F-pili dynamics by live-cell imaging

The metabolic burden associated with plasmid acquisition: An assessment of the unrecognized benefits to host cells

Bacterial conjugation, wherein DNA is transferred between cells through direct contact, is highly prevalent in complex microbial communities and is responsible for spreading myriad genes related to human and environmental health. Despite their importance, much remains unknown regarding the mechanisms driving the spread and persistence of these plasmids in situ. Studies have demonstrated that transferring, acquiring, and maintaining a plasmid imposes a significant metabolic burden on the host. Simultaneously, emerging evidence suggests that the presence of a conjugative plasmid can also provide both obvious and unexpected benefits to their host and local community. Combined, this highlights a continuous cost-benefit tradeoff at the population level, likely contributing to overall plasmid abundance and long-term persistence. Yet, while the metabolic burdens of plasmid conjugation, and their causes, are widely studied, their attendant potential advantages are less clear. Here, we summarize current perspectives on conjugative plasmids' metabolic burden and then highlight the lesser-appreciated yet critical benefits that plasmid-mediated metabolic burdens may provide. We argue that this largely unexplored tradeoff is critical to both a fundamental theory of microbial populations and engineering applications and therefore warrants further detailed study.

Molecular basis of conjugation-mediated DNA transfer by gram-negative bacteria

Bacterial conjugation is the unidirectional transfer of DNA (often plasmids, but also other mobile genetic elements, or even entire genomes), from a donor cell to a recipient cell. In Gram-negative bacteria, it requires the formation of three complexes in the donor cell: i-a large, double-membrane-embedded transport machinery called the Type IV Secretion System (T4SS), ii-a long extracellular tube, the conjugative pilus, and iii-a DNA-processing machinery termed the relaxosome. While knowledge has expanded regarding molecular events in the donor cell, very little is known about the machinery involved in DNA transfer into the recipient cell. Here, focusing on systems principally involved in DNA transfer, we provide an update on progress made on various mechanistic aspects of conjugation.

DNA Molecular Glue Assisted Bacterial Conjugative Transfer

Bacterial conjugation, a commonly used method to horizontally transfer functional genes from donor to recipient strains, plays an important role in the genetic manipulation of bacteria for basic research and industrial production. Successful conjugation depends on the donor-recipient cell recognition and a tight mating junction formation. However, the efficiency of conjugative transfer is usually very low. In this work, we developed a new technique that employed DNA molecule "glue" to increase the match frequency and the interaction stability between the donor and recipient cells. We used two E. coli strains, ETZ and BL21, as a model system, and modified them with the complementary ssDNA oligonucleotides by click chemistry. The conjugation efficiency of the modified bacteria was improved more than 4 times from 10 %-46 %. This technique is simple and generalizable as it only relies on the active amino groups on the bacterial surface. It is expected to have broad applications in constructing engineered bacteria.

Removal of Pseudomonas type IV pili by a small RNA virus

The retractile type IV pilus (T4P) is important for virulence of the opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) phage PP7 binds to T4P and is brought to the cell surface through pilus retraction. Using fluorescence microscopy, we discovered that PP7 detaches T4P, which impairs cell motility and restricts the pathogen's virulence. Using cryo-electron microscopy, mutagenesis, optical trapping, and Langevin dynamics simulation, we resolved the structure of PP7, T4P, and the PP7/T4P complex and showed that T4P detachment is driven by the affinity between the phage maturation protein and its bound pilin, plus the pilus retraction force and speed, and pilus bending. Pilus detachment may be widespread among other ssRNA phages and their retractile pilus systems and offers new prospects for antibacterial prophylaxis and therapeutics.

The winding journey of conjugative plasmids toward a novel host cell

Horizontal transfer of plasmids by conjugation is a fundamental mechanism driving the widespread dissemination of drug resistance among bacterial populations. The successful colonization of a new host cell necessitates the plasmid to navigate through a series of sequential steps, each dependent on specific plasmid or host factors. This review explores recent advancements in comprehending the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern plasmid transmission, establishment, and long-term maintenance. Adopting a plasmid-centric perspective, we describe the critical steps and bottlenecks in the plasmid's journey toward a new host cell, encompassing exploration and contact initiation, invasion, establishment and control, and assimilation.

Structural basis of Acinetobacter type IV pili targeting by an RNA virus

Acinetobacters pose a significant threat to human health, especially those with weakened immune systems. Type IV pili of acinetobacters play crucial roles in virulence and antibiotic resistance. Single-stranded RNA bacteriophages target the bacterial retractile pili, including type IV. Our study delves into the interaction between Acinetobacter phage AP205 and type IV pili. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we solve structures of the AP205 virion with an asymmetric dimer of maturation proteins, the native Acinetobacter type IV pili bearing a distinct post-translational pilin cleavage, and the pili-bound AP205 showing its maturation proteins adapted to pilin modifications, allowing each phage to bind to one or two pili. Leveraging these results, we develop a 20-kilodalton AP205-derived protein scaffold targeting type IV pili in situ, with potential for research and diagnostics.

Chimeric systems composed of swapped Tra subunits between distantly-related F plasmids reveal striking plasticity among type IV secretion machines

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are a versatile family of macromolecular translocators, collectively able to recruit diverse DNA and protein substrates and deliver them to a wide range of cell types. Presently, there is little understanding of how T4SSs recognize substrate repertoires and form productive contacts with specific target cells. Although T4SSs are composed of a number of conserved subunits and adopt certain conserved structural features, they also display considerable compositional and structural diversity. Here, we explored the structural bases underlying the functional versatility of T4SSs through systematic deletion and subunit swapping between two conjugation systems encoded by the distantly-related IncF plasmids, pED208 and F. We identified several regions of intrinsic flexibility among the encoded T4SSs, as evidenced by partial or complete functionality of chimeric machines. Swapping of VirD4-like TraD type IV coupling proteins (T4CPs) yielded functional chimeras, indicative of relaxed specificity at the substrate-TraD and TraD-T4SS interfaces. Through mutational analyses, we further delineated domains of the TraD T4CPs contributing to recruitment of cognate vs heterologous DNA substrates. Remarkably, swaps of components comprising the outer membrane core complexes, a few F-specific subunits, or the TraA pilins supported DNA transfer in the absence of detectable pilus production. Among sequenced enterobacterial species in the NCBI database, we identified many strains that harbor two or more F-like plasmids and many F plasmids lacking one or more T4SS components required for self-transfer. We confirmed that host cells carrying co-resident, non-selftransmissible variants of pED208 and F elaborate chimeric T4SSs, as evidenced by transmission of both plasmids. We propose that T4SS plasticity enables the facile assembly of functional chimeras, and this intrinsic flexibility at the structural level can account for functional diversification of this superfamily over evolutionary time and, on a more immediate time-scale, to proliferation of transfer-defective MGEs in nature.

Is it selfish to be filamentous in biofilms? Individual-based modeling links microbial growth strategies with morphology using the new and modular iDynoMiCS 2.0

Microbial communities are found in all habitable environments and often occur in assemblages with self-organized spatial structures developing over time. This complexity can only be understood, predicted, and managed by combining experiments with mathematical modeling. Individual-based models are particularly suited if individual heterogeneity, local interactions, and adaptive behavior are of interest. Here we present the completely overhauled software platform, the individual-based Dynamics of Microbial Communities Simulator, iDynoMiCS 2.0, which enables researchers to specify a range of different models without having to program. Key new features and improvements are: (1) Substantially enhanced ease of use (graphical user interface, editor for model specification, unit conversions, data analysis and visualization and more). (2) Increased performance and scalability enabling simulations of up to 10 million agents in 3D biofilms. (3) Kinetics can be specified with any arithmetic function. (4) Agent properties can be assembled from orthogonal modules for pick and mix flexibility. (5) Force-based mechanical interaction framework enabling attractive forces and non-spherical agent morphologies as an alternative to the shoving algorithm. The new iDynoMiCS 2.0 has undergone intensive testing, from unit tests to a suite of increasingly complex numerical tests and the standard Benchmark 3 based on nitrifying biofilms. A second test case was based on the "biofilms promote altruism" study previously implemented in BacSim because competition outcomes are highly sensitive to the developing spatial structures due to positive feedback between cooperative individuals. We extended this case study by adding morphology to find that (i) filamentous bacteria outcompete spherical bacteria regardless of growth strategy and (ii) non-cooperating filaments outcompete cooperating filaments because filaments can escape the stronger competition between themselves. In conclusion, the new substantially improved iDynoMiCS 2.0 joins a growing number of platforms for individual-based modeling of microbial communities with specific advantages and disadvantages that we discuss, giving users a wider choice.

The mating pilus of E. coli pED208 acts as a conduit for ssDNA during horizontal gene transfer

IMPORTANCE

Bacteria are constantly exchanging DNA, which constitutes horizontal gene transfer. While some of these occurs by a non-specific process called natural transformation, some occurs by a specific mating between a donor and a recipient cell. In specific conjugation, the mating pilus is extended from the donor cell to make contact with the recipient cell, but whether DNA is actually transferred through this pilus or by another mechanism involving the type IV secretion system complex without the pilus has been an open question. Using Escherichia coli, we show that DNA can be transferred through this pilus between a donor and a recipient cell that has not established a tight mating junction, providing a new picture for the role of this pilus.

Chimeric systems composed of swapped Tra subunits between distantly-related F plasmids reveal striking plasticity among type IV secretion machines

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are a versatile family of macromolecular translocators, collectively able to recruit diverse DNA and protein substrates and deliver them to a wide range of cell types. Presently, there is little understanding of how T4SSs recognize substrate repertoires and form productive contacts with specific target cells. Although T4SSs are composed of a number of conserved subunits and adopt certain conserved structural features, they also display considerable compositional and structural diversity. Here, we explored the structural bases underlying the functional versatility of T4SSs through systematic deletion and subunit swapping between two conjugation systems encoded by the distantly-related IncF plasmids, pED208 and F. We identified several regions of intrinsic flexibility among the encoded T4SSs, as evidenced by partial or complete functionality of chimeric machines. Swapping of VirD4-like TraD type IV coupling proteins (T4CPs) yielded functional chimeras, indicative of relaxed specificity at the substrate - TraD and TraD - T4SS interfaces. Through mutational analyses, we further delineated domains of the TraD T4CPs contributing to recruitment of cognate vs heterologous DNA substrates. Remarkably, swaps of components comprising the outer membrane core complexes, a few F-specific subunits, or the TraA pilins supported DNA transfer in the absence of detectable pilus production. Among sequenced enterobacterial species in the NCBI database, we identified many strains that harbor two or more F-like plasmids and many F plasmids lacking one or more T4SS components required for self-transfer. We confirmed that host cells carrying co-resident, non-selftransmissible variants of pED208 and F elaborate chimeric T4SSs, as evidenced by transmission of both plasmids. We propose that T4SS plasticity enables the facile assembly of functional chimeras, and this intrinsic flexibility at the structural level can account for functional diversification of this superfamily over evolutionary time and, on a more immediate time-scale, to proliferation of transfer-defective MGEs in nature.

The F pilus serves as a conduit for the DNA during conjugation between physically distant bacteria

Horizontal transfer of F-like plasmids by bacterial conjugation is responsible for disseminating antibiotic resistance and virulence determinants among pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae species, a growing health concern worldwide. Central to this process is the conjugative F pilus, a long extracellular filamentous polymer that extends from the surface of plasmid donor cells, allowing it to probe the environment and make contact with the recipient cell. It is well established that the F pilus can retract to bring mating pair cells in tight contact before DNA transfer. However, whether DNA transfer can occur through the extended pilus has been a subject of active debate. In this study, we use live-cell microscopy to show that while most transfer events occur between cells in direct contact, the F pilus can indeed serve as a conduit for the DNA during transfer between physically distant cells. Our findings enable us to propose a unique model for conjugation that revises our understanding of the DNA transfer mechanism and the dissemination of drug resistance and virulence genes within complex bacterial communities.

Ligand-displaying Escherichia coli cells and minicells for programmable delivery of toxic payloads via type IV secretion systems

IMPORTANCE

The rapid emergence of drug-resistant bacteria and current low rate of antibiotic discovery emphasize the urgent need for alternative antibacterial strategies. We engineered Escherichia coli to conjugatively transfer plasmids to specific E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa recipient cells through the surface display of cognate nanobody/antigen (Nb/Ag) pairs. We further engineered mobilizable plasmids to carry CRISPR/Cas9 systems (pCrispr) for the selective killing of recipient cells harboring CRISPR/Cas9 target sequences. In the assembled programmed delivery system (PDS), Nb-displaying E. coli donors with different conjugation systems and mobilizable pCrispr plasmids suppressed the growth of Ag-displaying recipient cells to significantly greater extents than unpaired recipients. We also showed that anucleate minicells armed with conjugation machines and pCrispr plasmids were highly effective in killing E. coli recipients. Together, our findings suggest that bacteria or minicells armed with PDSs may prove highly effective as an adjunct or alternative to antibiotics for antimicrobial intervention.

Plasmids pick a bacterial partner before committing to conjugation

Bacterial conjugation was first described by Lederberg and Tatum in the 1940s following the discovery of the F plasmid. During conjugation a plasmid is transferred unidirectionally from one bacterium (the donor) to another (the recipient), in a contact-dependent manner. Conjugation has been regarded as a promiscuous mechanism of DNA transfer, with host range determined by the recipient downstream of plasmid transfer. However, recent data have shown that F-like plasmids, akin to tailed Caudovirales bacteriophages, can pick their host bacteria prior to transfer by expressing one of at least four structurally distinct isoforms of the outer membrane protein TraN, which has evolved to function as a highly sensitive sensor on the donor cell surface. The TraN sensor appears to pick bacterial hosts by binding compatible outer membrane proteins in the recipient. The TraN variants can be divided into specialist and generalist sensors, conferring narrow and broad plasmid host range, respectively. In this review we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the function of the TraN sensor at the donor-recipient interface, used by F-like plasmids to select bacterial hosts within polymicrobial communities prior to DNA transfer.

Ligand-Displaying E. coli Cells and Minicells for Programmable Delivery of Toxic Payloads via Type IV Secretion Systems

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are highly versatile macromolecular translocators and offer great potential for deployment as delivery systems for therapeutic intervention. One major T4SS subfamily, the conjugation machines, are well-adapted for delivery of DNA cargoes of interest to other bacteria or eukaryotic cells, but generally exhibit modest transfer frequencies and lack specificity for target cells. Here, we tested the efficacy of a surface-displayed nanobody/antigen (Nb/Ag) pairing system to enhance the conjugative transfer of IncN (pKM101), IncF (F/pOX38), or IncP (RP4) plasmids, or of mobilizable plasmids including those encoding CRISPR/Cas9 systems (pCrispr), to targeted recipient cells. Escherichia coli donors displaying Nb's transferred plasmids to E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa recipients displaying the cognate Ag's at significantly higher frequencies than to recipients lacking Ag's. Nb/Ag pairing functionally substituted for the surface adhesin activities of F-encoded TraN and pKM101-encoded Pep, although not conjugative pili or VirB5-like adhesins. Nb/Ag pairing further elevated the killing effects accompanying delivery of pCrispr plasmids to E. coli and P. aeruginosa transconjugants bearing CRISPR/Cas9 target sequences. Finally, we determined that anucleate E. coli minicells, which are clinically safer delivery vectors than intact cells, transferred self-transmissible and mobilizable plasmids to E. coli and P. aeruginosa cells. Minicell-mediated mobilization of pCrispr plasmids to E. coli recipients elicited significant killing of transconjugants, although Nb/Ag pairing did not enhance conjugation frequencies or killing. Together, our findings establish the potential for deployment of bacteria or minicells as Programmed Delivery Systems (PDSs) for suppression of targeted bacterial species in infection settings.

IMPORTANCE

The rapid emergence of drug-resistant bacteria and current low rate of antibiotic discovery emphasize an urgent need for alternative antibacterial strategies. We engineered Escherichia coli to conjugatively transfer plasmids to specific E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa recipient cells through surface display of cognate nanobody/antigen (Nb/Ag) pairs. We further engineered mobilizable plasmids to carry CRISPR/Cas9 systems (pCrispr) for selective killing of recipient cells harboring CRISPR/Cas9 target sequences. In the assembled Programmed Delivery System (PDS), Nb-displaying E. coli donors with different conjugation systems and mobilizable pCrispr plasmids suppressed growth of Ag-displaying recipient cells to significantly greater extents than unpaired recipients. We also showed that anucleate minicells armed with conjugation machines and pCrispr plasmids were highly effective in killing of E. coli recipients. Together, our findings suggest that bacteria or minicells armed with PDSs may prove highly effective as an adjunct or alternative to antibiotics for antimicrobial intervention.

DNA Transport through the Dynamic Type IV Secretion System

The versatile type IV secretion system (T4SS) nanomachine plays a pivotal role in bacterial pathogenesis and the propagation of antibiotic resistance determinants throughout microbial populations. In addition to paradigmatic DNA conjugation machineries, diverse T4SSs enable the delivery of multifarious effector proteins to target prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, mediate DNA export and uptake from the extracellular milieu, and in rare examples, facilitate transkingdom DNA translocation. Recent advances have identified new mechanisms underlying unilateral nucleic acid transport through the T4SS apparatus, highlighting both functional plasticity and evolutionary adaptations that enable novel capabilities. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms underscoring DNA translocation through diverse T4SS machineries, emphasizing the architectural features that implement DNA exchange across the bacterial membrane and license transverse DNA release across kingdom boundaries. We further detail how recent studies have addressed outstanding questions surrounding the mechanisms by which nanomachine architectures and substrate recruitment strategies contribute to T4SS functional diversity.

Pheromone effect of estradiol regulates the conjugative transfer of pCF10 carrying antibiotic resistance genes

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) mediated by conjugative plasmids greatly contributes to bacteria evolution and the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In addition to the selective pressure imposed by extensive antibiotic use, environmental chemical pollutants facilitate the dissemination of antibiotic resistance, consequently posing a serious threat to the ecological environment. Presently, the majority of studies focus on the effects of environmental compounds on R plasmid-mediated conjugation transfer, and pheromone-inducible conjugation has largely been neglected. In this study, we explored the pheromone effect and potential molecular mechanisms of estradiol in promoting the conjugative transfer of pCF10 plasmid in Enterococcus faecalis. Environmentally relevant concentrations of estradiol significantly increased the conjugative transfer of pCF10 with a maximum frequency of 3.2 × 10^-2, up to 3.5-fold change compared to that of control. Exposure to estradiol induced the activation of pheromone signaling cascade by increasing the expression of ccfA. Furthermore, estradiol might directly bind to the pheromone receptor PrgZ and promote pCF10 induction and finally enhance the conjugative transfer of pCF10. These findings cast valuable insights on the roles of estradiol and its homolog in increasing antibiotic resistance and the potential ecological risk.

The Interaction of the F-Like Plasmid-Encoded TraN Isoforms with Their Cognate Outer Membrane Receptors

Horizontal gene transfer via conjugation plays a major role in bacterial evolution. In F-like plasmids, efficient DNA transfer is mediated by close association between donor and recipient bacteria. This process, known as mating pair stabilization (MPS), is mediated by interactions between the plasmid-encoded outer membrane (OM) protein TraN in the donor and chromosomally-encoded OM proteins in the recipient. We have recently reported the existence of 7 TraN sequence types, which are grouped into 4 structural types, that we named TraNα, TraNβ, TraNγ, and TraNδ. Moreover, we have shown specific pairing between TraNα and OmpW, TraNβ and OmpK36 of Klebsiella pneumoniae, TraNγ and OmpA, and TraNδ and OmpF. In this study, we found that, although structurally similar, TraNα encoded by the Salmonella enterica pSLT plasmid (TraNα2) binds OmpW in both Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium, while TraNα encoded by the R100-1 plasmid (TraNα1) only binds OmpW in E. coli. AlphaFold2 predictions suggested that this specificity is mediated by a single amino acid difference in loop 3 of OmpW, which we confirmed experimentally. Moreover, we show that single amino acids insertions into loop 3 of OmpK36 affect TraNβ-mediated conjugation efficiency of the K. pneumoniae resistance plasmid pKpQIL. Lastly, we report that TraNβ can also mediate MPS by binding OmpK35, making it the first TraN variant that can bind more than one OM protein in the recipient. Together, these data show that subtle sequence differences in the OM receptors can impact TraN-mediated conjugation efficiency. IMPORTANCE Conjugation plays a central role in the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes among bacterial pathogens. Efficient conjugation is mediated by formation of mating pairs via a pilus, followed by mating pair stabilization (MPS), mediated by tight interactions between the plasmid-encoded outer membrane protein (OMP) TraN in the donor (of which there are 7 sequence types grouped into the 4 structural isoforms α, β, γ, and δ), and an OMP receptor in the recipient (OmpW, OmpK36, OmpA, and OmpF, respectively). In this study, we found that subtle differences in OmpW and OmpK36 have significant consequences on conjugation efficiency and specificity, highlighting the existence of selective pressure affecting plasmid-host compatibility and the flow of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria.

Efficient plasmid transfer via natural competence in a microbial co-culture

The molecular and ecological factors shaping horizontal gene transfer (HGT) via natural transformation in microbial communities are largely unknown, which is critical for understanding the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. We investigate key factors shaping HGT in a microbial co-culture by quantifying extracellular DNA release, species growth, and HGT efficiency over time. In the co-culture, plasmid release and HGT efficiency are significantly enhanced than in the respective monocultures. The donor is a key determinant of HGT efficiency as plasmids induce the SOS response, enter a multimerized state, and are released in high concentrations, enabling efficient HGT. However, HGT is reduced in response to high donor lysis rates. HGT is independent of the donor viability state as both live and dead cells transfer the plasmid with high efficiency. In sum, plasmid HGT via natural transformation depends on the interplay of plasmid properties, donor stress responses and lysis rates, and interspecies interactions.

Real-time visualisation of the intracellular dynamics of conjugative plasmid transfer

Conjugation is a contact-dependent mechanism for the transfer of plasmid DNA between bacterial cells, which contributes to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. Here, we use live-cell microscopy to visualise the intracellular dynamics of conjugative transfer of F-plasmid in E. coli, in real time. We show that the transfer of plasmid in single-stranded form (ssDNA) and its subsequent conversion into double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) are fast and efficient processes that occur with specific timing and subcellular localisation. Notably, the ssDNA-to-dsDNA conversion determines the timing of plasmid-encoded protein production. The leading region that first enters the recipient cell carries single-stranded promoters that allow the early and transient synthesis of leading proteins immediately upon entry of the ssDNA plasmid. The subsequent conversion into dsDNA turns off leading gene expression, and activates the expression of other plasmid genes under the control of conventional double-stranded promoters. This molecular strategy allows for the timely production of factors sequentially involved in establishing, maintaining and disseminating the plasmid.

Atomic-Resolution Structure of the Protein Encoded by Gene V of fd Bacteriophage in Complex with Viral ssDNA Determined by Magic-Angle Spinning Solid-State NMR

F-specific filamentous phages, elongated particles with circular single-stranded DNA encased in a symmetric protein capsid, undergo an intermediate step, where thousands of homodimers of a non-structural protein, gVp, bind to newly synthesized strands of DNA, preventing further DNA replication and preparing the circular genome in an elongated conformation for assembly of a new virion structure at the membrane. While the structure of the free homodimer is known, the ssDNA-bound conformation has yet to be determined. We report an atomic-resolution structure of the gVp monomer bound to ssDNA of fd phage in the nucleoprotein complex elucidated via magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR. The model presents significant conformational changes with respect to the free form. These modifications facilitate the binding mechanism and possibly promote cooperative binding in the assembly of the gVp-ssDNA complex.

Molecular architecture of bacterial type IV secretion systems

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are a versatile group of nanomachines that can horizontally transfer DNA through conjugation and deliver effector proteins into a wide range of target cells. The components of T4SSs in gram-negative bacteria are organized into several large subassemblies: an inner membrane complex, an outer membrane core complex, and, in some species, an extracellular pilus. Cryo-electron tomography has been used to define the structures of T4SSs in intact bacteria, and high-resolution structural models are now available for isolated core complexes from conjugation systems, the Xanthomonas citri T4SS, the Helicobacter pylori Cag T4SS, and the Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm T4SS. In this review, we compare the molecular architectures of these T4SSs, focusing especially on the structures of core complexes. We discuss structural features that are shared by multiple T4SSs as well as evolutionary strategies used for T4SS diversification. Finally, we discuss how structural variations among T4SSs may confer specialized functional properties.

Mating pair stabilization mediates bacterial conjugation species specificity

Bacterial conjugation mediates contact-dependent transfer of DNA from donor to recipient bacteria, thus facilitating the spread of virulence and resistance plasmids. Here we describe how variants of the plasmid-encoded donor outer membrane (OM) protein TraN cooperate with distinct OM receptors in recipients to mediate mating pair stabilization and efficient DNA transfer. We show that TraN from the plasmid pKpQIL (Klebsiella pneumoniae) interacts with OmpK36, plasmids from R100-1 (Shigella flexneri) and pSLT (Salmonella Typhimurium) interact with OmpW, and the prototypical F plasmid (Escherichia coli) interacts with OmpA. Cryo-EM analysis revealed that TraN_pKpQIL interacts with OmpK36 through the insertion of a β-hairpin in the tip of TraN into a monomer of the OmpK36 porin trimer. Combining bioinformatic analysis with AlphaFold structural predictions, we identified a fourth TraN structural variant that mediates mating pair stabilization by binding OmpF. Accordingly, we devised a classification scheme for TraN homologues on the basis of structural similarity and their associated receptors: TraNα (OmpW), TraNβ (OmpK36), TraNγ (OmpA), TraNδ (OmpF). These TraN-OM receptor pairings have real-world implications as they reflect the distribution of resistance plasmids within clinical Enterobacteriaceae isolates, demonstrating the importance of mating pair stabilization in mediating conjugation species specificity. These findings will allow us to predict the distribution of emerging resistance plasmids in high-risk bacterial pathogens.

Combining conjugation and structural analyses, the authors show that TraN-OMP pairings determine bacterial conjugation species specificity, with implications in resistance plasmid distribution within Enterobacteriaceae.

An overview on display systems (phage, bacterial, and yeast display) for production of anticancer antibodies; advantages and disadvantages

Antibodies as ideal therapeutic and diagnostic molecules are among the top-selling drugs providing considerable efficacy in disease treatment, especially in cancer therapy. Limitations of the hybridoma technology as routine antibody generation method in conjunction with numerous developments in molecular biology led to the development of alternative approaches for the streamlined identification of most effective antibodies. In this regard, display selection technologies such as phage display, bacterial display, and yeast display have been widely promoted over the past three decades as ideal alternatives to traditional methods. The display of antibodies on phages is probably the most widespread of these methods, although surface display on bacteria or yeast have been employed successfully, as well. These methods using various sizes of combinatorial antibody libraries and different selection strategies possessing benefits in screening potency, generating, and isolation of high affinity antibodies with low risk of immunogenicity. Knowing the basics of each method assists in the design and retrieval process of antibodies suitable for different diseases, including cancer. In this review, we aim to outline the basics of each library construction and its display method, screening and selection steps. The advantages and disadvantages in comparison to alternative methods, and their applications in antibody engineering will be explained. Finally, we will review approved or non-approved therapeutic antibodies developed by employing these methods, which may serve as therapeutic antibodies in cancer therapy.

Conjugative antibiotic-resistant plasmids promote bacterial colonization of microplastics in water environments

Both microplastic and bacterial antibiotic resistance have attracted attention worldwide. When microplastics coexist with antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), which carry antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), ARB colonize the surface of microplastics, and a unique biofilm is formed. The ARB and ARGs in biofilms are denser and more difficult to remove. However, studies on the factors influencing the formation of microplastic biofilms are limited. In this study, plasmid RP4, which appeared in wastewater treatment plants, was found to be able to promote irreversible bacterial colonization of microplastics, and the hypothetical reason was conjugative pili expression. Then, the potential conjugative pili synthesis promoter "nanoalumina" and inhibitor "free nitrous acid" (FNA) were selected to test this hypothesis. Simultaneously, nanoalumina promoted and FNA inhibited bacterial colonization when RP4 existed. Combined with the gene expression and ATP analysis results, this hypothesis was confirmed, and the mechanism of RP4 on bacterial colonization was related mainly to conjugative pili protein synthesis and intracellular ATP. In this study, the effects of plasmid RP4, nanoalumina, and FNA on the formation of microplastic biofilms were reported, which has a certain reference value for other researchers exploring microplastic biofilms.

The Type IV Pilus of Plasmid TP114 Displays Adhesins Conferring Conjugation Specificity and Is Important for DNA Transfer in the Mouse Gut Microbiota

Type IV pili (T4P) are common bacterial surface appendages involved in different biological processes such as adherence, motility, competence, pathogenesis, and conjugation. In this work, we describe the T4P of TP114, an IncI2 enterobacterial conjugative plasmid recently shown to disseminate at high rates in the mouse intestinal tract. This pilus is composed of the major PilS and minor PilV pilins that are both important for conjugation in broth and in the gut microbiota but not on a solid support. The PilV-coding sequence is part of a shufflon and can bear different C-terminal domains. The shufflon is a multiple DNA inversion system containing many DNA cassettes flanked by recombination sites that are recognized by a shufflon-specific tyrosine recombinase (shufflase) promoting the recombination between DNA segments. The different PilV variants act as adhesins that can modify the affinity for different recipient bacteria. Eight PilV variants were identified in TP114, including one that has not been described in other shufflons. All PilV variants allowed conjugative transfer with different recipient Escherichia coli strains. We conclude that the T4P carried by TP114 plays a major role in mating pair stabilization in broth as well as in the gut microbiota and that the shufflon acts as a biological switch modifying the conjugative host range specificity. IMPORTANCE Conjugative plasmids are involved in horizontal gene transfer in the gut microbiota, which constitutes an important antibiotic resistance gene reservoir. However, the molecular mechanisms used by conjugative plasmids to select recipient bacteria and transfer at high rates in the mouse gut microbiota remain poorly characterized. We studied the type IV pilus carried by TP114 and demonstrated that the minor pilin PilV acts as an adhesin that can efficiently select target cells for conjugative transfer. Moreover, the pilV gene can be rapidly modified by a shufflon, hence modulating the nature of the recipient bacteria during conjugation. Our study highlights the role of mating pair stabilization for conjugation in broth as well as in the gut microbiome and explains how the host spectrum of a plasmid can be expanded simply by remodeling the PilV adhesin.

Structure of a type IV secretion system core complex encoded by multi-drug resistance F plasmids

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are largely responsible for the proliferation of multi-drug resistance. We solved the structure of the outer-membrane core complex (OMCC_F) of a T4SS encoded by a conjugative F plasmid at <3.0 Å resolution by cryoelectron microscopy. The OMCC_F consists of a 13-fold symmetrical outer ring complex (ORC) built from 26 copies of TraK and TraV C-terminal domains, and a 17-fold symmetrical central cone (CC) composed of 17 copies of TraB β-barrels. Domains of TraV and TraB also bind the CC and ORC substructures, establishing that these proteins undergo an intraprotein symmetry alteration to accommodate the C13:C17 symmetry mismatch. We present evidence that other pED208-encoded factors stabilize the C13:C17 architecture and define the importance of TraK, TraV and TraB domains to T4SS_F function. This work identifies OMCC_F structural motifs of proposed importance for structural transitions associated with F plasmid dissemination and F pilus biogenesis.

Live-Cell Visualization of DNA Transfer and Pilus Dynamics During Bacterial Conjugation

Bacterial genomes are highly plastic and evolve rapidly by acquiring new genetic information through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms. Capturing DNA transfer by conjugation between bacterial cells in real time is relevant to address bacterial genomes' dynamic architecture comprehensively. Here, we describe a method allowing the direct visualization of bacterial conjugation in live cells, including the fluorescent labeling of the conjugative pilus and the monitoring of plasmid DNA transfer from donor to recipient cells.

Spatial Period of Laser-Induced Surface Nanoripples on PET Determines Escherichia coli Repellence

Bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation on surfaces are associated with persistent microbial contamination, biofouling, and the emergence of resistance, thus, calling for new strategies to impede bacterial surface colonization. Using ns-UV laser treatment (wavelength 248 nm and a pulse duration of 20 ns), laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) featuring different sub-micrometric periods ranging from ~210 to ~610 nm were processed on commercial poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) foils. Bacterial adhesion tests revealed that these nanorippled surfaces exhibit a repellence for E. coli that decisively depends on the spatial periods of the LIPSS with the strongest reduction (~91%) in cell adhesion observed for LIPSS periods of 214 nm. Although chemical and structural analyses indicated a moderate laser-induced surface oxidation, a significant influence on the bacterial adhesion was ruled out. Scanning electron microscopy and additional biofilm studies using a pili-deficient E. coli TG1 strain revealed the role of extracellular appendages in the bacterial repellence observed here.

Monitoring Bacterial Conjugation by Optical Microscopy

Bacterial conjugation is the main mechanism for horizontal gene transfer, conferring plasticity to the genome repertoire. This process is also the major instrument for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Hence, gathering primary information of the mechanism underlying this genetic transaction is of a capital interest. By using fluorescent protein fusions to the ATPases that power conjugation, we have been able to track the localization of these proteins in the presence and absence of recipient cells. Moreover, we have found that more than one copy of the conjugative plasmid is transferred during mating. Altogether, these findings provide new insights into the mechanism of such an important gene transfer device.

Molecular Mechanisms Influencing Bacterial Conjugation in the Intestinal Microbiota

Bacterial conjugation is a widespread and particularly efficient strategy to horizontally disseminate genes in microbial populations. With a rich and dense population of microorganisms, the intestinal microbiota is often considered a fertile environment for conjugative transfer and a major reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes. In this mini-review, we summarize recent findings suggesting that few conjugative plasmid families present in Enterobacteriaceae transfer at high rates in the gut microbiota. We discuss the importance of mating pair stabilization as well as additional factors influencing DNA transfer efficiency and conjugative host range in this environment. Finally, we examine the potential repurposing of bacterial conjugation for microbiome editing.

Exploration of Ligand-receptor Binding and Mechanisms for Alginate Reduction and Phenotype Reversion by Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Bacteria in general can develop a wide range of phenotypes under different conditions and external stresses. The phenotypes that reside in biofilms, overproduce exopolymers, and show increased motility often exhibit drug tolerance and drug persistence. In this work, we describe a class of small molecules that delay and inhibit the overproduction of alginate by a non-swarming mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among these molecules, selected benzophenone-derived alkyl disaccharides cause the mucoid bacteria to swarm on hydrated soft agar gel and revert the mucoid to a nonmucoid phenotype. The sessile (biofilm) and motile (swarming) phenotypes are controlled by opposing signaling pathways with high and low intracellular levels of bis-(3',5')-cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (cdG), respectively. As our molecules control several of these phenotypes, we explored a protein receptor, pilin of the pili appendages, that is consistent with controlling these bioactivities and signaling pathways. To test this binding hypothesis, we developed a bacterial motility-enabled binding assay that uses the interfacial properties of hydrated gels and bacterial motility to conduct label-free ligand-receptor binding studies. The structure-activity correlation and receptor identification reveal a plausible mechanism for reverting mucoid to nonmucoid phenotypes by binding pili appendages with ligands capable of sequestering and neutralizing reactive oxygen species.

Viral Hijack of Filamentous Surface Structures in Archaea and Bacteria

The bacterial and archaeal cell surface is decorated with filamentous surface structures that are used for different functions, such as motility, DNA exchange and biofilm formation. Viruses hijack these structures and use them to ride to the cell surface for successful entry. In this review, we describe currently known mechanisms for viral attachment, translocation, and entry via filamentous surface structures. We describe the different mechanisms used to exploit various surface structures bacterial and archaeal viruses. This overview highlights the importance of filamentous structures at the cell surface for entry of prokaryotic viruses.

Type IV secretion systems: Advances in structure, function, and activation

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are a functionally diverse translocation superfamily. They consist mainly of two large subfamilies: (i) conjugation systems that mediate interbacterial DNA transfer and (ii) effector translocators that deliver effector macromolecules into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. A few other T4SSs export DNA or proteins to the milieu, or import exogenous DNA. The T4SSs are defined by 6 or 12 conserved "core" subunits that respectively elaborate "minimized" systems in Gram-positive or -negative bacteria. However, many "expanded" T4SSs are built from "core" subunits plus numerous others that are system-specific, which presumptively broadens functional capabilities. Recently, there has been exciting progress in defining T4SS assembly pathways and architectures using a combination of fluorescence and cryoelectron microscopy. This review will highlight advances in our knowledge of structure-function relationships for model Gram-negative bacterial T4SSs, including "minimized" systems resembling the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/VirD4 T4SS and "expanded" systems represented by the Helicobacter pylori Cag, Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm, and F plasmid-encoded Tra T4SSs. Detailed studies of these model systems are generating new insights, some at atomic resolution, to long-standing questions concerning mechanisms of substrate recruitment, T4SS channel architecture, conjugative pilus assembly, and machine adaptations contributing to T4SS functional versatility.

The ecology of plasmid-coded antibiotic resistance: a basic framework for experimental research and modeling

Many antibiotic resistance genes are associated with plasmids. The ecological success of these mobile genetic elements within microbial communities depends on varying mechanisms to secure their own propagation, not only on environmental selection. Among the most important are the cost of plasmids and their ability to be transferred to new hosts through mechanisms such as conjugation. These are regulated by dynamic control systems of the conjugation machinery and genetic adaptations that plasmid-host pairs can acquire in coevolution. However, in complex communities, these processes and mechanisms are subject to a variety of interactions with other bacterial species and other plasmid types. This article summarizes basic plasmid properties and ecological principles particularly important for understanding the persistence of plasmid-coded antibiotic resistance in aquatic environments. Through selected examples, it further introduces to the features of different types of simulation models such as systems of ordinary differential equations and individual-based models, which are considered to be important tools to understand these complex systems. This ecological perspective aims to improve the way we study and understand the dynamics, diversity and persistence of plasmids and associated antibiotic resistance genes.

Plasmid Transfer by Conjugation in Gram-Negative Bacteria: From the Cellular to the Community Level

Bacterial conjugation, also referred to as bacterial sex, is a major horizontal gene transfer mechanism through which DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient bacterium by direct contact. Conjugation is universally conserved among bacteria and occurs in a wide range of environments (soil, plant surfaces, water, sewage, biofilms, and host-associated bacterial communities). Within these habitats, conjugation drives the rapid evolution and adaptation of bacterial strains by mediating the propagation of various metabolic properties, including symbiotic lifestyle, virulence, biofilm formation, resistance to heavy metals, and, most importantly, resistance to antibiotics. These properties make conjugation a fundamentally important process, and it is thus the focus of extensive study. Here, we review the key steps of plasmid transfer by conjugation in Gram-negative bacteria, by following the life cycle of the F factor during its transfer from the donor to the recipient cell. We also discuss our current knowledge of the extent and impact of conjugation within an environmentally and clinically relevant bacterial habitat, bacterial biofilms.

ssRNA phage penetration triggers detachment of the F-pilus

Although the F-specific ssRNA phage MS2 has long had paradigm status, little is known about penetration of the genomic RNA (gRNA) into the cell. The phage initially binds to the F-pilus using its maturation protein (Mat), and then the Mat-bound gRNA is released from the viral capsid and somehow crosses the bacterial envelope into the cytoplasm. To address the mechanics of this process, we fluorescently labeled the ssRNA phage MS2 to track F-pilus dynamics during infection. We discovered that ssRNA phage infection triggers the release of F-pili from host cells, and that higher multiplicity of infection (MOI) correlates with detachment of longer F-pili. We also report that entry of gRNA into the host cytoplasm requires the F-plasmid-encoded coupling protein, TraD, which is located at the cytoplasmic entrance of the F-encoded type IV secretion system (T4SS). However, TraD is not essential for pilus detachment, indicating that detachment is triggered by an early step of MS2 engagement with the F-pilus or T4SS. We propose a multistep model in which the ssRNA phage binds to the F-pilus and through pilus retraction engages with the distal end of the T4SS channel at the cell surface. Continued pilus retraction pulls the Mat-gRNA complex out of the virion into the T4SS channel, causing a torsional stress that breaks the mature F-pilus at the cell surface. We propose that phage-induced disruptions of F-pilus dynamics provides a selective advantage for infecting phages and thus may be prevalent among the phages specific for retractile pili.

Protein Dynamics in F-like Bacterial Conjugation

Efficient in silico development of novel antibiotics requires high-resolution, dynamic models of drug targets. As conjugation is considered the prominent contributor to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes, targeted drug design to disrupt vital components of conjugative systems has been proposed to lessen the proliferation of bacterial antibiotic resistance. Advancements in structural imaging techniques of large macromolecular complexes has accelerated the discovery of novel protein-protein interactions in bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SS). The known structural information regarding the F-like T4SS components and complexes has been summarized in the following review, revealing a complex network of protein-protein interactions involving domains with varying degrees of disorder. Structural predictions were performed to provide insight on the dynamicity of proteins within the F plasmid conjugative system that lack structural information.

Cryoelectron-Microscopic Structure of the pKpQIL Conjugative Pili from Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae

Conjugative pili are important in mediating bacterial conjugation and horizontal gene transfer. Since plasmid transfer can include antibiotic-resistance genes, conjugation is an important mechanism in the spread of antibiotic resistance. Filamentous bacteriophages have been shown to exist in two different structural classes: those with a 5-fold rotational symmetry and those with a one-start helix with approximately 5 subunits per turn. Structures for the F and the F-like pED208 conjugation pilus have shown that they have 5-fold rotational symmetry. Here, we report the cryoelectron-microscopic structure of conjugative pili from carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, encoded on the IncFIIK pKpQIL plasmid, at 3.9 Å resolution and show that it has a one-start helix. These results establish that conjugation pili can exist in at least two structural classes, consistent with other results showing that relatively small perturbations are needed to change the helical symmetry of polymers.

Cryo-EM reveals infection steps of single-stranded RNA bacteriophages

Single-stranded RNA bacteriophages (ssRNA phages) are small spherical RNA viruses that infect bacteria with retractile pili. The single positive-sense genomic RNA of ssRNA phages, which is protected by a capsid shell, is delivered into the host via the retraction of the host pili. Structures involved in ssRNA phage infection cycle are essential for understanding the underlying mechanisms that can be used to engineer them for therapeutic applications. This review summarizes the recent breakthroughs in high-resolution structural studies of two ssRNA phages, MS2 and Qβ, and their interaction with the host, E. coli, by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). These studies revealed new cryo-EM structures, which provide insights into how MS2 and Qβ package the RNA, lyse E. coli, and adsorb to the receptor F-pili, responsible for conjugation. Methodologies described here can be expanded to study other ssRNA phages that target pathogenic bacteria.

Beyond Cholera: Characterization of zot-Encoding Filamentous Phages in the Marine Fish Pathogen Vibrio anguillarum

Zonula occludens toxin (Zot) is a conserved protein in filamentous vibriophages and has been reported as a putative toxin in Vibrio cholerae. Recently, widespread distribution of zot-encoding prophages was found among marine Vibrio species, including environmental isolates. However, little is known about the dynamics of these prophages beyond V. cholerae. In this study, we characterized and quantified the zot-encoding filamentous phage VAIϕ, spontaneously induced from the fish pathogen V. anguillarum. VAIϕ contained 6117 bp encoding 11 ORFs, including ORF8^pVAI, exhibiting 27%–73% amino acid identity to Inovirus Zot-like proteins. A qPCR method revealed an average of four VAIϕ genomes per host genome during host exponential growth phase, and PCR demonstrated dissemination of induced VAIϕ to other V. anguillarum strains through re-integration in non-lysogens. VAIϕ integrated into both chromosomes of V. anguillarum by recombination, causing changes in a putative ORF in the phage genome. Phylogenetic analysis of the V. anguillarumInoviridae elements revealed mosaic genome structures related to mainly V. cholerae. Altogether, this study contributes to the understanding of Inovirus infection dynamics and mobilization of zot-like genes beyond human pathogenic vibrios, and discusses their potential role in the evolution of the fish pathogen V. anguillarum.

Functional Genomics of a Symbiotic Community: Shared Traits in the Olive Fruit Fly Gut Microbiota

The olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae is a major pest of olives worldwide and houses a specialized gut microbiota dominated by the obligate symbiont "Candidatus Erwinia dacicola." Candidatus Erwinia dacicola is thought to supplement dietary nitrogen to the host, with only indirect evidence for this hypothesis so far. Here, we sought to investigate the contribution of the symbiosis to insect fitness and explore the ecology of the insect gut. For this purpose, we examined the composition of bacterial communities associated with Cretan olive fruit fly populations, and inspected several genomes and one transcriptome assembly. We identified, and reconstructed the genome of, a novel component of the gut microbiota, Tatumella sp. TA1, which is stably associated with Mediterranean olive fruit fly populations. We also reconstructed a number of pathways related to nitrogen assimilation and interactions with the host. The results show that, despite variation in taxa composition of the gut microbial community, core functions related to the symbiosis are maintained. Functional redundancy between different microbial taxa was observed for genes involved in urea hydrolysis. The latter is encoded in the obligate symbiont genome by a conserved urease operon, likely acquired by horizontal gene transfer, based on phylogenetic evidence. A potential underlying mechanism is the action of mobile elements, especially abundant in the Ca. E. dacicola genome. This finding, along with the identification, in the studied genomes, of extracellular surface structure components that may mediate interactions within the gut community, suggest that ongoing and past genetic exchanges between microbes may have shaped the symbiosis.

Controlled phage therapy by photothermal ablation of specific bacterial species using gold nanorods targeted by chimeric phages

New methods for detecting and killing antibiotic-resistant, Gram-negative bacteria are of prime interest for a wide variety of applications. While phages have long been considered as potential antibacterial agents, many concerns about phage therapy stem from the fact that phages are replicating, evolvable entities whose biology is poorly understood in most cases. These concerns could be addressed by destroying the phage immediately upon use. We accomplish this by conjugating phages to gold nanorods, whose excitation by near-infrared light causes localized heating that essentially cooks nearby bacteria. Thus, the phages deliver gold nanorods to the targeted bacteria, and the nanorods destroy both bacteria and phages simultaneously. This strategy transforms phages from an evolving biological entity into a controlled, drug-like reagent.

The use of bacteriophages (phages) for antibacterial therapy is under increasing consideration to treat antimicrobial-resistant infections. Phages have evolved multiple mechanisms to target their bacterial hosts, such as high-affinity, environmentally hardy receptor-binding proteins. However, traditional phage therapy suffers from multiple challenges stemming from the use of an exponentially replicating, evolving entity whose biology is not fully characterized (e.g., potential gene transduction). To address this problem, we conjugate the phages to gold nanorods, creating a reagent that can be destroyed upon use (termed “phanorods”). Chimeric phages were engineered to attach specifically to several Gram-negative organisms, including the human pathogens Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Vibrio cholerae, and the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris. The bioconjugated phanorods could selectively target and kill specific bacterial cells using photothermal ablation. Following excitation by near-infrared light, gold nanorods release energy through nonradiative decay pathways, locally generating heat that efficiently kills targeted bacterial cells. Specificity was highlighted in the context of a P. aeruginosa biofilm, in which phanorod irradiation killed bacterial cells while causing minimal damage to epithelial cells. Local temperature and viscosity measurements revealed highly localized and selective ablation of the bacteria. Irradiation of the phanorods also destroyed the phages, preventing replication and reducing potential risks of traditional phage therapy while enabling control over dosing. The phanorod strategy integrates the highly evolved targeting strategies of phages with the photothermal properties of gold nanorods, creating a well-controlled platform for systematic killing of bacterial cells.

Decoupling Filamentous Phage Uptake and Energy of the TolQRA Motor in Escherichia coli

Filamentous phages are nonlytic viruses that specifically infect bacteria, establishing a persistent association with their host. The phage particle has no machinery for generating energy and parasitizes its host's existing structures in order to cross the bacterial envelope and deliver its genetic material. The import of filamentous phages across the bacterial periplasmic space requires some of the components of a macrocomplex of the envelope known as the Tol system. This complex uses the energy provided by the proton motive force (pmf) of the inner membrane to perform essential and highly energy-consuming functions of the cell, such as envelope integrity maintenance and cell division. It has been suggested that phages take advantage of pmf-driven conformational changes in the Tol system to transit across the periplasm. However, this hypothesis has not been formally tested. In order to decouple the role of the Tol system in cell physiology and during phage parasitism, we used mutations on conserved essential residues known for inactivating pmf-dependent functions of the Tol system. We identified impaired Tol complexes that remain fully efficient for filamentous phage uptake. We further demonstrate that the TolQ-TolR homologous motor ExbB-ExbD, normally operating with the TonB protein, is able to promote phage infection along with full-length TolA.IMPORTANCE Filamentous phages are widely distributed symbionts of Gram-negative bacteria, with some of them being linked to genome evolution and virulence of their host. However, the precise mechanism that permits their uptake across the cell envelope is poorly understood. The canonical phage model Fd requires the TolQRA protein complex in the host envelope, which is suspected to translocate protons across the inner membrane. In this study, we show that phage uptake proceeds in the presence of the assembled but nonfunctional TolQRA complex. Moreover, our results unravel an alternative route for phage import that relies on the ExbB-ExbD proteins. This work provides new insights into the fundamental mechanisms of phage infection and might be generalized to other filamentous phages responsible for pathogen emergence.

ssRNA Phages: Life Cycle, Structure and Applications

ssRNA phages belonging to the family Leviviridae are among the tiniest viruses, infecting various Gram-negative bacteria by adsorption to their pilus structures. Due to their simplicity, they have been intensively studied as models for understanding various problems in molecular biology and virology. Several of the studied ssRNA characteristics, such as coat protein–RNA interactions and the ability to readily form virus-like particles in recombinant expression systems, have fueled many practical applications such as RNA labeling and tracking systems and vaccine development. In this chapter, we review the life cycle, structure and applications of these small yet fascinating viruses.

A bifunctional ATPase drives tad pilus extension and retraction

A widespread class of prokaryotic motors powered by secretion motor adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) drives the dynamic extension and retraction of extracellular fibers, such as type IV pili (T4P). Among these, the tight adherence (tad) pili are critical for surface sensing and biofilm formation. As for most other motors belonging to this class, how tad pili retract despite lacking a dedicated retraction motor ATPase has remained a mystery. Here, we find that a bifunctional pilus motor ATPase, CpaF, drives both activities through adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis. We show that mutations within CpaF result in a correlated reduction in the rates of extension and retraction that directly scales with decreased ATP hydrolysis and retraction force. Thus, a single motor ATPase drives the bidirectional processes of pilus fiber extension and retraction.

The Vibrio cholerae minor pilin TcpB mediates uptake of the cholera toxin phage CTXφ

Virulent strains of the bacterial pathogen Vibrio cholerae cause the diarrheal disease cholera by releasing cholera toxin into the small intestine. V. cholerae acquired its cholera toxin genes by lysogenic infection with the filamentous bacteriophage CTXφ. CTXφ uses its minor coat protein pIII, located in multiple copies at the phage tip, to bind to the V. cholerae toxin-coregulated pilus (TCP). However, the molecular details of this interaction and the mechanism of phage internalization are not well-understood. The TCP filament is a polymer of major pilins, TcpA, and one or more minor pilin, TcpB. TCP are retractile, with both retraction and assembly initiated by TcpB. Consistent with these roles in pilus dynamics, we hypothesized that TcpB controls both binding and internalization of CTXφ. To test this hypothesis, we determined the crystal structure of the C-terminal half of TcpB and characterized its interactions with CTXφ pIII. We show that TcpB is a homotrimer in its crystallographic form as well as in solution and is present in multiple copies at the pilus tip, which likely facilitates polyvalent binding to pIII proteins at the phage tip. We further show that recombinant forms of TcpB and pIII interact in vitro, and both TcpB and anti-TcpB antibodies block CTXφ infection of V. cholerae Finally, we show that CTXφ uptake requires TcpB-mediated retraction. Our data support a model whereby CTXφ and TCP bind in a tip-to-tip orientation, allowing the phage to be drawn into the V. cholerae periplasm as an extension of the pilus filament.

Structural basis for the adsorption of a single-stranded RNA bacteriophage

Single-stranded RNA bacteriophages (ssRNA phages) infect Gram-negative bacteria via a single maturation protein (Mat), which attaches to a retractile pilus of the host. Here we present structures of the ssRNA phage MS2 in complex with the Escherichia coli F-pilus, showing a network of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions at the Mat-pilus interface. Moreover, binding of the pilus induces slight orientational variations of the Mat relative to the rest of the phage capsid, priming the Mat-connected genomic RNA (gRNA) for its release from the virions. The exposed tip of the attached Mat points opposite to the direction of the pilus retraction, which may facilitate the translocation of the gRNA from the capsid into the host cytosol. In addition, our structures determine the orientation of the assembled F-pilin subunits relative to the cell envelope, providing insights into the F-like type IV secretion systems.

Structural bases for F plasmid conjugation and F pilus biogenesis in Escherichia coli

Bacterial conjugation systems are members of the large type IV secretion system (T4SS) superfamily. Conjugative transfer of F plasmids residing in the Enterobacteriaceae was first reported in the 1940s, yet the architecture of F plasmid-encoded transfer channel and its physical relationship with the F pilus remain unknown. We visualized F-encoded structures in the native bacterial cell envelope by in situ cryoelectron tomography (CryoET). Remarkably, F plasmids encode four distinct structures, not just the translocation channel or channel-pilus complex predicted by prevailing models. The F1 structure is composed of distinct outer and inner membrane complexes and a connecting cylinder that together house the envelope-spanning translocation channel. The F2 structure is essentially the F1 complex with the F pilus attached at the outer membrane (OM). Remarkably, the F3 structure consists of the F pilus attached to a thin, cell envelope-spanning stalk, whereas the F4 structure consists of the pilus docked to the OM without an associated periplasmic density. The traffic ATPase TraC is configured as a hexamer of dimers at the cytoplasmic faces of the F1 and F2 structures, where it respectively regulates substrate transfer and F pilus biogenesis. Together, our findings present architectural renderings of the DNA conjugation or "mating" channel, the channel-pilus connection, and unprecedented pilus basal structures. These structural snapshots support a model for biogenesis of the F transfer system and allow for detailed comparisons with other structurally characterized T4SSs.