DNA-mediated engineering of multicomponent enzyme crystals

Engineering Anisotropy into Organized Nanoscale Matter

Programming the organization of discrete building blocks into periodic and quasi-periodic arrays is challenging. Methods for organizing materials are particularly important at the nanoscale, where the time required for organization processes is practically manageable in experiments, and the resulting structures are of interest for applications spanning catalysis, optics, and plasmonics. While the assembly of isotropic nanoscale objects has been extensively studied and described by empirical design rules, recent synthetic advances have allowed anisotropy to be programmed into macroscopic assemblies made from nanoscale building blocks, opening new opportunities to engineer periodic materials and even quasicrystals with unnatural properties. In this review, we define guidelines for leveraging anisotropy of individual building blocks to direct the organization of nanoscale matter. First, the nature and spatial distribution of local interactions are considered and three design rules that guide particle organization are derived. Subsequently, recent examples from the literature are examined in the context of these design rules. Within the discussion of each rule, we delineate the examples according to the dimensionality (0D-3D) of the building blocks. Finally, we use geometric considerations to propose a general inverse design-based construction strategy that will enable the engineering of colloidal crystals with unprecedented structural control.

From Structure to Application: The Evolutionary Trajectory of Spherical Nucleic Acids

Since the proposal of the concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) in 1996, numerous studies have focused on this topic and have achieved great advances. As a new delivery system for nucleic acids, SNAs have advantages over conventional deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nanostructures, including independence from transfection reagents, tolerance to nucleases, and lower immune reactions. The flexible structure of SNAs proves that various inorganic or organic materials can be used as the core, and different types of nucleic acids can be conjugated to realize diverse functions and achieve surprising and exciting outcomes. The special DNA nanostructures have been employed for immunomodulation, gene regulation, drug delivery, biosensing, and bioimaging. Despite the lack of rational design strategies, potential cytotoxicity, and structural defects of this technology, various successful examples demonstrate the bright and convincing future of SNAs in fields such as new materials, clinical practice, and pharmacy.

Strategies and Applications for Supramolecular Protein Self-Assembly

Supramolecular chemistry achieves higher-order molecular self-assembly through non-covalent interactions. Utilizing supramolecular methods to explore the polymorphism of proteins, the building blocks of life, from a "bottom-up" perspective is essential for constructing diverse and functional biomaterials. In recent years, significant progress has been achieved in the design strategies and functional applications of supramolecular protein self-assembly, becoming a focal point for researchers. This paper reviews classical supramolecular strategies driving protein self-assembly, including electrostatic interactions, metal coordination, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, host-guest interactions, and other mechanisms. We discuss how these supramolecular interactions regulate protein assembly processes and highlight protein supramolecular assemblies' unique structural and functional advantages in constructing artificial photosynthetic systems, protein hydrogels, bio-delivery systems, and other functional materials. The enormous potential and significance of supramolecular protein materials are elucidated. Finally, the challenges in preparing and applying protein supramolecular assemblies are summarized, and future development directions are projected.

Programming of Supercrystals Using Replicable DNA-Functionalized Colloids

The development of self-replicating systems is of great importance in research on the origin of life. As the most iconic molecules, nucleic acids have provided prominent examples of the fabrication of self-replicating artificial nanostructures. However, it is still challenging to construct sophisticated synthetic systems that can create large-scale or three-dimensionally ordered nanomaterials using self-replicating nanostructures. By integrating a template system containing DNA-functionalized colloidal seeds with a simplified DNA strand-displacement circuit programmed subsystem to produce DNA-functionalized colloidal copies, we developed a facile enthalpy-mediated strategy to control the replication and catalytic assembly of DNA-functionalized colloids in a time-dependent manner. The replication efficiency and crystal quality of the resulting superlattice structures can be effectively increased by regulating the molar ratio of the template to the copy colloids. By constructing binary systems from two types of gold nanoparticles (or proteins), superlattice structures with different crystal symmetries can be obtained through the replication and catalytic assembly processes. This programmable enthalpy-mediated approach was easily leveraged to achieve the phase transformation and catalytic amplification of colloidal crystals starting from different initial template crystals. This work offers a potential way to construct self-replicating artificial systems that exhibit complicated phase behaviors and can produce large-scale superlattice nanomaterials.

Programming crystallization kinetics of self-assembled DNA crystals with 5-methylcytosine modification

Self-assembled DNA crystals offer a precise chemical platform at the ångström-scale for DNA nanotechnology, holding enormous potential in material separation, catalysis, and DNA data storage. However, accurately controlling the crystallization kinetics of such DNA crystals remains challenging. Herein, we found that atomic-level 5-methylcytosine (5mC) modification can regulate the crystallization kinetics of DNA crystal by tuning the hybridization rates of DNA motifs. We discovered that by manipulating the axial and combination of 5mC modification on the sticky ends of DNA tensegrity triangle motifs, we can obtain a series of DNA crystals with controllable morphological features. Through DNA-PAINT and FRET-labeled DNA strand displacement experiments, we elucidate that atomic-level 5mC modification enhances the affinity constant of DNA hybridization at both the single-molecule and macroscopic scales. This enhancement can be harnessed for kinetic-driven control of the preferential growth direction of DNA crystals. The 5mC modification strategy can overcome the limitations of DNA sequence design imposed by limited nucleobase numbers in various DNA hybridization reactions. This strategy provides a new avenue for the manipulation of DNA crystal structure, valuable for the advancement of DNA and biomacromolecular crystallography.

Accurate computational design of three-dimensional protein crystals

Protein crystallization plays a central role in structural biology. Despite this, the process of crystallization remains poorly understood and highly empirical, with crystal contacts, lattice packing arrangements and space group preferences being largely unpredictable. Programming protein crystallization through precisely engineered side-chain-side-chain interactions across protein-protein interfaces is an outstanding challenge. Here we develop a general computational approach for designing three-dimensional protein crystals with prespecified lattice architectures at atomic accuracy that hierarchically constrains the overall number of degrees of freedom of the system. We design three pairs of oligomers that can be individually purified, and upon mixing, spontaneously self-assemble into >100 µm three-dimensional crystals. The structures of these crystals are nearly identical to the computational design models, closely corresponding in both overall architecture and the specific protein-protein interactions. The dimensions of the crystal unit cell can be systematically redesigned while retaining the space group symmetry and overall architecture, and the crystals are extremely porous and highly stable. Our approach enables the computational design of protein crystals with high accuracy, and the designed protein crystals, which have both structural and assembly information encoded in their primary sequences, provide a powerful platform for biological materials engineering.

Facet-controlled assembly for organizing metal-organic framework particles into extended structures

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline porous materials characterized by their high porosity and chemical tailorability. To realize the full potential of synthesized MOFs, it is important to transform them from crystalline solid powders into materials with integrated morphologies and properties. One promising approach is facet-controlled assembly, which involves arranging individual crystalline MOF particles into ordered macroscale structures by carefully controlling the interactions between particles. The resulting assembled MOF structures maintain the characteristics of individual particles while also exhibiting improved properties overall. In this article, we emphasize the essential concepts of MOF assembly, highlighting the impact of building blocks, surface interactions, and Gibbs free energy on the assembly process. We systematically examine three methods of guiding facet-controlled MOF assembly, including spontaneous assembly, assembly guided by external forces, and assembly through surface modifications. Lastly, we offer outlooks on future advancements in the fabrication of MOF-based material and potential application exploration.

Spatially Patterned, Porous Protein Crystals as Multifunctional Materials

While the primary use of protein crystals has historically been in crystallographic structure determination, they have recently emerged as promising materials with many advantageous properties such as high porosity, biocompatibility, stability, structural and functional versatility, and genetic/chemical tailorability. Here, we report that the utility of protein crystals as functional materials can be further augmented through their spatial patterning and control of their morphologies. To this end, we took advantage of the chemically and kinetically controllable nature of ferritin self-assembly and constructed core-shell crystals with chemically distinct domains, tunable structural patterns, and morphologies. The spatial organization within ferritin crystals enabled the generation of patterned, multi-enzyme frameworks with cooperative catalytic behavior. We further exploited the differential growth kinetics of ferritin crystal facets to assemble Janus-type architectures with an anisotropic arrangement of chemically distinct domains. These examples represent a step toward using protein crystals as reaction vessels for complex multi-step reactions and broadening their utility as functional, solid-state materials. Our results demonstrate that morphology control and spatial patterning, which are key concepts in materials science and nanotechnology, can also be applied for engineering protein crystals.

Inspired Beyond Nature: Three Decades of Spherical Nucleic Acids and Colloidal Crystal Engineering with DNA

The conception, synthesis, and invention of a nanostructure, now known as the spherical nucleic acid, or SNA, in 1996 marked the advent of a new field of chemistry. Over the past three decades, the SNA and its analogous anisotropic equivalents have provided an avenue for us to think about some of the most fundamental concepts in chemistry in new ways and led to technologies that are significantly impacting fields from medicine to materials science. A prime example is colloidal crystal engineering with DNA, the framework for using SNAs and related structures to synthesize programmable matter. Herein, we document the evolution of this framework, which was initially inspired by nature, and describe how it now allows researchers to chart paths to move beyond it, as programmable matter with real-world significance is envisioned and created.

Spatiotemporal Landscape for the Sophisticated Transformation of Protein Assemblies Defined by Multiple Supramolecular Interactions

Precise protein assemblies not only constitute a series of living machineries but also provide an advanced class of biomaterials. Previously, we developed the inducing ligand strategy to generate various fixed protein assemblies, without the formation of noncovalent interactions between proteins. Here, we demonstrated that controlling the symmetry and number of supramolecular interactions introduced on protein surfaces could direct the formation of unspecific interactions between proteins and induce various nanoscale assemblies, including coiling nanowires, nanotubes, and nanosheets, without manipulation of the protein's native surfaces. More importantly, these nanoscale assemblies could spontaneously evolve into more ordered architectures, crystals. We further showed that the transformation from the introduced supramolecular interactions to the interactions formed between proteins was crucial for pathway selection and outcomes of evolution. These findings reveal a transformation mechanism of protein self-assembly that has not been exploited before and may provide an approach to generate complex and transformable biomacromolecular self-assemblies.

Modular Protein-DNA Cocrystals as Precise, Programmable Assembly Scaffolds

High-precision nanomaterials to entrap DNA-binding molecules are sought after for applications such as controlled drug delivery and scaffold-assisted structural biology. Here, we engineered protein-DNA cocrystals to serve as scaffolds for DNA-binding molecules. The designed cocrystals, isoreticular cocrystals, contain DNA-binding protein and cognate DNA blocks where the DNA-DNA junctions stack end-to-end. Furthermore, the crystal symmetry allows topology preserving (isoreticular) expansion of the DNA stack without breaking protein-protein contacts, hence providing larger solvent channels for guest diffusion. Experimentally, the resulting designed isoreticular cocrystal adopted an interpenetrating I222 lattice, a phenomenon previously observed in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The interpenetrating lattice crystallized dependably in the same space group despite myriad modifications at the DNA-DNA junctions. Assembly was modular with respect to the DNA inserted for expansion, providing an interchangeable DNA sequence for guest-specified scaffolding. Also, the DNA-DNA junctions were tunable, accommodating varied sticky base overhang lengths and terminal phosphorylation. As a proof of concept, we used the interpenetrating scaffold crystals to separately entrap three distinct guest molecules during crystallization. Isoreticular cocrystal design offers a route to a programmable scaffold for DNA-binding molecules, and the design principles may be applied to existing cocrystals to develop scaffolding materials.

Preparation and Biological Properties of Oligonucleotide-Functionalized Virus-like Particles

Oligonucleotides are powerful molecules for programming function and assembly. When arrayed on nanoparticle scaffolds in high density, the resulting molecules, spherical nucleic acids (SNAs), become imbued with unique properties. We used the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition to graft oligonucleotides on Qβ virus-like particles to see if such structures also gain SNA-like behavior. Copper-binding ligands were shown to promote the click reaction without degrading oligonucleotide substrates. Reactions were first optimized with a small-molecule fluorogenic reporter and were then applied to the more challenging synthesis of polyvalent protein nanoparticle-oligonucleotide conjugates. The resulting particles exhibited the enhanced cellular uptake and protection from nuclease-mediated oligonucleotide cleavage characteristic of SNAs, had similar residence time in the liver relative to unmodified particles, and were somewhat shielded from immune recognition, resulting in nearly 10-fold lower antibody titers relative to unmodified particles. Oligonucleotide-functionalized virus-like particles thus provide an interesting option for protein nanoparticle-mediated delivery of functional molecules.

Influence of hydrophobic moieties on the crystallization of amphiphilic DNA nanostructures

Three-dimensional crystalline frameworks with nanoscale periodicity are valuable for many emerging technologies, from nanophotonics to nanomedicine. DNA nanotechnology has emerged as a prime route for constructing these materials, with most approaches taking advantage of the structural rigidity and bond directionality programmable for DNA building blocks. Recently, we have introduced an alternative strategy reliant on flexible, amphiphilic DNA junctions dubbed C-stars, whose ability to crystallize is modulated by design parameters, such as nanostructure topology, conformation, rigidity, and size. While C-stars have been shown to form ordered phases with controllable lattice parameter, response to stimuli, and embedded functionalities, much of their vast design space remains unexplored. Here, we investigate the effect of changing the chemical nature of the hydrophobic modifications and the structure of the DNA motifs in the vicinity of these moieties. While similar design variations should strongly alter key properties of the hydrophobic interactions between C-stars, such as strength and valency, only limited differences in self-assembly behavior are observed. This finding suggests that long-range order in C-star crystals is likely imposed by structural features of the building block itself rather than the specific characteristics of the hydrophobic tags. Nonetheless, we find that altering the hydrophobic regions influences the ability of C-star crystals to uptake hydrophobic molecular cargoes, which we exemplify by studying the encapsulation of antibiotic penicillin V. Besides advancing our understanding of the principles governing the self-assembly of amphiphilic DNA building blocks, our observations thus open up new routes to chemically program the materials without affecting their structure.

The Formation and Displacement of Ordered DNA Triplexes in Self-Assembled Three-Dimensional DNA Crystals

Reconfigurable structures engineered through DNA hybridization and self-assembly offer both structural and dynamic applications in nanotechnology. Here, we have demonstrated that strand displacement of triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) can be translated to a robust macroscopic DNA crystal by coloring the crystals with covalently attached fluorescent dyes. We show that three different types of triplex strand displacement are feasible within the DNA crystals and the bound TFOs can be removed and/or replaced by (a) changing the pH from 5 to 7, (b) the addition of the Watson-Crick complement to a TFO containing a short toehold, and (c) the addition of a longer TFO that uses the duplex edge as a toehold. We have also proved by X-ray diffraction that the structure of the crystals remains as designed in the presence of the TFOs.

Programmable 3D Hexagonal Geometry of DNA Tensegrity Triangles

Non-canonical interactions in DNA remain under-explored in DNA nanotechnology. Recently, many structures with non-canonical motifs have been discovered, notably a hexagonal arrangement of typically rhombohedral DNA tensegrity triangles that forms through non-canonical sticky end interactions. Here, we find a series of mechanisms to program a hexagonal arrangement using: the sticky end sequence; triangle edge torsional stress; and crystallization condition. We showcase cross-talking between Watson-Crick and non-canonical sticky ends in which the ratio between the two dictates segregation by crystal forms or combination into composite crystals. Finally, we develop a method for reconfiguring the long-range geometry of formed crystals from rhombohedral to hexagonal and vice versa. These data demonstrate fine control over non-canonical motifs and their topological self-assembly. This will vastly increase the programmability, functionality, and versatility of rationally designed DNA constructs.

Symmetry-Breaking Dendrimer Synthons in Colloidal Crystal Engineering with DNA

Breaking symmetry in colloidal crystals is challenging due to the inherent chemical and structural isotropy of many nanoscale building blocks. If a non-particle component could be used to anisotropically encode such building blocks with orthogonal recognition properties, one could expand the scope of structural and compositional possibilities of colloidal crystals beyond what is thus far possible with purely particle-based systems. Herein, we report the synthesis and characterization of novel DNA dendrimers that function as symmetry-breaking synthons, capable of programming anisotropic and orthogonal interactions within colloidal crystals. When the DNA dendrimers have identical sticky ends, they hybridize with DNA-functionalized nanoparticles to yield three distinct colloidal crystals, dictated by dendrimer size, including a structure not previously reported in the field of colloidal crystal engineering, Si₂Sr. When used as symmetry-breaking synthons (when the sticky ends deliberately consist of orthogonal sequences), the synthesis of binary and ternary colloidal alloys with structures that can only be realized through directional interactions is possible. Furthermore, by modulating the extent of shape anisotropy within the DNA dendrimers, the local distribution of the nanoparticles within the crystals can be directed.

Hierarchical Materials from High Information Content Macromolecular Building Blocks: Construction, Dynamic Interventions, and Prediction

Hierarchical materials that exhibit order over multiple length scales are ubiquitous in nature. Because hierarchy gives rise to unique properties and functions, many have sought inspiration from nature when designing and fabricating hierarchical matter. More and more, however, nature's own high-information content building blocks, proteins, peptides, and peptidomimetics, are being coopted to build hierarchy because the information that determines structure, function, and interfacial interactions can be readily encoded in these versatile macromolecules. Here, we take stock of recent progress in the rational design and characterization of hierarchical materials produced from high-information content blocks with a focus on stimuli-responsive and "smart" architectures. We also review advances in the use of computational simulations and data-driven predictions to shed light on how the side chain chemistry and conformational flexibility of macromolecular blocks drive the emergence of order and the acquisition of hierarchy and also on how ionic, solvent, and surface effects influence the outcomes of assembly. Continued progress in the above areas will ultimately usher in an era where an understanding of designed interactions, surface effects, and solution conditions can be harnessed to achieve predictive materials synthesis across scale and drive emergent phenomena in the self-assembly and reconfiguration of high-information content building blocks.

Modular Nucleic Acid Scaffolds for Synthesizing Monodisperse and Sequence-Encoded Antibody Oligomers

Synthesizing protein oligomers that contain exact numbers of multiple different proteins in defined architectures is challenging. DNA-DNA interactions can be used to program protein assembly into oligomers; however, existing methods require changes to DNA design to achieve different numbers and oligomeric sequences of proteins. Herein, we develop a modular DNA scaffold that uses only six synthetic oligonucleotides to organize proteins into defined oligomers. As a proof-of-concept, model proteins (antibodies) are oligomerized into dimers and trimers, where antibody function is retained. Illustrating the modularity of this technique, dimer and trimer building blocks are then assembled into pentamers containing three different antibodies in an exact stoichiometry and oligomeric sequence. In sum, this report describes a generalizable method for organizing proteins into monodisperse, sequence-encoded oligomers using DNA. This advance will enable studies into how oligomeric protein sequences affect material properties in areas spanning pharmaceutical development, cascade catalysis, synthetic photosynthesis, and membrane transport.

pH-Induced Symmetry Conversion of DNA Origami Lattices

DNA nanotechnology has provided credible approaches for assembly of three-dimensional (3D) lattices with complex patterns. However, the symmetries are strictly dependent on their initial configurations and difficult to alter via non-thermal treatments. While switchable nucleic acid structures have been employed to construct deformable DNA motifs, it remains challenging to arrange them anisotropically in 3D lattices to trigger directed collective shape transition and dynamic symmetry conversion. In this work, we used octahedral DNA origami frames to synthesize four DNA origami lattices by placing the pH-reactive i-motif sequences in the desired dimensions. Thereinto, lattices with an anisotropic design can switch between simple cubic (SC) and simple tetragonal (ST) upon pH change. Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) results reveal the feasibility of obtaining 3D lattices with sensitive responses to external stimuli, expanding the way to obtain low-symmetry lattices.

Nucleic acid-based supramolecular structures: vesicular spherical nucleic acids from a non-phospholipid nucleolipid

Vesicular spherical nucleic acids are dynamic nucleic acid-based supramolecular structures that are held together via non-covalent bonds. They have promising applications as drug and nucleic acid delivery materials, diagnostic and imaging tools and platforms for development of various therapeutic schemes. In this contribution, we report on vesicular spherical nucleic acids, constructed from a non-phospholipid nucleolipid - an original hybrid biomacromolecule, composed of a hydrophobic residue, resembling that of the naturally occurring phospholipids, and a DNA oligonucleotide strand. The nucleolipid was synthesized by coupling of dibenzocyclooctyne-functionalized oligonucleotide and azidated 1,3-dihexadecyloxy-propane-2-ol via an azide-alkyne click reaction. In aqueous solution it spontaneously self-associated into nanosized supramolecular structures, identified as unilamellar vesicles composed of a self-closed interdigitated bilayer. Vesicular structures were also formed upon intercalation of the nucleolipid via its lipid-mimetic residue in the phospholipid bilayer membrane of liposomes prepared from readily available and FDA-approved lipids (1,2-dipalmitoyl-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine and cholesterol). The vesicular structures are thoroughly investigated by light scattering (dynamic, static, and electrophoretic) and cryogenic TEM and the physical characteristics, in particular, number of strands per particle, grafting density, and conformation of the strands, were compared to those of reference spherical nucleic acids. Finally, the vesicular structures were shown to exhibit cellular internalization with no need of transfection agents and enhanced colloidal and nuclease stability.

Precise Assembly of Proteins and Carbohydrates for Next-Generation Biomaterials

The complexity and diversity of biomacromolecules make them a unique class of building blocks for generating precise assemblies. They are particularly available to a new generation of biomaterials integrated with living systems due to their intrinsic properties such as accurate recognition, self-organization, and adaptability. Therefore, many excellent approaches have been developed, leading to a variety of quite practical outcomes. Here, we review recent advances in the fabrication and application of artificially precise assemblies by employing proteins and carbohydrates as building blocks, followed by our perspectives on some of new challenges, goals, and opportunities for the future research directions in this field.

Hollow spherical nucleic acid structures based on polymer-coated phospholipid vesicles

A feasible one pot synthesis of hollow spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) using phospholipid liposomes is reported. These constructs are synthesized in a chemically straightforward process involving formation of unilamellar liposomes, coating the liposomes with a thin cross-linked polymeric layer, and grafting the latter with short (about 20 bases) DNA oligonucleotide strands. They consist of vesicular cores, composed of readily available phospholipid (1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-phosphocholine), whereas the strands are deliberately arranged on the surface of the vesicular entities. The initial vesicular structure and morphology are preserved during the coating and grafting reactions. The novel hollow/vesicular SNAs are characterized with a hydrodynamic radius and radius of gyration of 78.3 and 88.5 nm, respectively, and moderately negative (-14.2 mV) ζ potential. They carry thousands (5868) of oligonucleotide strands per vesicle, which are not strongly radially oriented and adopt an unextended conformation as anticipated from the smaller value of the grafting density compared to the critical grafting density at the transition to brush conformation. The constructs are practically devoid of toxicity and exhibit high binding affinity to complementary nucleic acids. Unlike any other nucleic acid structural motif, they cross the cell membrane and enter cells without the need of transfection agents.

Glutathione-Sensitive Nanoglue Platform with Effective Nucleic Acids Gluing onto Liposomes for Photo-Gene Therapy

Liposomal spherical nucleic acids possess a high density of nucleic acids, e.g., DNA, on a liposomal core. There are two approaches to conjugate DNA onto the zwitterionic liposomes, i.e., covalent and noncovalent conjugation, otherwise using cationic liposomes. However, complex and expensive DNA chemical modification methods need to seek a novel and easy-operating approach to decorating DNA onto liposomes. Inspired by the nanoparticle solution as nanoglues for gels and biological tissues, we use MnO₂ nanosheets to "glue" DNA onto liposomes without DNA modification. In tumor cells with a high glutathione concentration, MnO₂-based nanoglues are degraded, generating water-soluble Mn²⁺ ions, further "unglue" DNA (i.e., DNAzyme), and liposomes. Using the intelligent liposomal nanoglue (DNAzyme/MnO₂/Lip) combining glutathione-sensitive MnO₂ nanosheets, gene silencing agent DNAzyme, and photosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6) in liposomes, effective photo-gene therapy was demonstrated.

Morphological Selectivity of a Protein Self-Assembly System with a Repertoire of Diverse Interaction Modes

Multiple metal chelating sites were incorporated onto the second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (SMAC) building blocks. The combination of different binding sites generated a repertoire of diverse binding modes, among which two different microfilament types (small and large) with distinct patterns were selected under thermodynamic control. Furthermore, the two microfilaments exhibited a pronounced secondary assembly trend due to the potential noncovalent interactions on the protein surfaces. Coupled with stereoselectivity, they presented a strong self-recognition effect and underwent two distinct reassembly patterns. That is, the large filaments self-associated in pairs to form "interlocked chain" structures, while the small ones twisted to form protein helical bundles. This work represents one of the few studies of selective self-assembly of self-assembled protein assemblies. Such an idea may provide inspiration for constructing more sophisticated protein architectures in the future.

Two-Stage Assembly of Nanoparticle Superlattices with Multiscale Organization

Self-assembly processes, while promising for enabling the fabrication of complexly organized nanomaterials from nanoparticles, are often limited in creating structures with multiscale order. These limitations are due to difficulties in practically realizing the assembly processes required to achieve such complex organizations. For a long time, a hierarchical assembly attracted interest as a potentially powerful approach. However, due to the experimental limitations, intermediate-level structures are often heterogeneous in composition and structure, which significantly impacts the formation of large-scale organizations. Here, we introduce a two-stage assembly strategy: DNA origami frames scaffold a coordination of nanoparticles into designed 3D nanoclusters, and then these clusters are assembled into ordered lattices whose types are determined by the clusters' valence. Through modulating the nanocluster architectures and intercluster bindings, we demonstrate the successful formation of complexly organized nanoparticle crystals. The presented two-stage assembly method provides a powerful fabrication strategy for creating nanoparticle superlattices with prescribed unit cells.

Engineering bacterial surface interactions using DNA as a programmable material

The diverse surface interactions and functions of a bacterium play an important role in cell signaling, host infection, and colony formation. To understand and synthetically control the biological functions of individual cells as well as the whole community, there is growing attention on the development of chemical and biological tools that can integrate artificial functional motifs onto the bacterial surface to replace the native interactions, enabling a variety of applications in biosynthesis, environmental protection, and human health. Among all these functional motifs, DNA emerges as a powerful tool that can precisely control bacterial interactions at the bio-interface due to its programmability and biorecognition properties. Compared with conventional chemical and genetic approaches, the sequence-specific Watson-Crick interaction enables almost unlimited programmability in DNA nanostructures, realizing one base-pair spatial control and bio-responsive properties. This highlight aims to provide an overview on this emerging research topic of DNA-engineered bacterial interactions from the aspect of synthetic chemists. We start with the introduction of native bacterial surface ligands and established synthetic approaches to install artificial ligands, including direct modification, metabolic engineering, and genetic engineering. A brief overview of DNA nanotechnology, reported DNA-bacteria conjugation chemistries, and several examples of DNA-engineered bacteria are included in this highlight. The future perspectives and challenges in this field are also discussed, including the development of dynamic bacterial surface chemistry, assembly of programmable multicellular community, and realization of bacteria-based theranostic agents and synthetic microbiota as long-term goals.

Engineering of protein crystals for use as solid biomaterials

Protein crystals have attracted a great deal of attention as solid biomaterials because they have porous structures created by regular assemblies of proteins. The lattice structures of protein crystals are controlled by designing molecular interfacial interactions via covalent bonds and non-covalent bonds. Protein crystals have been functionalized as templates to immobilize foreign molecules such as metal nanoparticles, metal complexes, and proteins. These hybrid crystals are used as functional materials for catalytic reactions and structural analysis. Furthermore, in-cell protein crystals have been studied extensively, providing progress in rapid protein crystallization and crystallography. This review highlights recent advances in crystal engineering for protein crystallization and generation of solid functional materials both in vitro and within cells.

Nanoscale structures and materials from the self-assembly of polypeptides and DNA

The use of biological molecules with programmable self-assembly properties is an attractive route to functional nanomaterials. Proteins and peptides have been used extensively for these systems due to their biological relevance and large number of supramolecular motifs, but it is still difficult to build highly anisotropic and programmable nanostructures due to their high complexity. Oligonucleotides, by contrast, have the advantage of programmability and reliable assembly, but lack biological and chemical diversity. In this review, we discuss systems that merge protein or peptide self-assembly with the addressability of DNA. We outline the various self-assembly motifs used, the chemistry for linking polypeptides with DNA, and the resulting nanostructures that can be formed by the interplay of these two molecules. Finally, we close by suggesting some interesting future directions in hybrid polypeptide-DNA nanomaterials, and potential applications for these exciting hybrids.

Molecularly pure miktoarm spherical nucleic acids: preparation and usage as a scaffold for abiotic intracellular catalysis

We present a fullerene-based strategy that allows the synthesis of molecularly pure miktoarm spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) with diverse structures, which, with post-functionalization, could serve as efficient scaffolds for intracellular catalysis. The SNA structure promotes cell permeability, nucleic acid stability, and catalytic efficiency, making the platform ideal for in cellulo reactions. Consequently, the tris(triazole)-bearing miktoarm SNA was able to effectively mediate intracellular copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition at nanomolar level of copper, and facilitate the same reaction in live zebrafish.

Protein Assembly by Design

Proteins are nature's primary building blocks for the construction of sophisticated molecular machines and dynamic materials, ranging from protein complexes such as photosystem II and nitrogenase that drive biogeochemical cycles to cytoskeletal assemblies and muscle fibers for motion. Such natural systems have inspired extensive efforts in the rational design of artificial protein assemblies in the last two decades. As molecular building blocks, proteins are highly complex, in terms of both their three-dimensional structures and chemical compositions. To enable control over the self-assembly of such complex molecules, scientists have devised many creative strategies by combining tools and principles of experimental and computational biophysics, supramolecular chemistry, inorganic chemistry, materials science, and polymer chemistry, among others. Owing to these innovative strategies, what started as a purely structure-building exercise two decades ago has, in short order, led to artificial protein assemblies with unprecedented structures and functions and protein-based materials with unusual properties. Our goal in this review is to give an overview of this exciting and highly interdisciplinary area of research, first outlining the design strategies and tools that have been devised for controlling protein self-assembly, then describing the diverse structures of artificial protein assemblies, and finally highlighting the emergent properties and functions of these assemblies.

Microenvironment-responsive DNA-conjugated albumin nanocarriers for targeted therapy

Drug delivery with accurate targeting and efficient treatment has become an essential strategy for cancer therapy. Two nanocarriers based on bovine serum albumin (BSA) and DNA were synthesized via click chemistry and DNA hybridization reactions (DNA-BSA1 and DNA-BSA2). One of the hybridized oligonucleotides, Linker1, in DNA-BSA1 included a pH-sensitive i-motif sequence and a cancer cell-targeted guanine-quadruplex-structured AS1411 aptamer sequence, and the other, Linker2, in DNA-BSA2 had only the same pH-sensitive i-motif sequence. Doxorubicin (DOX) molecules could be quickly and preferentially intercalated into double-stranded DNA via non-covalent interactions, and the encapsulation efficiency of DNA-BSA1 and DNA-BSA2 was almost 100% and 87.5%, respectively. As a mimic of the cancer cell microenvironment, a pH-trigger and a deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I)-trigger release mechanism was individually proposed to explain the dynamic release of the DNA-BSA@DOX under acidic conditions and the presence of DNase I in vitro. Intracellular uptake and cytotoxicity experiments confirmed that the nanocarrier DNA-BSA1@DOX had accurate targeting and efficient treatment towards cancer cells due to the high affinity and specificity of AS1411 to nucleolin, which is overexpressed in cancer cells. Furthermore, in vivo studies showed that the nanocarrier system could efficiently inhibit tumor growth. Therefore, the entire bio-based nanocarrier DNA-BSA is a promising candidate for the loading and release of anti-cancer drugs for accurate delivery and efficient treatment.

Spherical Nucleic Acids: Integrating Nanotechnology Concepts into General Chemistry Curricula

Nanoscience and technology research offer exciting avenues to modernize undergraduate-level General Chemistry curricula. In particular, spherical nucleic acid (SNA) nanoconjugates, which behave as "programmable atom equivalents" (PAEs) in the context of colloidal crystals, are one system that one can use to reinforce foundational concepts in chemistry including matter and atoms, the Periodic Table, Lewis dot structures and the octet rule, valency and valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, and Pauling's rules, ultimately leading to enriching discussions centered on materials chemistry and biochemistry with key implications in medicine, optics, catalysis, and other areas. These lessons connect historical and modern concepts in chemistry, relate course content to current professional and popular science topics, inspire critical and creative thinking, and spur some students to continue their science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and attain careers in STEM fields. Ultimately, and perhaps most importantly, these lessons may expand the pool of young students interested in chemistry by making connections to a broader group of contemporary concepts and technologies that impact their lives and enhance their view of the field. Herein, a way of teaching aspects of General Chemistry in the context of modern nanoscience concepts is introduced to instructors and curricula developers at research institutions, primarily undergraduate institutions, and community colleges worldwide.

Encoding hierarchical assembly pathways of proteins with DNA

The structural and functional diversity of materials in nature depends on the controlled assembly of discrete building blocks into complex architectures via specific, multistep, hierarchical assembly pathways. Achieving similar complexity in synthetic materials through hierarchical assembly is challenging due to difficulties with defining multiple recognition areas on synthetic building blocks and controlling the sequence through which those recognition sites direct assembly. Here, we show that we can exploit the chemical anisotropy of proteins and the programmability of DNA ligands to deliberately control the hierarchical assembly of protein-DNA materials. Through DNA sequence design, we introduce orthogonal DNA interactions with disparate interaction strengths ("strong" and "weak") onto specific geometric regions of a model protein, stable protein 1 (Sp1). We show that the spatial encoding of DNA ligands leads to highly directional assembly via strong interactions and that, by design, the first stage of assembly increases the multivalency of weak DNA-DNA interactions that give rise to an emergent second stage of assembly. Furthermore, we demonstrate that judicious DNA design not only directs assembly along a given pathway but can also direct distinct structural outcomes from a single pathway. This combination of protein surface and DNA sequence design allows us to encode the structural and chemical information necessary into building blocks to program their multistep hierarchical assembly. Our findings represent a strategy for controlling the hierarchical assembly of proteins to realize a diverse set of protein-DNA materials by design.

The role of complementary shape in protein dimerization

Shape guides colloidal nanoparticles to form complex assemblies, but its role in defining interfaces in biomolecular complexes is less clear. In this work, we isolate the role of shape in protein complexes by studying the reversible binding processes of 46 protein dimer pairs, and investigate when entropic effects from shape complementarity alone are sufficient to predict the native protein binding interface. We employ depletants using a generic, implicit depletion model to amplify the magnitude of the entropic forces arising from lock-and-key binding and isolate the effect of shape complementarity in protein dimerization. For 13% of the complexes studied here, protein shape is sufficient to predict native complexes as equilibrium assemblies. We elucidate the results by analyzing the importance of competing binding configurations and how it affects the assembly. A machine learning classifier, with a precision of 89.14% and a recall of 77.11%, is able to identify the cases where shape alone predicts the native protein interface.

Designed and biologically active protein lattices

Versatile methods to organize proteins in space are required to enable complex biomaterials, engineered biomolecular scaffolds, cell-free biology, and hybrid nanoscale systems. Here, we demonstrate how the tailored encapsulation of proteins in DNA-based voxels can be combined with programmable assembly that directs these voxels into biologically functional protein arrays with prescribed and ordered two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) organizations. We apply the presented concept to ferritin, an iron storage protein, and its iron-free analog, apoferritin, in order to form single-layers, double-layers, as well as several types of 3D protein lattices. Our study demonstrates that internal voxel design and inter-voxel encoding can be effectively employed to create protein lattices with designed organization, as confirmed by in situ X-ray scattering and cryo-electron microscopy 3D imaging. The assembled protein arrays maintain structural stability and biological activity in environments relevant for protein functionality. The framework design of the arrays then allows small molecules to access the ferritins and their iron cores and convert them into apoferritin arrays through the release of iron ions. The presented study introduces a platform approach for creating bio-active protein-containing ordered nanomaterials with desired 2D and 3D organizations.

Redefining Protein Interfaces within Protein Single Crystals with DNA

Proteins are exquisite nanoscale building blocks: molecularly pure, chemically addressable, and inherently selective for their evolved function. The organization of proteins into single crystals with high positional, orientational, and translational order results in materials where the location of every atom can be known. However, controlling the organization of proteins is challenging due to the myriad interactions that define protein interfaces within native single crystals. Recently, we discovered that introducing a single DNA-DNA interaction between protein surfaces leads to changes in the packing of proteins within single crystals and the protein-protein interactions (PPIs) that arise. However, modifying specific PPIs to effect deliberate changes to protein packing is an unmet challenge. In this work, we hypothesized that disrupting and replacing a highly conserved PPI with a DNA-DNA interaction would enable protein packing to be modulated by exploiting the programmability of the introduced oligonucleotides. Using concanavalin A (ConA) as a model protein, we circumvent potentially deleterious mutagenesis and exploit the selective binding of ConA toward mannose to noncovalently attach DNA to the protein surface. We show that DNA association eliminates the major PPI responsible for crystallization of native ConA, thereby allowing subtle changes to DNA design (length, complementarity, and attachment position) to program distinct changes to ConA packing, including the realization of three novel crystal structures and the deliberate expansion of ConA packing along a single crystallographic axis. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of how DNA can supersede native PPIs to program protein packing within ordered materials.

Protein cages as building blocks for superstructures

Proteins naturally self-assemble to function. Protein cages result from the self-assembly of multiple protein subunits that interact to form hollow symmetrical structures with functions that range from cargo storage to catalysis. Driven by self-assembly, building elegant higher-order superstructures with protein cages as building blocks has been an increasingly attractive field in recent years. It presents an engineering challenge not only at the molecular level but also at the supramolecular level. The higher-order constructs are proposed to provide access to diverse functional materials. Focussing on design strategy as a perspective, current work on protein cage supramolecular self-assembly are reviewed from three principles that are electrostatic, metal-ligand coordination and inherent symmetry. The review also summarises possible applications of the superstructure architecture built using modified protein cages.

Rationally Programming Nanomaterials with DNA for Biomedical Applications

DNA is not only a carrier of genetic information, but also a versatile structural tool for the engineering and self-assembling of nanostructures. In this regard, the DNA template has dramatically enhanced the scalability, programmability, and functionality of the self-assembled DNA nanostructures. These capabilities provide opportunities for a wide range of biomedical applications in biosensing, bioimaging, drug delivery, and disease therapy. In this review, the importance and advantages of DNA for programming and fabricating of DNA nanostructures are first highlighted. The recent progress in design and construction of DNA nanostructures are then summarized, including DNA conjugated nanoparticle systems, DNA-based clusters and extended organizations, and DNA origami-templated assemblies. An overview on biomedical applications of the self-assembled DNA nanostructures is provided. Finally, the conclusion and perspectives on the self-assembled DNA nanostructures are presented.

Noncovalent Self-Assembly of Protein Crystals with Tunable Structures

Engineering noncovalent interactions for assembling nonspherical proteins into supramolecular architectures with tunable morphologies and dynamics is challenging due to the structural heterogeneity and complexity of protein surfaces. Herein, we employed an anisotropic building block l-rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (RhuA) to control supramolecular polymorphism in highly ordered protein assemblies by introducing histidine residues. Histidine-based π-π stacking interactions enabled thermodynamically controlled self-organization of RhuA to form three-dimensional (3D) nanoribbons and crystals. Self-assembly of different 3D crystal phases was kinetically modulated by the strong metal ion-histidine chelation, and double-helical protein superstructures were formed by engineering increased histidine interactions at the RhuA binding surface. Their structural properties and dynamics were determined via fluorescence microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering. This work is aimed at expanding the toolbox for the programming of tunable, highly ordered, protein superstructures and increasing the understanding of the mechanisms of protein interfacial interactions.

A DNA-mediated crosslinking strategy to enhance cellular delivery and sensor performance of protein spherical nucleic acids

Intracellular delivery of enzymes is essential for protein-based diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Protein-spherical nucleic acids (ProSNAs) defined by protein core and dense shell of oligonucleotides have been demonstrated as a promising vehicle-free enzyme delivery platform. In this work, we reported a crosslinking strategy to vastly improve both delivery efficiency and intracellular sensor performance of ProSNA. By assembling individual ProSNA with lactate oxidase (LOX) core into a nanoscale particle, termed as crosslinked SNA (X-SNA), the enzyme delivery efficiency increased up to 5-6 times higher. The LOX X-SNA was later demonstrated as a ratiometric probe for quantitative detection of lactate in living cells. More importantly, X-SNA probe showed significantly improved sensor performance with signal-to-noise ratio 4 times as high as ProSNA when detecting intracellular lactate.

Programmable Cocrystallization of DNA Origami Shapes

Assembly of distinct types of species, particularly possessing anisotropic configurations, is the premise to broaden structural diversity and explore materials' collective properties. However, it remains a great challenge to programmably cocrystallize manifold anisotropic nanoparticles with the desired assembly mode, because it requires not only the complementarity of both sizes and shapes but also the control over their directional interactions. Here, by introducing DNA origami technique into lattice engineering, we synthesize two types of DNA nano-objects with different symmetries and program the heterogeneous functional patches precisely on their surfaces with nanometer-level precision, which could guide further assembly of these nano-objects. We show that these anisotropic DNA nano-objects could be cocrystallized along specified modes via modulating the combination of surface patches. The highly ordered DNA crystals were thoroughly evidenced by techniques including small-angle X-ray scattering and electron microscopy after careful encapsulation of a thin layer of silica on these DNA nano-objects. Our strategy endows distinct shapes of organic DNA origami structures with regulation features to control the sophisticated modes of cocrystallization of these diverse components, laying a foundation for designing and fabricating customized three-dimensional structures with given optical and mechanical properties.

DNA Nanostructures and DNA-Functionalized Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

In the last two decades, DNA has attracted significant attention toward the development of materials at the nanoscale for emerging applications due to the unparalleled versatility and programmability of DNA building blocks. DNA-based artificial nanomaterials can be broadly classified into two categories: DNA nanostructures (DNA-NSs) and DNA-functionalized nanoparticles (DNA-NPs). More importantly, their use in nanotheranostics, a field that combines diagnostics with therapy via drug or gene delivery in an all-in-one platform, has been applied extensively in recent years to provide personalized cancer treatments. Conveniently, the ease of attachment of both imaging and therapeutic moieties to DNA-NSs or DNA-NPs enables high biostability, biocompatibility, and drug loading capabilities, and as a consequence, has markedly catalyzed the rapid growth of this field. This review aims to provide an overview of the recent progress of DNA-NSs and DNA-NPs as theranostic agents, the use of DNA-NSs and DNA-NPs as gene and drug delivery platforms, and a perspective on their clinical translation in the realm of oncology.

Gene Regulation Using Spherical Nucleic Acids to Treat Skin Disorders

Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) are nanostructures consisting of nucleic acids in a spherical configuration, often around a nanoparticle core. SNAs are advantageous as gene-regulating agents compared to conventional gene therapy owing to their low toxicity, enhanced stability, uptake by virtually any cell, and ability to penetrate the epidermal barrier. In this review we: (i) describe the production, structure and properties of SNAs; (ii) detail the mechanism of SNA uptake in keratinocytes, regulated by scavenger receptors; and (iii) report how SNAs have been topically applied and intralesionally injected for skin disorders. Specialized SNAs called nanoflares can be topically applied for gene-based diagnosis (scar vs. normal tissue). Topical SNAs directed against TNFα and interleukin-17A receptor reversed psoriasis-like disease in mouse models and have been tested in Phase 1 human trials. Furthermore, SNAs targeting ganglioside GM3 synthase accelerate wound healing in diabetic mouse models. Most recently, SNAs targeting toll-like receptor 9 are being used in Phase 2 human trials via intratumoral injection to induce immune responses in Merkel cell and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Overall, SNAs are a valuable tool in bench-top and clinical research, and their advantageous properties, including penetration into the epidermis after topical delivery, provide new opportunities for targeted therapies.

Tunable and Cooperative Thermomechanical Properties of Protein-Metal-Organic Frameworks

We recently introduced protein-metal-organic frameworks (protein-MOFs) as chemically designed protein crystals, composed of ferritin nodes that predictably assemble into 3D lattices upon coordination of various metal ions and ditopic, hydroxamate-based linkers. Owing to their unique tripartite construction, protein-MOFs possess extremely sparse lattice connectivity, suggesting that they might display unusual thermomechanical properties. Leveraging the synthetic modularity of ferritin-MOFs, we investigated the temperature-dependent structural dynamics of six distinct frameworks. Our results show that the thermostabilities of ferritin-MOFs can be tuned through the metal component or the presence of crowding agents. Our studies also reveal a framework that undergoes a reversible and isotropic first-order phase transition near-room temperature, corresponding to a 4% volumetric change within 1 °C and a hysteresis window of ∼10 °C. This highly cooperative crystal-to-crystal transformation, which stems from the soft crystallinity of ferritin-MOFs, illustrates the advantage of modular construction strategies in discovering tunable-and unpredictable-material properties.

Developments in DNA metallization strategies for water splitting electrocatalysis: A review

The biomolecule DNA with the presence of different functionalities found to interact with different kinds of metal ions and show relatively higher stability over a long period of time when optimized appropriately. With the presence of A-T and G-C pairs, sugar moieties, phosphate functional groups and the double-helical structure, it can assemble both cationic and anionic species and forms a perfect metal-DNA self-assembly. Depending upon the aspect ratio of metal-DNA self-assemblies, metal content and their morphological outcomes, they could deliver variance in the catalytic activities. Such differences can be brought out by varying the synthesis reaction parameters focusing on a specific electrocatalytic application. In this review, recent developments in DNA metallization is elaborated first highlighting the underlying interactions between DNA and cationic/anionic species of various metals following which application of metal-DNA assemblies in electrocatalytic water oxidation and reduction are discussed critically. Knowledge provided in this review thus acts as the guide to various DNA metallization strategies and their subsequent application to water electrolysis for hydrogen generation.

Controlling protein adsorption modes electrostatically

Protein adsorption on surfaces is ubiquitous in biology and in biotechnology. There are various forces required for controlling protein adsorption. Here, we introduce an explicit ion coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation approach for studying the effects of electrostatics on protein adsorption, and 2D protein assembly on charged surfaces. Our model accounts for the spatial distribution of protein charges. We use catalase as our model protein. We find that the preferential adsorption mode of proteins at low protein concentration on a charged surface is "standing up". When the protein concentration in a solution increases to reach a critical density on the surface, the adsorption mode switches from "standing up" to a mixed state "flat on" and "standing up", which increases the lateral correlations among the adsorbed proteins. As such, the changes in the adsorption mode arise from the protein adsorption that cancel the surface charge and the protein-protein repulsion. This correlated surface structure melts as the salt concentration increases because the charged surface is cancelled by the salt ions and the proteins de-adsorb. For the case of strongly charged surfaces the "standing up" conformation remains more favorable even at high protein adsorption at low salt concentrations since in that conformation the surface charge is cancelled more effectively, generating an even more laterally correlated structure. We elucidate the effects of parameters such as surface charge density, salt concentration, and protein charges on the different adsorption modes and the structure and organization of proteins on the charged surfaces. This study provides a guide for controlling protein assembly on surfaces.

Colloidal crystal engineering with metal-organic framework nanoparticles and DNA

Colloidal crystal engineering with nucleic acid-modified nanoparticles is a powerful way for preparing 3D superlattices, which may be useful in many areas, including catalysis, sensing, and photonics. To date, the building blocks studied have been primarily based upon metals, metal oxides, chalcogenide semiconductors, and proteins. Here, we show that metal–organic framework nanoparticles (MOF NPs) densely functionalized with oligonucleotides can be programmed to crystallize into a diverse set of superlattices with well-defined crystal symmetries and compositions. Electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering characterization confirm the formation of single-component MOF superlattices, binary MOF–Au single crystals, and two-dimensional MOF nanorod assemblies. Importantly, DNA-modified porphyrinic MOF nanorods (PCN-222) were assembled into 2D superlattices and found to be catalytically active for the photooxidation of 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES, a chemical warfare simulant of mustard gas). Taken together, these new materials and methods provide access to colloidal crystals that incorporate particles with the well-established designer properties of MOFs and, therefore, increase the scope of possibilities for colloidal crystal engineering with DNA.

Colloidal crystals assembled from nanoscale building blocks are powerful designer materials with diverse functionalities. Here, the authors describe a colloidal crystal engineering strategy to prepare hierarchical structures from metal–organic framework nanoparticles and DNA which retain permanent porosity and catalytic activity.

Controlling the DNA Hybridization Chain Reaction

A novel method for controlling the oligomerization of metastable DNA hairpins using the hybridization chain reaction (HCR) is reported. Control was achieved through the introduction of a base-pair mismatch in the duplex of the hairpins. The mismatch modification allows one to kinetically differentiate initiation versus propagation events, leading to DNA oligomers up to 10 monomers long and improving dispersities from 2.5 to 1.3-1.6. Importantly, even after two consecutive chain extensions, dispersity remained unaffected, showing that well-defined block co-oligomers can be achieved. As a proof-of-concept, this technique was then applied to hairpin monomers functionalized with a mutant green fluorescent protein to prepare protein oligomers. Taken together, this work introduces an effective method for controlling living macromolecular HCR oligomerization in a manner analogous to the controlled polymerization of small molecules.