Combination antibody treatment down-regulates epidermal growth factor receptor by inhibiting endosomal recycling

Identification of potent biparatopic antibodies targeting FGFR2 fusion-driven cholangiocarcinoma

Translocations involving FGFR2 gene fusions are common in cholangiocarcinoma and predict response to FGFR kinase inhibitors. However, response rates and durability are limited due to the emergence of resistance, typically involving FGFR2 kinase domain mutations, and to suboptimal dosing, relating to drug adverse effects. Here, we develop biparatopic antibodies targeting the FGFR2 extracellular domain (ECD) as candidate therapeutics. Biparatopic antibodies can overcome drawbacks of bivalent monospecific antibodies, which often show poor inhibitory or even agonist activity against oncogenic receptors. We show that oncogenic transformation by FGFR2 fusions requires an intact ECD. Moreover, by systematically generating biparatopic antibodies targeting distinct epitope pairs in FGFR2 ECD, we identified antibodies that effectively block signaling and malignant growth driven by FGFR2 fusions. Importantly, these antibodies demonstrate efficacy in vivo, synergy with FGFR inhibitors, and activity against FGFR2 fusions harboring kinase domain mutations. Thus, we believe that biparatopic antibodies may serve as an innovative treatment option for patients with FGFR2-altered cholangiocarcinoma.

Receptor-ligand interactions for optimized endocytosis in targeted therapies

Receptor-mediated endocytosis plays a crucial role in the success of numerous therapies and remains central to advancing drug development. This process begins with ligand binding to specific receptors, triggering the internalization and intracellular trafficking of receptor-ligand complexes. These complexes are subsequently directed into distinct routes, either toward lysosomal degradation or recycling to the cell surface, with implications for therapeutic outcomes. This review examines receptor-ligand interactions as key modulators of endocytosis, emphasizing their role in shaping therapeutic design and efficacy. Advances in selecting receptor-ligand pairs and engineering ligands with optimized properties have enabled precise control over internalization, endosomal sorting, and trafficking, providing tailored solutions for diverse therapeutic applications. Leveraging these insights, strategies such as RNA-based therapies, antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), and targeted protein degradation (TPD) platforms have been refined to selectively avoid or promote lysosomal degradation, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy. By bridging fundamental mechanisms of receptor-mediated endocytosis with innovative therapeutic approaches, this review offers a framework for advancing precision medicine.

Antibody drug conjugates in the clinic

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), chemotherapeutic agents conjugated to an antibody to enhance their targeted delivery to tumors, represent a significant advancement in cancer therapy. ADCs combine the precise targeting capabilities of antibodies and the potent cell-killing effects of chemotherapy, allowing for enhanced cytotoxicity to tumors while minimizing damage to healthy tissues. Here, we provide an overview of the current clinical landscape of ADCs, highlighting 11 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved products and discussing over 500 active clinical trials investigating newer ADCs. We also discuss some key challenges associated with the clinical translation of ADCs and highlight emerging strategies to overcome these hurdles. Our discussions will provide useful guidelines for the future development of safer and more effective ADCs for a broader range of indications.

Unlocking the potential of bispecific ADCs for targeted cancer therapy

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are biologically targeted drugs composed of antibodies and cytotoxic drugs connected by linkers. These innovative compounds enable precise drug delivery to tumor cells, minimizing harm to normal tissues and offering excellent prospects for cancer treatment. However, monoclonal antibody-based ADCs still present challenges, especially in terms of balancing efficacy and safety. Bispecific antibodies are alternatives to monoclonal antibodies and exhibit superior internalization and selectivity, producing ADCs with increased safety and therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we present available evidence and future prospects regarding the use of bispecific ADCs for cancer treatment, including a comprehensive overview of bispecific ADCs that are currently in clinical trials. We offer insights into the future development of bispecific ADCs to provide novel strategies for cancer treatment.

Multiparatopic antibodies induce targeted downregulation of programmed death-ligand 1

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) drives inhibition of antigen-specific T cell responses through engagement of its receptor programmed death-1 (PD-1) on activated T cells. Overexpression of these immune checkpoint proteins in the tumor microenvironment has motivated the design of targeted antibodies that disrupt this interaction. Despite clinical success of these antibodies, response rates remain low, necessitating novel approaches to enhance performance. Here, we report the development of antibody fusion proteins that block immune checkpoint pathways through a distinct mechanism targeting molecular trafficking. By engaging multiple receptor epitopes on PD-L1, our engineered multiparatopic antibodies induce rapid clustering, internalization, and degradation in an epitope- and topology-dependent manner. The complementary mechanisms of ligand blockade and receptor downregulation led to more durable immune cell activation and dramatically reduced PD-L1 availability in mouse tumors. Collectively, these multiparatopic antibodies offer mechanistic insight into immune checkpoint protein trafficking and how it may be manipulated to reprogram immune outcomes.

Bispecific antibody drug conjugates: Making 1+1>2

Bispecific antibody‒drug conjugates (BsADCs) represent an innovative therapeutic category amalgamating the merits of antibody‒drug conjugates (ADCs) and bispecific antibodies (BsAbs). Positioned as the next-generation ADC approach, BsADCs hold promise for ameliorating extant clinical challenges associated with ADCs, particularly pertaining to issues such as poor internalization, off-target toxicity, and drug resistance. Presently, ten BsADCs are undergoing clinical trials, and initial findings underscore the imperative for ongoing refinement. This review initially delves into specific design considerations for BsADCs, encompassing target selection, antibody formats, and the linker-payload complex. Subsequent sections delineate the extant progress and challenges encountered by BsADCs, illustrated through pertinent case studies. The amalgamation of BsAbs with ADCs offers a prospective solution to prevailing clinical limitations of ADCs. Nevertheless, the symbiotic interplay among BsAb, linker, and payload necessitates further optimizations and coordination beyond a simplistic "1 + 1" to effectively surmount the extant challenges facing the BsADC domain.

Improving Intracellular Delivery of an Antibody-Drug Conjugate Targeting Carcinoembryonic Antigen Increases Efficacy at Clinically Relevant Doses In Vivo

Solid tumor antibody-drug conjugates (ADC) have experienced more clinical success in the last 5 years than the previous 18-year span since the first ADC approval in 2000. While recent advances in protein engineering, linker design, and payload variations have played a role in this success, high expression and readily internalized targets have also been crucial to solid tumor therapy. However, these factors are also paradoxically connected to poor tissue penetration and lower efficacy. Previous work shows that potent ADCs can benefit from slower internalization under subsaturating doses to improve tissue penetration and increase tumor response. In contrast, faster internalization is predicted to increase efficacy under higher, tumor saturating doses. In this work, the intracellular delivery of SN-38 conjugated to an anti-carcinoembryonic antigen (anti-CEA) antibody (Ab) is increased by coadministering a noncompeting (cross-linking) anti-CEA Ab to improve efficacy in a colorectal carcinoma animal model. The SN-38 payload enables broad tumor saturation with clinically-tolerable doses, and under these saturating conditions, using a second CEA receptor cross-linking Ab yields faster internalization, which increases tumor killing efficacy. Our spheroid results show indirect bystander killing can also occur, but the more efficient direct cell killing from targeted intracellular payload release drives a greater tumor response. These results provide a strategy to increase therapeutic effectiveness with improved intracellular delivery under tumor saturating doses with the potential to expand the ADC target repertoire.

Antibody-drug conjugates in breast cancer: overcoming resistance and boosting immune response

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have emerged as a revolutionary therapeutic class, combining the precise targeting ability of monoclonal antibodies with the potent cytotoxic effects of chemotherapeutics. Notably, ADCs have rapidly advanced in the field of breast cancer treatment. This innovative approach holds promise for strengthening the immune system through antibody-mediated cellular toxicity, tumor-specific immunity, and adaptive immune responses. However, the development of upfront and acquired resistance poses substantial challenges in maximizing the effectiveness of these therapeutics, necessitating a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms. These mechanisms of resistance include antigen loss, derangements in ADC internalization and recycling, drug clearance, and alterations in signaling pathways and the payload target. To overcome resistance, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on urgently identifying biomarkers, integrating immune therapy approaches, and designing novel cytotoxic payloads. This Review provides an overview of the mechanisms and clinical effectiveness of ADCs, and explores their unique immune-boosting function, while also highlighting the complex resistance mechanisms and safety challenges that must be addressed. A continued focus on how ADCs impact the tumor microenvironment will help to identify new payloads that can improve patient outcomes.

Both intratumoral regulatory T cell depletion and CTLA-4 antagonism are required for maximum efficacy of anti-CTLA-4 antibodies

Anti-CTLA-4 antibodies have successfully elicited durable tumor regression in the clinic; however, long-term benefit is limited to a subset of patients for select cancer indications. The incomplete understanding of their mechanism of action has hindered efforts at improvement, with conflicting hypotheses proposing either antagonism of the CTLA-4:B7 axis or Fc effector-mediated regulatory T cell (Treg) depletion governing efficacy. Here, we report the engineering of a nonantagonistic CTLA-4 binding domain (b1s1e2) that depletes intratumoral Tregs as an Fc fusion. Comparison of b1s1e2-Fc to 9d9, an antagonistic anti-CTLA-4 antibody, allowed for interrogation of the separate contributions of CTLA-4 antagonism and Treg depletion to efficacy. Despite equivalent levels of intratumoral Treg depletion, 9d9 achieved more long-term cures than b1s1e2-Fc in MC38 tumors, demonstrating that CTLA-4 antagonism provided additional survival benefit. Consistent with prior reports that CTLA-4 antagonism enhances priming, treatment with 9d9, but not b1s1e2-Fc, increased the percentage of activated T cells in the tumor-draining lymph node (tdLN). Treg depletion with either construct was restricted to the tumor due to insufficient surface CTLA-4 expression on Tregs in other compartments. Through intratumoral administration of diphtheria toxin in Foxp3-DTR mice, we show that depletion of both intratumoral and nodal Tregs provided even greater survival benefit than 9d9, consistent with Treg-driven restraint of priming in the tdLN. Our data demonstrate that anti-CTLA-4 therapies require both CTLA-4 antagonism and intratumoral Treg depletion for maximum efficacy-but that potential future therapies also capable of depleting nodal Tregs could show efficacy in the absence of CTLA-4 antagonism.

An anti-HER2 biparatopic antibody that induces unique HER2 clustering and complement-dependent cytotoxicity

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that plays an oncogenic role in breast, gastric and other solid tumors. However, anti-HER2 therapies are only currently approved for the treatment of breast and gastric/gastric esophageal junction cancers and treatment resistance remains a problem. Here, we engineer an anti-HER2 IgG1 bispecific, biparatopic antibody (Ab), zanidatamab, with unique and enhanced functionalities compared to both trastuzumab and the combination of trastuzumab plus pertuzumab (tras + pert). Zanidatamab binds adjacent HER2 molecules in trans and initiates distinct HER2 reorganization, as shown by polarized cell surface HER2 caps and large HER2 clusters, not observed with trastuzumab or tras + pert. Moreover, zanidatamab, but not trastuzumab nor tras + pert, elicit potent complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) against high HER2-expressing tumor cells in vitro. Zanidatamab also mediates HER2 internalization and downregulation, inhibition of both cell signaling and tumor growth, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and phagocytosis (ADCP), and also shows superior in vivo antitumor activity compared to tras + pert in a HER2-expressing xenograft model. Collectively, we show that zanidatamab has multiple and distinct mechanisms of action derived from the structural effects of biparatopic HER2 engagement.

Design and selection of optimal ErbB-targeting bispecific antibodies in pancreatic cancer

The ErbB family of receptor tyrosine kinases is a primary target for small molecules and antibodies for pancreatic cancer treatment. Nonetheless, the current treatments for this tumor are not optimal due to lack of efficacy, resistance, or toxicity. Here, using the novel BiXAb™ tetravalent format platform, we generated bispecific antibodies against EGFR, HER2, or HER3 by considering rational epitope combinations. We then screened these bispecific antibodies and compared them with the parental single antibodies and antibody pair combinations. The screen readouts included measuring binding to the cognate receptors (mono and bispecificity), intracellular phosphorylation signaling, cell proliferation, apoptosis and receptor expression, and also immune system engagement assays (antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and complement-dependent cytotoxicity). Among the 30 BiXAbs™ tested, we selected 3Patri-1Cetu-Fc, 3Patri-1Matu-Fc and 3Patri-2Trastu-Fc as lead candidates. The in vivo testing of these three highly efficient bispecific antibodies against EGFR and HER2 or HER3 in pre-clinical mouse models of pancreatic cancer showed deep antibody penetration in these dense tumors and robust tumor growth reduction. Application of such semi-rational/semi-empirical approach, which includes various immunological assays to compare pre-selected antibodies and their combinations with bispecific antibodies, represents the first attempt to identify potent bispecific antibodies against ErbB family members in pancreatic cancer.

Site-Specific Chemoenzymatic Conjugation of High-Affinity M6P Glycan Ligands to Antibodies for Targeted Protein Degradation

Lysosome-targeting chimeras (LYTACs) offer an opportunity for the degradation of extracellular and membrane-associated proteins of interest. Here, we report an efficient chemoenzymatic method that enables a single-step and site-specific conjugation of high-affinity mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) glycan ligands to antibodies without the need of protein engineering and conventional click reactions that would introduce "unnatural" moieties, yielding homogeneous antibody-M6P glycan conjugates for targeted degradation of membrane-associated proteins. Using trastuzumab and cetuximab as model antibodies, we showed that the wild-type endoglycosidase S (Endo-S) could efficiently perform the antibody deglycosylation and simultaneous transfer of an M6P-glycan from a synthetic M6P-glycan oxazoline to the deglycosylated antibody in a one-pot manner, giving structurally well-defined antibody-M6P glycan conjugates. A two-step procedure, using wild-type Endo-S2 for deglycosylation followed by transglycosylation with an Endo-S2 mutant (D184M), was also efficient to provide M6P glycan-antibody conjugates. The chemoenzymatic approach was highly specific for Fc glycan remodeling when both Fc and Fab domains were glycosylated, as exemplified by the selective Fc-glycan remodeling of cetuximab. SPR binding analysis indicated that the M6P conjugates possessed a nanomolar range of binding affinities for the cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR). Preliminary cell-based assays showed that the M6P-trastuzumab and M6P-cetuximab conjugates were able to selectively degrade the membrane-associated HER2 and EGFR, respectively. This modular glycan-remodeling strategy is expected to find wide applications for antibody-based lysosome-targeted degradation of extracellular and membrane proteins.

Domain-level epitope mapping of polyclonal antibodies against HER-1 and HER-2 receptors using phage display technology

HER-1 and HER-2 are tumor-associated antigens overexpressed in several epithelial tumors, and successfully targeted by therapeutic approaches against cancer. Vaccination with their recombinant extracellular domains has had encouraging results in the pre-clinical setting. As complex humoral responses targeting multiple epitopes within each antigen are the ultimate goal of such active immunotherapy strategies, molecular dissection of the mixture of antibody specificities is required. The current work exploits phage display of antigenic versions of HER-1 and HER-2 domains to accomplish domain-level epitope mapping. Recognition of domains I, III and IV of both antigens by antibodies of immunized mice was shown, indicating diverse responses covering a broad range of antigenic regions. The combination of phage display and site-directed mutagenesis allowed mutational screening of antigen surface, showing polyclonal antibodies' recognition of mutated receptor escape variants known to arise in patients under the selective pressure of the anti-HER-1 antibody cetuximab. Phage-displayed HER domains have thus the potential to contribute to fine specificity characterization of humoral responses during future development of anti-cancer vaccines.

Nanotechnology in the development of small and large molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immunotherapy for the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer

The HER2 receptor tyrosine kinase is a member of the epidermal growth factor receptor family which includes EGFR, HER3 and HER4. They are known to play critical roles in both normal development and cancer. A subset of breast cancers is associated with the HER2 gene, which is amplified and/or overexpressed in 20-25% of invasive breast cancers and is correlated with tumor resistance to chemotherapy, Metastatic Breast Cancer (MBC) and poor patient survival. The advent of receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors has improved the prognosis of HER2-postive breast cancers; however, HER2+MBC invariably progresses (acquired resistance or de novo resistance). The monoclonal antibody-based drugs (large molecule TKIs) target the extracellular binding domain of HER2; while the small molecule TKIs act intracellularly to inhibit proliferation and survival signals. We reviewed the modes of action of the TKIs with a view to showing which of the TKIs could be combined in nanoparticles to benefit from the power of nanotechnology (reduced toxicity, improved solubility of hydrophobic drugs, long circulation half-lives, circumventing efflux pumps and preventing capture by the reticuloendothelial system (mononuclear phagocyte system). Nanotherapeutics also mediate the synchronization of the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of multiple drugs incorporated in the nanoparticles. Novel TKIs that are currently under investigation with or without nanoparticle delivery are mentioned, and nano-based strategies to improve their delivery are suggested. Immunotherapies currently in clinical practice, clinical trials or at the preclinical stage are discussed. However, immunotherapy only works well in relatively small subsets of patients. Combining nanomedicine with immunotherapy can boost therapeutic outcomes, by turning "cold" non-immunoresponsive tumors and metastases into "hot" immunoresponsive lesions.

Functional patient-derived organoid screenings identify MCLA-158 as a therapeutic EGFR × LGR5 bispecific antibody with efficacy in epithelial tumors

Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) recapitulate tumor architecture, contain cancer stem cells and have predictive value supporting personalized medicine. Here we describe a large-scale functional screen of dual-targeting bispecific antibodies (bAbs) on a heterogeneous colorectal cancer PDO biobank and paired healthy colonic mucosa samples. More than 500 therapeutic bAbs generated against Wingless-related integration site (WNT) and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) targets were functionally evaluated by high-content imaging to capture the complexity of PDO responses. Our drug discovery strategy resulted in the generation of MCLA-158, a bAb that specifically triggers epidermal growth factor receptor degradation in leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor 5-positive (LGR5+) cancer stem cells but shows minimal toxicity toward healthy LGR5+ colon stem cells. MCLA-158 exhibits therapeutic properties such as growth inhibition of KRAS-mutant colorectal cancers, blockade of metastasis initiation and suppression of tumor outgrowth in preclinical models for several epithelial cancer types.

β-Estradiol Induces Mitochondrial Apoptosis in Cervical Cancer Through the Suppression of AKT/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND

Cervical cancer is the fourth most prevalent gynecological cancer worldwide, which threatens women's health and causes cancer-related mortality. In the search for effective anticervical cancer drugs, we discovered that β-estradiol (E2), a patent drug for estrogen deficiency syndrome treatment, displays the most potent cytotoxicity against HeLa cells.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to evaluate the growth inhibitory effect of β-estradiol on HeLa cells and explore its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of 6 compounds against HeLa cells. Flow cytometric analysis and Hoechst 33258 staining assay were performed to detect cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction. The collapse of the mitochondrial potential was observed by the JC-1 staining assay. The expression levels of proteins were examined by western blotting.

RESULTS

β-Estradiol, at high concentration, displays potent cytotoxicity against HeLa cells with an IC50 value of 18.71 ± 1.57 μM for 72 h treatment. β-Estradiol induces G2/M cell cycle arrest through downregulating Cyclin B1 and p-CDK1. In addition, β-estradiol-induced apoptosis is accompanied by the loss of mitochondrial potential, activation of the Caspase family, and altered Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. β-Estradiol markedly decreased the expression level of p-AKT and p-NF-κB.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that β-estradiol induces mitochondrial apoptosis in cervical cancer through the suppression of the AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway, indicating that β-estradiol may serve as a potential agent for cervical cancer treatment.

PhosphoFlowSeq - A High-throughput Kinase Activity Assay for Screening Drug Resistance Mutations in EGFR

Drug resistance poses a major challenge for targeted cancer therapy. To be able to functionally screen large randomly mutated target gene libraries for drug resistance mutations, we developed a biochemically defined high-throughput assay termed PhosphoFlowSeq. Instead of selecting for proliferation or resistance to apoptosis, PhosphoFlowSeq directly analyzes the enzymatic activities of randomly mutated kinases, thereby reducing the dependency on the signaling network in the host cell. Moreover, simultaneous analysis of expression levels enables compensation for expression-based biases on a single cell level. Using EGFR and its kinase inhibitor erlotinib as a model system, we demonstrate that the clinically most relevant resistance mutation T790M is reproducibly detected at high frequencies after four independent PhosphoFlowSeq selection experiments. Moreover, upon decreasing the selection pressure, also mutations which only confer weak resistance were identified, including T854A and L792H. We expect that PhosphoFlowSeq will be a valuable tool for the prediction and functional screening of drug resistance mutations in kinases.

Advances with antibody-drug conjugates in breast cancer treatment

Antibody-drug conjugate-based therapy for treatment of cancer has attracted much attention because of its enhanced efficacy against numerous cancer types. Commonly, an ADC includes a mAb linked to a therapeutic payload. Antibody, linker and payload are the three main components of ADCs. The high specificity of antibodies is integrated with the strong potency of payloads in ADCs. ADCs with potential cytotoxic small molecules as payloads, generate antibody-mediated cancer therapy. Recently, ADCs with DNA-damaging agents have shown favor over microtubule-targeting agents as payloads. Although ADC resistance can be a barrier to effectiveness, several ADC therapies have been either approved or are in clinical trials for cancer treatment. The ADC-based treatments of breast cancers, particularly TNBC, MDR and metastatic breast cancers, have shown promise in recent years. This review discusses ADC drug designs, and developed for different types of breast cancer including TNBC, MDR and metastatic breast cancer.

Real-time imaging of cell-surface proteins with antibody-based fluorogenic probes

Cell-surface proteins, working as key agents in various diseases, are the targets for around 66% of approved human drugs. A general strategy to selectively detect these proteins in a real-time manner is expected to facilitate the development of new drugs and medical diagnoses. Although brilliant successes were attained using small-molecule probes, they could cover a narrow range of targets due to the lack of suitable ligands and some of them suffer from selectivity issues. We report herein an antibody-based fluorogenic probe prepared via a two-step chemical modification under physiological conditions, to fulfill the selective recognition and wash-free imaging of membrane proteins, establishing a modular strategy with broad implications for biochemical research and for therapeutics.

Improving Biologics' Effectiveness in Clinical Oncology: From the Combination of Two Monoclonal Antibodies to Oligoclonal Antibody Mixtures

Simple Summary

The approval of the two antibody combinations trastuzumab/pertuzumab and ipilimumab/nivolumab in oncology has paved the way for novel antibody combinations or oligoclonal antibody mixtures to improve their efficacy in cancer. The underlying biological mechanisms and challenges of these strategies will be discussed using data from clinical trials listed in databases. These therapeutic combinations also lead to questions on how to optimize their formulation and delivery to induce a therapeutic polyclonal response in patients with cancer.

Abstract

Monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases, but their clinical efficacy remains limited in some other cases. Pre-clinical and clinical trials have shown that combinations of antibodies that bind to the same target (homo-combinations) or to different targets (hetero-combinations) to mimic the polyclonal humoral immune response improve their therapeutic effects in cancer. The approval of the trastuzumab/pertuzumab combination for breast cancer and then of the ipilimumab/nivolumab combination for melanoma opened the way to novel antibody combinations or oligoclonal antibody mixtures as more effective biologics for cancer management. We found more than 300 phase II/III clinical trials on antibody combinations, with/without chemotherapy, radiotherapy, small molecules or vaccines, in the ClinicalTrials.gov database. Such combinations enhance the biological responses and bypass the resistance mechanisms observed with antibody monotherapy. Usually, such antibody combinations are administered sequentially as separate formulations. Combined formulations have also been developed in which separately produced antibodies are mixed before administration or are produced simultaneously in a single cell line or a single batch of different cell lines as a polyclonal master cell bank. The regulation, toxicity and injection sequence of these oligoclonal antibody mixtures still need to be addressed in order to optimize their delivery and their therapeutic effects.

Engineering an anti-HER2 biparatopic antibody with a multimodal mechanism of action

The receptor tyrosine kinase HER2 acts as oncogenic driver in numerous cancers. Usually, the gene is amplified, resulting in receptor overexpression, massively increased signaling and unchecked proliferation. However, tumors become frequently addicted to oncogenes and hence are druggable by targeted interventions. Here, we design an anti-HER2 biparatopic and tetravalent IgG fusion with a multimodal mechanism of action. The molecule first induces HER2 clustering into inactive complexes, evidenced by reduced mobility of surface HER2. However, in contrast to our earlier binders based on DARPins, clusters of HER2 are thereafter robustly internalized and quantitatively degraded. This multimodal mechanism of action is found only in few of the tetravalent constructs investigated, which must target specific epitopes on HER2 in a defined geometric arrangement. The inhibitory effect of our antibody as single agent surpasses the combination of trastuzumab and pertuzumab as well as its parental mAbs in vitro and it is effective in a xenograft model.

Soluble ligands as drug targets for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is characterized by persistent inflammation in a hereditarily susceptible host. In addition to gastrointestinal symptoms, patients with IBD frequently suffer from extra-intestinal complications such as fibrosis, stenosis or cancer. Mounting evidence supports the targeting of cytokines for effective treatment of IBD. Cytokines can be included in a newly proposed classification "soluble ligands" that has become the third major target of human protein therapeutic drugs after enzymes and receptors. Soluble ligands have potential significance for research and development of anti-IBD drugs. Compared with traditional drug targets for IBD treatment, such as receptors, at least three factors contribute to the increasing importance of soluble ligands as drug targets. Firstly, cytokines are the main soluble ligands and targeting of them has demonstrated efficacy in patients with IBD. Secondly, soluble ligands are more accessible than receptors, which are embedded in the cell membrane and have complex tertiary membrane structures. Lastly, certain potential target proteins that are present in membrane-bound forms can become soluble following cleavage, providing further opportunities for intervention in the treatment of IBD. In this review, 49 drugs targeting 25 distinct ligands have been evaluated, including consideration of the characteristics of the ligands and drugs in respect of IBD treatment. In addition to approved drugs targeting soluble ligands, we have also assessed drugs that are in preclinical research and drugs inhibiting ligand-receptor binding. Some new types of targetable soluble ligands/proteins, such as epoxide hydrolase and p-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1, are also introduced. Targeting soluble ligands not only opens a new field of anti-IBD drug development, but the circulating soluble ligands also provide diagnostic insights for early prediction of treatment response. In conclusion, soluble ligands serve as the third-largest protein target class in medicine, with much potential for the drugs targeting them.

Upfront admixing antibodies and EGFR inhibitors preempts sequential treatments in lung cancer models

Some antibacterial therapies entail sequential treatments with different antibiotics, but whether this approach is optimal for anti-cancer tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) remains open. EGFR mutations identify lung cancer patients who can derive benefit from TKIs, but most patients develop resistance to the first-, second-, and third-generation drugs. To explore alternatives to such whack-a-mole strategies, we simulated in patient-derived xenograft models the situation of patients receiving first-line TKIs. Monotherapies comprising approved first-line TKIs were compared to combinations with antibodies specific to EGFR and HER2. We observed uniform and strong superiority of all drug combinations over the respective monotherapies. Prolonged treatments, high TKI dose, and specificity were essential for drug-drug cooperation. Blocking pathways essential for mitosis (e.g., FOXM1), along with downregulation of resistance-conferring receptors (e.g., AXL), might underlie drug cooperation. Thus, upfront treatments using combinations of TKIs and antibodies can prevent emergence of resistance and hence might replace the widely applied sequential treatments utilizing next-generation TKIs.

Targeting Lysosomal Degradation Pathways: New Strategies and Techniques for Drug Discovery

A series of tools for targeted protein degradation are inspiring scientists to develop new drugs with advantages over traditional small-molecule drugs. Among these tools, proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) are most representative of the technology based on proteasomes. However, the proteasome has little degradation effect on certain macromolecular proteins or aggregates, extracellular proteins, and organelles, which limits the application of PROTACs. Additionally, lysosomes play an important role in protein degradation. Therefore, lysosome-induced protein degradation drugs can directly regulate protein levels in vivo, achieve the goal of treating diseases, and provide new strategies for drug discovery. Lysosome-based degradation technology has the potential for clinical translation. In this review, strategies targeting lysosomal pathways and lysosome-based degradation techniques are summarized. In addition, lysosome-based degrading drugs are described, and the advantages and challenges are listed. Our efforts will certainly promote the design, discovery, and clinical application of drugs associated with this technology.

Identification of a novel anti-EGFR nanobody by phage display and its distinct paratope and epitope via homology modeling and molecular docking

Since EGFR is an important and effective target for tumor therapy in the clinic. Several monoclonal antibodies and nanobodies were proved to target domain III of EGFR. Regarding the increased attention on nanobodies, the present study aimed to generate nanobodies specifically against domain III. After camel immunization, a gene repertoire of sdAb fragments with a diversity of 3×10⁹ clones was produced. Following the construction of two sdAb phage display libraries, the successful epitope binning was carried out to identify the nanobody with the designated epitope. Modelling of the identified nanobody and molecular docking studies illustrated the paratope and epitope. Docking analysis revealed that the paratope focused on CDR2 loop of the identified nanobody. The identified nanobody potently cover part of the epitope of Matuzumab and Nb 9G8, which indicated that it blocked EGFR by preventing dimerization of the receptors.

A novel HER2-targeting antibody 5G9 identified by large-scale trastuzumab-based screening exhibits potent synergistic antitumor activity

Background

Pertuzumab is currently used in combination with trastuzumab as the first-line treatment for HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. However, pertuzumab was originally developed independently from trastuzumab and was later incidentally found to have synergistic efficacy when combined with trastuzumab, it remains to be seen whether a more potent synergistic efficacy partner exists for trastuzumab.

Methods

A trastuzumab-based functional assay was used to screen anti-HER2 antibodies harboring trastuzumab-synergistic antitumor activity. The lead candidate 5G9, in combination with trastuzumab, was further characterized for its bioactivities in cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, antigen-antibody endocytosis and HER2-mediated cell signaling pathway blocking. Finally, animal models were used to evaluate the in vivo synergistic antitumor efficacy of 5G9 in combination with trastuzumab.

Findings

Compared to pertuzumab, 5G9 demonstrated more potent synergistic cell growth inhibitory activity when combined with trastuzumab (85% vs. 55%, P<0.001). In addition, 5G9 exhibited a higher internalization rate than pertuzumab (20% vs. 9%, P<0.05), and was able to further synergize with trastuzumab to promote antigen-antibody endocytosis. The internalization rate of the combination of 5G9 and trastuzumab was higher than that of pertuzumab and trastuzumab (35% vs. 14%, P<0.001). In vivo animal studies demonstrated that 5G9 in combination with trastuzumab showed more potent synergistic antitumor efficacy than the combination of pertuzumab and trastuzumab.

Interpretation

5G9, together with trastuzumab, may provide a potential opportunity for more efficacious treatment of HER2-positive cancers.

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China; State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science.

Lysosome-targeting chimaeras for degradation of extracellular proteins

The majority of therapies that target individual proteins rely on specific activity-modulating interactions with the target protein-for example, enzyme inhibition or ligand blocking. However, several major classes of therapeutically relevant proteins have unknown or inaccessible activity profiles and so cannot be targeted by such strategies. Protein-degradation platforms such as proteolysis-targeting chimaeras (PROTACs)1,2 and others (for example, dTAGs3, Trim-Away4, chaperone-mediated autophagy targeting5 and SNIPERs6) have been developed for proteins that are typically difficult to target; however, these methods involve the manipulation of intracellular protein degradation machinery and are therefore fundamentally limited to proteins that contain cytosolic domains to which ligands can bind and recruit the requisite cellular components. Extracellular and membrane-associated proteins-the products of 40% of all protein-encoding genes7-are key agents in cancer, ageing-related diseases and autoimmune disorders8, and so a general strategy to selectively degrade these proteins has the potential to improve human health. Here we establish the targeted degradation of extracellular and membrane-associated proteins using conjugates that bind both a cell-surface lysosome-shuttling receptor and the extracellular domain of a target protein. These initial lysosome-targeting chimaeras, which we term LYTACs, consist of a small molecule or antibody fused to chemically synthesized glycopeptide ligands that are agonists of the cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-M6PR). We use LYTACs to develop a CRISPR interference screen that reveals the biochemical pathway for CI-M6PR-mediated cargo internalization in cell lines, and uncover the exocyst complex as a previously unidentified-but essential-component of this pathway. We demonstrate the scope of this platform through the degradation of therapeutically relevant proteins, including apolipoprotein E4, epidermal growth factor receptor, CD71 and programmed death-ligand 1. Our results establish a modular strategy for directing secreted and membrane proteins for lysosomal degradation, with broad implications for biochemical research and for therapeutics.

Improving Receptor-Mediated Intracellular Access and Accumulation of Antibody Therapeutics-The Tale of HER2

Therapeutic anti-HER2 antibodies and antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have undoubtedly benefitted patients. Nonetheless, patients ultimately relapse-some sooner than others. Currently approved anti-HER2 drugs are expensive and their cost-effectiveness is debated. There is increased awareness that internalization and lysosomal processing including subsequent payload intracellular accumulation and retention for ADCs are critical therapeutic attributes. Although HER2 preferential overexpression on the surface of tumor cells is attractive, its poor internalization and trafficking to lysosomes has been linked to poor therapeutic outcomes. To help address such issues, this review will comprehensively detail the most relevant findings on internalization and cellular accumulation for approved and investigational anti-HER2 antibodies and ADCs. The improved clarity of the HER2 system could improve antibody and ADC designs and approaches for next-generation anti-HER2 and other receptor targeting agents.

Aptamer Enables Consistent Maytansine Delivery through Maintaining Receptor Homeostasis for HER2 Targeted Cancer Therapy

Although the extensive clinical use of the ADC trastuzumab-DM1(T-DM1) for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) targeted cancer therapy, many patients who initially respond to T-DM1 treatment eventually met the insufficient efficacy issue, which is partly attributed to the decreased amount of surface HER2 caused by HER2 degradation in target cells. In our study, we have engineered a HER2 targeted DNA aptamer-DM1 conjugate (HApDC) that can maintain the homeostasis of surface HER2 on the target cancer cell. These conclusions are supported by determining the efficient internalization of HApDC into HER2 overexpressed BT474 and SKBR3 cancer cell lines and by identifying the membranal HER2 level on HApDC-treated BT474 cells. Consistent with the impressive in vitro properties of our newly developed anticancer agent, DM1 could precisely be delivered to the tumor tissue in BT474 xenografted mouse models, because of the specific recognition of aptamer. Noteworthy, HApDC exhibited excellent in vivo tumor inhibition function with much lower healthy organ toxicity, compared with the free drug, which might be explained by the persistently targeted DM1 delivery, which is attributed to the remaining HER2 levels on cells.

Simultaneous targeting of HER family pro-survival signaling with Pan-HER antibody mixture is highly effective in TNBC: a preclinical trial with PDXs

BACKGROUND

The human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) family, notably EGFR, is overexpressed in most triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cases and provides cancer cells with compensatory signals that greatly contribute to the survival and development of resistance in response to therapy. This study investigated the effects of Pan-HER (Symphogen, Ballerup, Denmark), a novel mixture of six monoclonal antibodies directed against members of the HER family EGFR, HER2, and HER3, in a preclinical trial of TNBC patient-derived xenografts (PDXs).

METHODS

Fifteen low passage TNBC PDX tumor samples were transferred into the right mammary fat pad of mice for engraftment. When tumors reached an average size of 100-200 mm3, mice were randomized (n ≥ 6 per group) and treated following three 1-week cycles consisting of three times/week intraperitoneal (IP) injection of either formulation buffer (vehicle control) or Pan-HER (50 mg/kg). At the end of treatment, tumors were collected for Western blot, RNA, and immunohistochemistry analyses.

RESULTS

All 15 TNBC PDXs were responsive to Pan-HER treatment, showing significant reductions in tumor growth consistent with Pan-HER-mediated tumor downmodulation of EGFR and HER3 protein levels and significantly decreased activation of associated HER family signaling pathways AKT and ERK. Tumor regression was observed in five of the models, which corresponded to those PDX tumor models with the highest level of HER family activation.

CONCLUSIONS

The marked effect of Pan-HER in numerous HER family-dependent TNBC PDX models justifies further studies of Pan-HER in TNBC clinical trials as a potential therapeutic option.

Lattice complex assembled by noncompetitive anti-EGFR antibodies regulates actin cytoskeletal reorganization

Background

Recent evidence of clinical trials highlights that the combination of two noncompetitive anti-EGFR antibodies can benefit patients with several cancers. Previous studies propose that a lattice complex assembled by antibodies and EGFR down-regulates surface EGFR by rapid internalization of the complex. However, there remains a paucity of evidence and understanding on the existence of a lattice complex on cell surface and its cellular processes of internalization.

Methods

Herein, we used three dimensions structured illumination microscopy to directly observe the actual morphology of the lattice complex formed on Hela cell membrane after noncompetitive anti-EGFR antibody combinations, and we explored the internalized mechanism of noncompetitive antibody combinations by constructing a PIP2 consumption system.

Result

We observed the lattice complex (length > 1 μm) on the surface of living cell after preincubation with Cetuximab and H11, but combination of Cetuximab and single domain antibody 7D12 fails to assemble the lattice, these results demonstrates the importance of symmetrical structure of conventional antibody for lattice formation. Interestingly, the lattice complex assembles along with cytoskeletal fibers, and its internalization recruits a large amount of PIP2 and triggers the rearrangement of F-actin.

Conclusions

The above data suggests that large-size lattice complex affects membrane fluidity and dynamic reorganization of cytoskeletal, which may be responsible for its rapid internalization. These new insight will aid in current rational combination design of anti-EGFR antibodies.

Targeting of EGFR by a combination of antibodies mediates unconventional EGFR trafficking and degradation

Antibody combinations targeting cell surface receptors are a new modality of cancer therapy. The trafficking and signalling mechanisms regulated by such therapeutics are not fully understood but could underlie differential tumour responses. We explored EGFR trafficking upon treatment with the antibody combination Sym004 which has shown promise clinically. Sym004 promoted EGFR endocytosis distinctly from EGF: it was asynchronous, not accompanied by canonical signalling events and involved EGFR clustering within detergent-insoluble plasma mebrane-associated tubules. Sym004 induced lysosomal degradation independently of EGFR ubiquitylation but dependent upon Hrs/Tsg101 that are required for the formation of intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) within late endosomes. We propose Sym004 cross-links EGFR physically triggering EGFR endocytosis and incorporation onto ILVs and so Sym004 sensitivity correlates with EGFR numbers available for binding, rather than specific signalling events. Consistently Sym004 efficacy and potentiation of cisplatin responses correlated with EGFR surface expression in head and neck cancer cells. These findings will have implications in understanding the mode of action of this new class of cancer therapeutics.

A Biparatopic Antibody That Modulates MET Trafficking Exhibits Enhanced Efficacy Compared with Parental Antibodies in MET-Driven Tumor Models

PURPOSE

Recent clinical data demonstrate that tumors harboring MET genetic alterations (exon 14 skip mutations and/or gene amplification) respond to small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors, validating MET as a therapeutic target. Although antibody-mediated blockade of the MET pathway has not been successful in the clinic, the failures are likely the result of inadequate patient selection strategies as well as suboptimal antibody design. Thus, our goal was to generate a novel MET blocking antibody with enhanced efficacy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Here, we describe the activity of a biparatopic MET×MET antibody that recognizes two distinct epitopes in the MET Sema domain. We use a combination of in vitro assays and tumor models to characterize the effect of our antibody on MET signaling, MET intracellular trafficking, and the growth of MET-dependent cells/tumors.

RESULTS

In MET-driven tumor models, our biparatopic antibody exhibits significantly better activity than either of the parental antibodies or the mixture of the two parental antibodies and outperforms several clinical-stage MET antibodies. Mechanistically, the biparatopic antibody inhibits MET recycling, thereby promoting lysosomal trafficking and degradation of MET. In contrast to the parental antibodies, the biparatopic antibody fails to activate MET-dependent biological responses, consistent with the observation that it recycles inefficiently and induces very transient downstream signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide strong support for the notion that biparatopic antibodies are a promising therapeutic modality, potentially having greater efficacy than that predicted from the properties of the parental antibodies.

Engineered Fn3 protein has targeted therapeutic effect on mesothelin-expressing cancer cells and increases tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapy

Mesothelin is a protein expressed at high levels on the cell surface in a variety of cancers, with limited expression in healthy tissues. The presence of mesothelin on tumor tissue correlates with increased invasion and metastasis, and resistance to traditional chemotherapies, through mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Molecules that specifically recognize mesothelin and interrupt its contribution to tumor progression have significant potential for targeted therapy and targeted drug delivery applications. A number of mesothelin-targeting therapies are in preclinical and clinical development, although none are currently approved for routine clinical use. In this work, we report the development of a mesothelin-targeting protein based on the fibronectin type-III non-antibody protein scaffold, which offers opportunities for applications where antibodies have limitations. We engineered protein variants that bind mesothelin with high affinity and selectively initiate apoptosis in tumor cells expressing mesothelin. Interestingly, apoptosis does not occur through a caspase-mediated pathway and does not require downregulation of cell-surface mesothelin, suggesting a currently unknown pathway through which mesothelin contributes to cancer progression. Importantly, simultaneous treatment with mesothelin-binding protein and chemotherapeutic mitomycin C had a greater cytotoxic effect on mesothelin-positive cells compared to either molecule alone, underscoring the potential for combination therapy including biologics targeting mesothelin.

High-Throughput Quantification of Surface Protein Internalization and Degradation

Cell surface proteins are key regulators of fundamental cellular processes and, therefore, often at the root of human diseases. Thus, a large number of targeted drugs which are approved or under development act upon cell surface proteins. Although down-regulation of surface proteins by many natural ligands is well-established, the ability of drug candidates to cause internalization or degradation of the target is only recently moving into focus. This property is important both for the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug but may also constitute a potential resistance mechanism. The enormous numbers of drug candidates targeting cell surface molecules, comprising small molecules, antibodies, or alternative protein scaffolds, necessitate methods for the investigation of internalization and degradation in high throughput. Here, we present a generic high-throughput assay protocol, which allows the simultaneous and independent quantification of internalization and degradation of surface proteins on a single-cell level. Because we fuse a HaloTag to the cell surface protein of interest and exploit the differential cell permeability of two fluorescent HaloTag ligands, no labeling of the molecules to be screened is required. In contrast to previously described approaches, our homogeneous assay is performed with adherent live cells in a 96-well format. Through channel rescaling, we are furthermore able to obtain true relative abundances of surface and internal protein. We demonstrate the applicability of our procedure to three major drug targets, EGFR, HER2, and EpCAM, examining a selection of well-investigated but also novel small molecule ligands and protein affinity reagents.

Inhibition of a pancreatic cancer model by cooperative pairs of clinically approved and experimental antibodies

By year 2025 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is expected to become the second leading cause of cancer related death. However, other than improved chemotherapy and a small molecule inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), no targeted drugs are currently available. Repurposing of approved drugs might offer a rapid solution. We employed an animal PDAC model, expressing a mutant and a wild type form of p53 and KRAS, respectively. Cetuximab, a clinically approved anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody (mAb) weakly inhibited PDAC xenografts, similar to trastuzumab, a mAb against HER2, a co-receptor of EGFR. Because the combination of cetuximab and trastuzumab only moderately enhanced the anti-tumor effects, we combined each with a home-made mAb to the same receptor and identified two cooperative pairs. The pair of trastuzumab and a murine anti-HER2 mAb better than the anti-EGFR pair inhibited PDAC xenografts, although HER2's abundance in our model is 15-fold lower than the level of EGFR. In vitro studies attribute cooperation to forced receptor endocytosis/degradation and inhibition of both DNA synthesis and cell migration. Taken together, our results identify cooperative pairs of anti-PDAC antibodies and highlight potential mechanisms of anti-tumor effects.

Cancer Immunotherapy: The Dawn of Antibody Cocktails

Since the approval of the first monoclonal antibody (mAb), rituximab, for hematological malignancies, almost 30 additional mAbs have been approved in oncology. Despite remarkable advances, relatively weak responses and resistance to antibody monotherapy remain major open issue. Overcoming resistance might require combinations of drugs blocking both the major target and the emerging secondary target. We review clinically approved combinations of antibodies and either cytotoxic regimens (chemotherapy and irradiation) or kinase inhibitors. Thereafter, we focus on the most promising and currently very active arena that combines mAbs inhibiting immune checkpoints or growth factor receptors. Clinically approved and experimental oligoclonal mixtures of mAbs targeting different antigens (hetero-combinations) or different epitopes of the same antigen (homo-combinations) are described. Effective oligoclonal mixtures of antibodies that mimic the polyclonal immune response will likely become a mainstay of cancer therapy.

HER1-based vaccine: Simultaneous activation of humoral and cellular immune response

The human epidermal growth factor receptor 1 (HER1) is a tumor-associated antigen that has been validated as a clinical target for several passive, non-immune therapies currently approved for the treatment of epithelial tumors. HER1 is an oncogene that not only promotes tumor progression and survival, but also immune escape. Its overexpression in some epithelial malignancies has been correlated with a poor prognosis. We developed an approach to target HER1 by specific active immunotherapy, recognizing the extracellular domain of the receptor, using a combination of VSSP and Montanide ISA 51 as adjuvants. We summarize the results obtained with this vaccine in both the preclinical and clinical settings, emphasizing the importance of the induction of both humoral and cellular responses for the success of cancer vaccines as safe therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of cancer.

Epidermal growth factor receptor: Structure-function informing the design of anticancer therapeutics

Research on the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family and the family of receptors (EGFR) has progressed rapidly in recent times. New crystal structures of the ectodomains with different ligands, the activation of the kinase domain through oligomerisation and the use of fluorescence techniques have revealed profound conformational changes on ligand binding. The control of cell signaling from the EGFR-family is complex, with heterodimerisation, ligand affinity and signaling cross-talk influencing cellular outcomes. Analysis of tissue homeostasis indicates that the control of pro-ligand processing is likely to be as important as receptor activation events. Several members of the EGFR-family are overexpressed and/or mutated in cancer cells. The perturbation of EGFR-family signaling drives the malignant phenotype of many cancers and both inhibitors and antagonists of signaling from these receptors have already produced therapeutic benefits for patients. The design of affibodies, antibodies, small molecule inhibitors and even immunotherapeutic drugs targeting the EGFR-family has yielded promising new approaches to improving outcomes for cancer patients. In this review, we describe recent discoveries which have increased our understanding of the structure and dynamics of signaling from the EGFR-family, the roles of ligand processing and receptor cross-talk. We discuss the relevance of these studies to the development of strategies for designing more effective targeted treatments for cancer patients.

Systems Modeling Identifies Divergent Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Reprogramming to MAPK Pathway Inhibition

Introduction

Targeted cancer therapeutics have demonstrated more limited clinical efficacy than anticipated, due to both intrinsic and acquired drug resistance. Underlying mechanisms have been largely attributed to genetic changes, but a substantial proportion of resistance observations remain unexplained by genomic properties. Emerging evidence shows that receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) reprogramming is a major alternative process causing targeted drug resistance, separate from genetic alterations. Hence, the contributions of mechanisms leading to this process need to be more rigorously assessed.

Methods

To parse contributions of multiple mechanisms to RTK reprogramming, we have developed a quantitative multi-receptor and multi-mechanistic experimental framework and kinetic model.

Results

We find that RTK reprogramming mechanisms are disparate among RTKs and nodes of intervention in the MAPK pathway. Mek inhibition induces increased Axl and Her2 levels in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells while Met and EGFR levels remain unchanged, with Axl and Her2 sharing re-wiring through increased synthesis and differing secondary contributing mechanisms. While three Mek inhibitors exhibited mechanistic similarity, three Erk inhibitors elicited effects different from the Mek inhibitors and from each other, with MAPK pathway target-specific effects correlating with Erk subcellular localization. Furthermore, we find that Mek inhibitor-induced RTK reprogramming occurs through both BET bromodomain dependent and independent mechanisms, motivating combination treatment with BET and Axl inhibition to overcome RTK reprogramming.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that RTK reprogramming occurs through multiple mechanisms in a MAPK pathway target-specific manner, highlighting the need for comprehensive resistance mechanism profiling strategies during pharmacological development.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s12195-018-0542-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

ADCC responses and blocking of EGFR-mediated signaling and cell growth by combining the anti-EGFR antibodies imgatuzumab and cetuximab in NSCLC cells

Imgatuzumab is a novel glycoengineered anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) monoclonal antibody optimized to induce both antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and EGFR signal transduction inhibition. We investigated anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies imgatuzumab and cetuximab–induced internalization and membranous turnover of EGFR, and whether this affected imgatuzumab–mediated ADCC responses and growth inhibition of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells.

In a panel of wild-type EGFR expressing human NSCLC cell lines, membranous and total EGFR levels were downregulated more effectively by imgatuzumab when compared with cetuximab. Imgatuzumab plus cetuximab enhanced EGFR internalization and reduced membranous turnover of EGFR, resulting in an even stronger downregulation of EGFR. Immunofluorescent analysis showed that combined treatment increased clustering of receptor-antibody complexes and directed internalized EGFR to lysosomes. The antibody combination potently inhibited intracellular signaling and epidermal growth factor (EGF)-dependent cell proliferation. More importantly, robust EGFR downregulation after 72 hours with the antibody combination did not impair ADCC responses.

In conclusion, imgatuzumab plus cetuximab leads to a strong downregulation of EGFR and superior cell growth inhibition in vitro without affecting antibody-induced ADCC responses. These findings support further clinical exploration of the antibody combination in EGFR wild-type NSCLC.

Combinations of Bevacizumab and Erlotinib Show Activity in Colorectal Cancer Independent of RAS Status

Purpose: There is extensive cross-talk between VEGF- and EGFR-pathway signaling in colorectal cancer. However, combinations of VEGF- and EGFR-targeted monoclonal antibodies (mAb) show disappointing activity, in particular for patients with mutant RAS Previous results show that tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) can be active in colorectal cancer models resistant to mAbs. This prompted us to examine whether the activity of bevacizumab can be increased by combination with erlotinib.Experimental Design: The antitumor activity of bevacizumab, erlotinib, and their combination was determined in colorectal cancer models with different RAS status and bevacizumab sensitivity. EGFR/VEGF pathway activation was characterized by immunohistochemistry, Western blot, and ELISA assays. The influence of cetuximab and erlotinib on EGF-mediated migration and the EGFR-EGF ligand feedback loop was established in colorectal cancer cell lines with different RAS status.Results: The addition of erlotinib increased bevacizumab activity in all models independent of RAS status. Bevacizumab exposure was accompanied by marked EGFR activation in tumor cells as well as in tumor-associated endothelial cells (TECs) and resulted in strong accumulation of intracellular EGFR, which could be attenuated by erlotinib. In cellular models, erlotinib was able to attenuate EGF-mediated functions in all cell lines independent of RAS status while cetuximab only showed activity in RAS wild-type cells.Conclusions: These results should provide a molecular framework to better understand the increased activity of the bevacizumab-erlotinib combination, compared with bevacizumab alone, in the GERCOR DREAM phase III clinical trial. Differential activity of mAbs and TKIs targeting the same signaling pathway is likely applicable for other tumor types. Clin Cancer Res; 24(11); 2548-58. ©2018 AACR.

Precision engineering of targeted nanocarriers

Since their introduction in 1980, the number of advanced targeted nanocarrier systems has grown considerably. Nanocarriers capable of targeting single receptors, multiple receptors, or multiple epitopes have all been used to enhance delivery efficiency and selectivity. Despite tremendous progress, preclinical studies and clinically translatable nanotechnology remain disconnected. The disconnect in targeting efficacy may stem from poorly-understood factors such as receptor clustering, spatial control of targeting ligands, ligand mobility, and ligand architecture. Further, the relationship between receptor distribution and ligand architecture remains elusive. Traditionally, targeted nanocarriers were engineered assuming a "static" target. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that receptor expression patterns change in response to external stimuli and disease progression. Here, we discuss how cutting-edge technologies will enable a better characterization of the spatiotemporal distribution of membrane receptors and their clustering. We further describe how this will enable the design of new nanocarriers that selectively target the site of disease. Ultimately, we explore how the precision engineering of targeted nanocarriers that adapt to receptor dynamics will have the potential to drive nanotechnology to the forefront of therapy and make targeted nanomedicine a clinical reality. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Fate of Antibody-Drug Conjugates in Cancer Cells

Antibody-Drug Conjugates (ADCs) are a class of cancer therapeutics that combines antigen specificity and potent cytotoxicity in a single molecule as they are comprised of an engineered antibody linked chemically to a cytotoxic drug. Four ADCs have received approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicine Agency (EMA) and can be prescribed for metastatic conditions while around 60 ADCs are currently enrolled in clinical trials. The efficacy of an ADC greatly relies on its intracellular trafficking and processing of its components to trigger tumor cell death. A limited number of studies have addressed these critical processes that both challenge and help foster the design of ADCs. This review highlights those mechanisms and their relevance for future development of ADCs as cancer therapeutics.

EGFR Trafficking in Physiology and Cancer

Signaling from the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) elicits multiple biological responses, including cell proliferation, migration, and survival. Receptor endocytosis and trafficking are critical physiological processes that control the strength, duration, diversification, and spatial restriction of EGFR signaling through multiple mechanisms, which we review in this chapter. These mechanisms include: (i) regulation of receptor density and activation at the cell surface; (ii) concentration of receptors into distinct nascent endocytic structures; (iii) commitment of the receptor to different endocytic routes; (iv) endosomal sorting and postendocytic trafficking of the receptor through distinct pathways, and (v) recycling to restricted regions of the cell surface. We also highlight how communication between organelles controls EGFR activity along the endocytic route. Finally, we illustrate how abnormal trafficking of EGFR oncogenic mutants, as well as alterations of the endocytic machinery, contributes to aberrant EGFR signaling in cancer.

Folliculin Interacts with Rab35 to Regulate EGF-Induced EGFR Degradation

Aims and Hypothesis: This study aims to investigate the mechanism involved in intracellular regulation of EGFR degradation induced by EGF.

Methods: Phosphorylation of proteins related to EGFR signaling was examined by western blot analysis. Activation, connection between Rab35 and folliculin (FLCN) were assessed by pulldown, coimmunoprecipitation assays separately. The relationship between FLCN and cell growth was detected using gene overexpression and knock-down techniques.

Results: Here, we demonstrate that interfering with FLCN, a tumor suppressor, reduces the rate of EGF-induced EGFR degradation, resulting in prolonged activation of downstream signaling. Rab35 is also involved in these processes. Moreover, C-terminal of FLCN binds to and activates Rab35. Of special interest is the observation that erlotinib, a selective EGFR inhibitor, not only obstructs the EGFR-mediated cellular signaling, but also abolishes EGF-stimulated EGFR degradation. Further results reveal that EGF facilitates the activation of Rab35, and FLCN modulates EGF-dependent Rab35 activation and cell growth.

Conclusions: Taken together, our study proposes a negative-feedback regulation model in which FLCN mediates EGF-induced Rab35 activation, thereby increasing EGFR degradation and attenuating EGFR signaling.

Targeting Phosphatidylserine with Calcium-Dependent Protein-Drug Conjugates for the Treatment of Cancer

In response to cellular stress, phosphatidylserine is exposed on the outer membrane leaflet of tumor blood vessels and cancer cells, motivating the development of phosphatidylserine-specific therapies. The generation of drug-conjugated phosphatidylserine-targeting agents represents an unexplored therapeutic approach, for which antitumor effects are critically dependent on efficient internalization and lysosomal delivery of the cytotoxic drug. In the current study, we have generated phosphatidylserine-targeting agents by fusing phosphatidylserine-binding domains to a human IgG1-derived Fc fragment. The tumor localization and pharmacokinetics of several phosphatidylserine-specific Fc fusions have been analyzed in mice and demonstrate that Fc-Syt1, a fusion containing the synaptotagmin 1 C2A domain, effectively targets tumor tissue. Conjugation of Fc-Syt1 to the cytotoxic drug monomethyl auristatin E results in a protein-drug conjugate (PDC) that is internalized into target cells and, due to the Ca²⁺ dependence of phosphatidylserine binding, dissociates from phosphatidylserine in early endosomes. The released PDC is efficiently delivered to lysosomes and has potent antitumor effects in mouse xenograft tumor models. Interestingly, although an engineered, tetravalent Fc-Syt1 fusion shows increased binding to target cells, this higher avidity variant demonstrates reduced persistence and therapeutic effects compared with bivalent Fc-Syt1. Collectively, these studies show that finely tuned, Ca²⁺-switched phosphatidylserine-targeting agents can be therapeutically efficacious. Mol Cancer Ther; 17(1); 169-82. ©2017 AACR.