinearities in the micromechanics. Examples of programs are included for the elemental model of a human cochlea that can be readily modified for other species.

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General formulation of an elemental model for cochlear mechanics.

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Reduce to the transmission line model for locally-reacting micromechanical and 1D fluid coupling.

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Incorporation of non-uniform areas, 3D fluid coupling and non locally-reacting micromechanics.

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MATLAB programs for the elemental model in the frequency domain and time domain.

Motion microscopy for visualizing and quantifying small motions

Although the human visual system is remarkable at perceiving and interpreting motions, it has limited sensitivity, and we cannot see motions that are smaller than some threshold. Although difficult to visualize, tiny motions below this threshold are important and can reveal physical mechanisms, or be precursors to large motions in the case of mechanical failure. Here, we present a "motion microscope," a computational tool that quantifies tiny motions in videos and then visualizes them by producing a new video in which the motions are made large enough to see. Three scientific visualizations are shown, spanning macroscopic to nanoscopic length scales. They are the resonant vibrations of a bridge demonstrating simultaneous spatial and temporal modal analysis, micrometer vibrations of a metamaterial demonstrating wave propagation through an elastic matrix with embedded resonating units, and nanometer motions of an extracellular tissue found in the inner ear demonstrating a mechanism of frequency separation in hearing. In these instances, the motion microscope uncovers hidden dynamics over a variety of length scales, leading to the discovery of previously unknown phenomena.

Rippling pattern of distortion product otoacoustic emissions evoked by high-frequency primaries in guinea pigs

The origin of ripples in distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) amplitude which appear at specific DPOAE frequencies during f₁ tone sweeps using fixed high frequency f₂ (>20 kHz) in guinea pigs is investigated. The peaks of the ripples, or local DPOAE amplitude maxima, are separated by approximately half octave intervals and are accompanied by phase oscillations. The local maxima appear at the same frequencies in DPOAEs of different order and velocity responses of the stapes and do not shift with increasing levels of the primaries. A suppressor tone had little effect on the frequencies of the maxima, but partially suppressed DPOAE amplitude when it was placed close to the f₂ frequencies. These findings agree with earlier observations that the maxima occur at the same DPOAE frequencies, which are independent of the f₂ and the primary ratio, and thus are likely to be associated with DPOAE propagation mechanisms. Furthermore, the separation of the local maxima by approximately half an octave may suggest that the maxima are due to interference of the travelling waves along the basilar membrane at the frequency of the DPOAE. It is suggested that the rippling pattern appears because of interaction between DPOAE reverse travelling waves with standing waves formed in the cochlea.

Two-Dimensional Cochlear Micromechanics Measured In Vivo Demonstrate Radial Tuning within the Mouse Organ of Corti

The exquisite sensitivity and frequency discrimination of mammalian hearing underlie the ability to understand complex speech in noise. This requires force generation by cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) to amplify the basilar membrane traveling wave; however, it is unclear how amplification is achieved with sharp frequency tuning. Here we investigated the origin of tuning by measuring sound-induced 2-D vibrations within the mouse organ of Corti in vivo Our goal was to determine the transfer function relating the radial shear between the structures that deflect the OHC bundle, the tectorial membrane and reticular lamina, to the transverse motion of the basilar membrane. We found that, after normalizing their responses to the vibration of the basilar membrane, the radial vibrations of the tectorial membrane and reticular lamina were tuned. The radial tuning peaked at a higher frequency than transverse basilar membrane tuning in the passive, postmortem condition. The radial tuning was similar in dead mice, indicating that this reflected passive, not active, mechanics. These findings were exaggerated in Tecta(C1509G/C1509G) mice, where the tectorial membrane is detached from OHC stereocilia, arguing that the tuning of radial vibrations within the hair cell epithelium is distinct from tectorial membrane tuning. Together, these results reveal a passive, frequency-dependent contribution to cochlear filtering that is independent of basilar membrane filtering. These data argue that passive mechanics within the organ of Corti sharpen frequency selectivity by defining which OHCs enhance the vibration of the basilar membrane, thereby tuning the gain of cochlear amplification.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Outer hair cells amplify the traveling wave within the mammalian cochlea. The resultant gain and frequency sharpening are necessary for speech discrimination, particularly in the presence of background noise. Here we measured the 2-D motion of the organ of Corti in mice and found that the structures that stimulate the outer hair cell stereocilia, the tectorial membrane and reticular lamina, were sharply tuned in the radial direction. Radial tuning was similar in dead mice and in mice lacking a tectorial membrane. This suggests that radial tuning comes from passive mechanics within the hair cell epithelium, and that these mechanics, at least in part, may tune the gain of cochlear amplification.

Simulating the Chan-Hudspeth experiment on an active excised cochlear segment

Hearing relies on a series of coupled electrical, acoustical, and mechanical interactions inside the cochlea that enable sound processing. The local structural and electrical properties of the organ of Corti (OoC) and basilar membrane give rise to the global, coupled behavior of the cochlea. However, it is difficult to determine the root causes of important behavior, such as the mediator of active processes, in the fully coupled in vivo setting. An alternative experimental approach is to use an excised segment of the cochlea under controlled electrical and mechanical conditions. Using the excised cochlear segment experiment conducted by Chan and Hudspeth [Nat. Neurosci. 8, 149-155 (2005); Biophys. J. 89, 4382-4395 (2005)] as the model problem, a quasilinear computational model for studying the active in vitro response of the OoC to acoustical stimulation was developed. The model of the electrical, mechanical, and acoustical conditions of the experimental configuration is able to replicate some of the experiment results, such as the shape of the frequency response of the sensory epithelium and the variation of the resonance frequency with the added fluid mass. As in the experiment, the model predicts a phase accumulation along the segment. However, it was found that the contribution of this phase accumulation to the dynamics is insignificant. Taking advantage of the relative simplicity of the fluid loading, the three-dimensional fluid dynamics was reduced into an added mass loading on the OoC thereby reducing the overall complexity of the model.

Geometric Requirements for Tectorial Membrane Traveling Waves in the Presence of Cochlear Loads

Recent studies suggest that wave motions of the tectorial membrane (TM) play a critical role in determining the frequency selectivity of hearing. However, frequency tuning is also thought to be limited by viscous loss in subtectorial fluid. Here, we analyze effects of this loss and other cochlear loads on TM traveling waves. Using a viscoelastic model, we demonstrate that hair bundle stiffness has little effect on TM traveling waves calculated with physiological parameters, that the limbal attachment can cause small (<20%) increases in TM wavelength, and that viscous loss in the subtectorial fluid can cause small (<20%) decreases in TM wave decay constants. However, effects of viscous loss in the subtectorial fluid are significantly increased if TM thickness is decreased. In contrast, increasing TM thickness above its physiological range has little effect on the wave, suggesting that the TM is just thick enough to maximize the spatial extent of the TM traveling wave.

[Conversion of sound into auditory nerve action potentials]

Outer hair cells play a major role in the hearing process: they amplify the motion of the basilar membrane up to a 1000-fold and at the same time sharpen the excitation patterns. These patterns are converted by inner hair cells into action potentials of the auditory nerve. Outer hair cells are delicate structures and easily damaged, e. g., by overexposure to noise. Hearing aids can amplify the amplitude of the excitation patterns, but they cannot restore their degraded frequency selectivity. Noise overexposure also leads to delayed degeneration of auditory nerve fibers, particularly those with low a spontaneous rate, which are important for the coding of sound in noise. However, this loss cannot be diagnosed by pure-tone audiometry.

Intracochlear Scala Media Pressure Measurement: Implications for Models of Cochlear Mechanics

Models of the active cochlea build upon the underlying passive mechanics. Passive cochlear mechanics is based on physical and geometrical properties of the cochlea and the fluid-tissue interaction between the cochlear partition and the surrounding fluid. Although the fluid-tissue interaction between the basilar membrane and the fluid in scala tympani (ST) has been explored in both active and passive cochleae, there was no experimental data on the fluid-tissue interaction on the scala media (SM) side of the partition. To this aim, we measured sound-evoked intracochlear pressure in SM close to the partition using micropressure sensors. All the SM pressure data are from passive cochleae, likely because the SM cochleostomy led to loss of endocochlear potential. Thus, these experiments are studies of passive cochlear mechanics. SM pressure close to the tissue showed a pattern of peaks and notches, which could be explained as an interaction between fast and slow (i.e., traveling wave) pressure modes. In several animals SM and ST pressure were measured in the same cochlea. Similar to previous studies, ST-pressure was dominated by a slow, traveling wave mode at stimulus frequencies in the vicinity of the best frequency of the measurement location, and by a fast mode above best frequency. Antisymmetric pressure between SM and ST supported the classic single-partition cochlear models, or a dual-partition model with tight coupling between partitions. From the SM and ST pressure we calculated slow and fast modes, and from active ST pressure we extrapolated the passive findings to the active case. The passive slow mode estimated from SM and ST data was low-pass in nature, as predicted by cochlear models.

A comparative study of seven human cochlear filter models

Auditory models have been developed for decades to simulate characteristics of the human auditory system, but it is often unknown how well auditory models compare to each other or perform in tasks they were not primarily designed for. This study systematically analyzes predictions of seven publicly-available cochlear filter models in response to a fixed set of stimuli to assess their capabilities of reproducing key aspects of human cochlear mechanics. The following features were assessed at frequencies of 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 kHz: cochlear excitation patterns, nonlinear response growth, frequency selectivity, group delays, signal-in-noise processing, and amplitude modulation representation. For each task, the simulations were compared to available physiological data recorded in guinea pigs and gerbils as well as to human psychoacoustics data. The presented results provide application-oriented users with comprehensive information on the advantages, limitations and computation costs of these seven mainstream cochlear filter models.

Tectorial Membrane Traveling Waves Underlie Sharp Auditory Tuning in Humans

Our ability to understand speech requires neural tuning with high frequency resolution, but the peripheral mechanisms underlying sharp tuning in humans remain unclear. Sharp tuning in genetically modified mice has been attributed to decreases in spread of excitation of tectorial membrane traveling waves. Here we show that the spread of excitation of tectorial membrane waves is similar in humans and mice, although the mechanical excitation spans fewer frequencies in humans—suggesting a possible mechanism for sharper tuning.

Underestimated sensitivity of mammalian cochlear hair cells due to splay between stereociliary columns

Current-displacement (I-X) and the force-displacement (F-X) relationships characterize hair-cell mechano-transduction in the inner ear. A common technique for measuring these relationships is to deliver mechanical stimulations to individual hair bundles with microprobes and measure whole cell transduction currents through patch pipette electrodes at the basolateral membrane. The sensitivity of hair-cell mechano-transduction is determined by two fundamental biophysical properties of the mechano-transduction channel, the stiffness of the putative gating spring and the gating swing, which are derived from the I-X and F-X relationships. Although the hair-cell stereocilia in vivo deflect <100 nm even at high sound pressure levels, often it takes >500 nm of stereocilia displacement to saturate hair-cell mechano-transduction in experiments with individual hair cells in vitro. Despite such discrepancy between in vivo and in vitro data, key biophysical properties of hair-cell mechano-transduction to define the transduction sensitivity have been estimated from in vitro experiments. Using three-dimensional finite-element methods, we modeled an inner hair-cell and an outer hair-cell stereocilia bundle and simulated the effect of probe stimulation. Unlike the natural situation where the tectorial membrane stimulates hair-cell stereocilia evenly, probes deflect stereocilia unevenly. Because of uneven stimulation, 1) the operating range (the 10–90% width of the I-X relationship) increases by a factor of 2–8 depending on probe shapes, 2) the I-X relationship changes from a symmetric to an asymmetric function, and 3) the bundle stiffness is underestimated. Our results indicate that the generally accepted assumption of parallel stimulation leads to an overestimation of the gating swing and underestimation of the gating spring stiffness by an order of magnitude.

Tectorins crosslink type II collagen fibrils and connect the tectorial membrane to the spiral limbus

All inner ear organs possess extracellular matrix appendices over the sensory epithelia that are crucial for their proper function. The tectorial membrane (TM) is a gelatinous acellular membrane located above the hearing sensory epithelium and is composed mostly of type II collagen, and α and β tectorins. TM molecules self-assemble in the endolymph fluid environment, interacting medially with the spiral limbus and distally with the outer hair cell stereocilia. Here, we used immunogold labeling in freeze-substituted mouse cochleae to assess the fine localization of both tectorins in distinct TM regions. We observed that the TM adheres to the spiral limbus through a dense thin matrix enriched in α- and β-tectorin, both likely bound to the membranes of interdental cells. Freeze-etching images revealed that type II collagen fibrils were crosslinked by short thin filaments (4±1.5nm, width), resembling another collagen type protein, or chains of globular elements (15±3.2nm, diameter). Gold-particles for both tectorins also localized adjacent to the type II collagen fibrils, suggesting that these globules might be composed essentially of α- and β-tectorins. Finally, the presence of gold-particles at the TM lower side suggests that the outer hair cell stereocilia membrane has a molecular partner to tectorins, probably stereocilin, allowing the physical connection between the TM and the organ of Corti.

Longitudinal spread of mechanical excitation through tectorial membrane traveling waves

The mammalian inner ear separates sounds by their frequency content, and this separation underlies important properties of human hearing, including our ability to understand speech in noisy environments. Studies of genetic disorders of hearing have demonstrated a link between frequency selectivity and wave properties of the tectorial membrane (TM). To understand these wave properties better, we developed chemical manipulations that systematically and reversibly alter TM stiffness and viscosity. Using microfabricated shear probes, we show that (i) reducing pH reduces TM stiffness with little change in TM viscosity and (ii) adding PEG increases TM viscosity with little change in TM stiffness. By applying these manipulations in measurements of TM waves, we show that TM wave speed is determined primarily by stiffness at low frequencies and by viscosity at high frequencies. Both TM viscosity and stiffness affect the longitudinal spread of mechanical excitation through the TM over a broad range of frequencies. Increasing TM viscosity or decreasing stiffness reduces longitudinal spread of mechanical excitation, thereby coupling a smaller range of best frequencies and sharpening tuning. In contrast, increasing viscous loss or decreasing stiffness would tend to broaden tuning in resonance-based TM models. Thus, TM wave and resonance mechanisms are fundamentally different in the way they control frequency selectivity.

Consequences of Location-Dependent Organ of Corti Micro-Mechanics

The cochlea performs frequency analysis and amplification of sounds. The graded stiffness of the basilar membrane along the cochlear length underlies the frequency-location relationship of the mammalian cochlea. The somatic motility of outer hair cell is central for cochlear amplification. Despite two to three orders of magnitude change in the basilar membrane stiffness, the force capacity of the outer hair cell’s somatic motility, is nearly invariant over the cochlear length. It is puzzling how actuators with a constant force capacity can operate under such a wide stiffness range. We hypothesize that the organ of Corti sets the mechanical conditions so that the outer hair cell’s somatic motility effectively interacts with the media of traveling waves—the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane. To test this hypothesis, a computational model of the gerbil cochlea was developed that incorporates organ of Corti structural mechanics, cochlear fluid dynamics, and hair cell electro-physiology. The model simulations showed that the micro-mechanical responses of the organ of Corti are different along the cochlear length. For example, the top surface of the organ of Corti vibrated more than the bottom surface at the basal (high frequency) location, but the amplitude ratio was reversed at the apical (low frequency) location. Unlike the basilar membrane stiffness varying by a factor of 1700 along the cochlear length, the stiffness of the organ of Corti complex felt by the outer hair cell remained between 1.5 and 0.4 times the outer hair cell stiffness. The Y-shaped structure in the organ of Corti formed by outer hair cell, Deiters cell and its phalange was the primary determinant of the elastic reactance imposed on the outer hair cells. The stiffness and geometry of the Deiters cell and its phalange affected cochlear amplification differently depending on the location.

Stimulus Frequency Otoacoustic Emissions Provide No Evidence for the Role of Efferents in the Enhancement Effect

Auditory enhancement refers to the perceptual phenomenon that a target sound is heard out more readily from a background sound if the background is presented alone first. Here we used stimulus-frequency otoacoustic emissions (SFOAEs) to test the hypothesis that activation of the medial olivocochlear efferent system contributes to auditory enhancement effects. The SFOAEs were used as a tool to measure changes in cochlear responses to a target component and the neighboring components of a multitone background between conditions producing enhancement and conditions producing no enhancement. In the "enhancement" condition, the target and multitone background were preceded by a precursor stimulus with a spectral notch around the signal frequency; in the control (no-enhancement) condition, the target and multitone background were presented without the precursor. In an experiment using a wideband multitone stimulus known to produce significant psychophysical enhancement effects, SFOAEs showed no changes consistent with enhancement, but some aspects of the results indicated possible contamination of the SFOAE magnitudes by the activation of the middle-ear-muscle reflex. The same SFOAE measurements performed using narrower-band stimuli at lower sound levels also showed no SFOAE changes consistent with either absolute or relative enhancement despite robust psychophysical enhancement effects observed in the same listeners with the same stimuli. The results suggest that cochlear efferent control does not play a significant role in auditory enhancement effects.